Chapter 2: Communication

2.1 Networks including the internet

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Lesson Objectives

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Lesson Objectives

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Lesson Objectives

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Resources:

You can also order through hodder education website:

www.hoddereducation.com
Resources:

https://www.cambridgeinternational.org/programmes-and-qualifications/cambridge-
international-as-and-a-level-computer-science-9618/published-resources/
Networking devices
A network is a number of computers linked together to allow the sharing of resources. A server usually provides services
like file storage and email. Networked computers form an infrastructure which enables internal and external
communications to take place.
The infrastructure includes the following:
Hardware Software Services
• LAN cards • operation and management of the network • DSL
• routers • operation of firewalls • satellite
• switches • security applications/utilities communication
• wireless routers channels
• cabling • wireless protocols
• IP addressing.

Networks can be categorised as private or public.

Private networks are owned by a single company or organisation (they are often LANs or
intranets with restricted user access
Public networks are owned by a communications carrier company (such as a telecoms
company)
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Networking devices
A network is a number of computers linked together to allow the sharing of
resources. A server usually provides services like file storage and email.
LANs and WANs
There are two main types of network:
Local Area Network (LAN)
Wide Area Network (WAN)

The following is used as a guide for deciding the ‘size’ of a network:

WAN: 100 km to over 1000 km

MAN: 1 km to 100 km
LAN: 10 m to 1000 m
PAN: 1 m to 10 m (this is not a commonly used term – it means personal area
network; in other words, a home system

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Networking devices
LANs and WANs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NyZWSvSj8ek

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Networking devices
LANs and WANs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4_zSIXb7tLQ

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Networking devices
Local Area Network (LAN):
A LAN covers a small area such as one site or building, example: a school or a
college.

A star network, where devices are connected to a central hub or switch

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Networking devices
Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.

LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.

It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.

The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.

Local Area Network provides higher security.

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Networking devices
Wide Area Network (WAN):
A WAN covers a large geographical area. Most WANs are made from several LANs
connected together.

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Networking devices
Wide Area Network (WAN):
Advantages and disadvantages of networks
Advantages:
Sharing devices such as printers saves money.
Site (software) licenses are likely to be cheaper than buying several
standalone licenses.
Files can easily be shared between users.
Network users can communicate by email and instant messenger.
Security is good - users cannot see other users' files unlike on stand-
alone machines.
Data is easy to backup as all the data is stored on the file server.

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Networking devices
Wide Area Network (WAN):
Advantages and disadvantages of networks
Disadvantages:
Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be expensive.
Managing a large network is complicated, requires training and a
network manager usually needs to be employed.
If the file server breaks down the files on the file server become
inaccessible. Email might still work if it is on a separate server. The
computers can still be used but are isolated.
Viruses can spread to other computers throughout a computer
network.
There is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks.
Security procedures are needed to prevent such abuse, eg a firewall.
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Networking devices
The internet is a WAN.

A network of bank cash dispensers is a WAN.

A school network is usually a LAN.

LANs are often connected to WANs, for example a school network

could be connected to the internet.

WANs can be connected together using the internet, leased lines or

satellite links.

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Client-server and peer-to-peer networking models
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UjCDWCeHCzY

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Client-server and peer-to-peer networking models
Watch the video for the client server model
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3qRCxu9C_AI

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Client-server and peer-to-peer networking models
Watch the video for the client server model
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L5BlpPU_muY

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Client-server and peer-to-peer networking models
Client-server networks are computer networks that use a dedicated computer (server)
to store data, manage/provide resources and control user access.
The server acts as a central point on the network upon which the other computers
connect to.
A computer that connects to the server is called a client.

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Network usage models: Client Server Network
.

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Network usage models: Thin and Thick Client
Thick client: is a fully functional computer that happens to connect to a server. A thick client has its own
operating system, software, processing capabilities, and local storage - all of which lets it continue working
without any issues while offline. Essentially, any device that can function completely independently of a
remote server is a thick client. Everyday examples of thick clients include desktop PCs or laptops running
Windows or MacOS.
One of the biggest benefits of thick clients is the ability it gives to work offline. Thick clients normally have
the hardware and software requirements to work as needed, often without needing to be connected to a
central server.

Thin client: is a computer that runs from resources stored on a central server instead of a localized hard
drive. Thin clients work by connecting remotely to a server-based computing environment where most
applications, sensitive data, and memory, are stored. All web browsers and web applications such as WP,
Google Docs and numerous online games can be examples of thin clients

Thin clients have a number of benefits, including:

Reduced cost
Increased security
More efficient manageability
Scalability
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Network usage models: Thin and Thick Client
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=03n1riV0UO8

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Network usage models: Thin and Thick Client
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O_fHDIMXOuU

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Client-server and peer-to-peer networking models
Client-server and peer-to-peer networking models
Differences between thin and thick client software
Client-server and peer-to-peer networking models
What's a Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s-Fs_Ucy_EU

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Client-server and peer-to-peer networking models
What's a Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network?
A peer-to-peer network is one in which two or more PCs share files and access to devices such as
printers without requiring a separate server computer or server software.
In a peer-to-peer network, computers on the network are equal, with each workstation providing
access to resources and data. This is a simple type of network where computers are able to
communicate with one another and share what is on or attached to their computer with other users.

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Client-server and peer-to-peer networking models
What's a Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network?

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Client-server and peer-to-peer networking models:

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Network types and topologies
There are many ways to connect computers to make complex networks. Here we will consider
• bus networks
• star networks
• mesh networks
• hybrid networks.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zbqrNg4C98U
Network types and topologies
The bus network
In a bus network all the workstations, servers and printers are joined to one cable (the bus).
At each end of the cable a terminator is fitted to stop signals reflecting back down the bus.
Network types and topologies
The bus network
Advantages and disadvantages of a bus network

The advantages of a bus network are:

it is easy to install

it is cheap to install, as it doesn't require much cable

The disadvantages of a bus network are:

If the main cable fails or gets damaged the whole network will fail as more workstation
connected the performance of the network will become slower because of data
collisions every workstation on the network "sees" all of the data on the network – this
is a security risk.
Network types and topologies
The ring network
In a ring network each device (workstation, server, printer) is connected to two
other devices - this forms a ring for the signals to travel around. Each packet
of data on the network travels in one direction and each device receives each packet
in turn until the destination device receives it
Network types and topologies
The ring network
Advantages and disadvantages of a ring network

This type of network can transfer data quickly, even if there are a large number of
devices connected because the data only flows in one direction, so there won’t be
any data collisions.

However, the real disadvantage is that if the main cable fails or any device is faulty,
then the whole network will fail.
Network types and topologies
The star network
In a star network each device on the network has its own cable that connects to a switch or
hub. A hub sends every packet of data to every device, whereas a switch only sends a packet
of data to the destination device.
Network types and topologies
The star network
Advantages and disadvantages of a star network

The advantages of a star network are:

It is very reliable – if one cable or device fails then all the others will continue to work

It is high-performing as no data collisions can occur

The disadvantages of a star network are:

It is expensive to install as this type of network uses the most cable (network cable is
expensive)

Extra hardware is required (hubs or switches) which adds to cost

If a hub or switch fails, all the devices connected to it will have no network
connection
Network topologies: Mesh Topology
Network topologies: Mesh Topology
Network topologies: Hybrid Topology
A hybrid topology is a combination of two or more topologies. For example, if you
combine Ring and star topology to make bigger network then it will be called hybrid
network or hybrid topology. Different topologies are combined via the hubs and
switches.
Network topologies: Hybrid Topology
Features of hybrid topology:
1) Flexible in size: New topologies and nodes can be added and removed from the
network easily.
2) Reliable: If there occurs any error in the network then it is detected easily and that
network device or node can be exchanged with a new device or node.

3) The characteristics of each topology are combined in the hybrid network and
weakness of different topologies are eliminated.
Drawbacks of hybrid topology:
1) The hubs which are attached to combine different topologies are expensive. These
hubs are different from normal hubs and are more intelligent in performance.
2) Designing hybrid networks is a complex process. Hybrid networks are difficult in
installing and configuring.
3) If the backbone of the network is damaged then network performance is affected
also.
4) A hybrid topology is used in making large networks so it needs more cables and
cooling system. These types of networks also need sophisticated network devices
Network topologies: Hybrid Topology
Examples of hybrid topology:

A hybrid topology is used in various places including:-

• School
• Business
• Office
• In university campuses
• Research organizations
• Multi-national offices
• Banks
• Automated industry
Network topologies
Past exams paper Question 1

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Network topologies
Past paper Question 1

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Network topologies
Past exams paper Answer 1

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Network topologies
Past exams paper Answer 1

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Public and private cloud computing
Public and private cloud computing
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_a6us8kaq0g
Public and private cloud computing
Public and private cloud computing
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3WIJ4axzFlU
Public and private cloud computing
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is stored on offsite servers – the physical
storage covers hundreds of servers in many locations. The same data is stored on more than one
server in case of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data at any time. This is known
as data redundancy. The physical environment is owned and managed by a hosting company.
There are three common systems, public cloud, private cloud and hybrid cloud.

Public cloud is a storage environment where the customer/client and cloud storage provider are
different companies.

Private cloud is storage provided by a dedicated environment behind a company firewall.

Customer/client and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate as a single entity.

Hybrid cloud is a combination of private and public clouds. Some data resides in the private
cloud and less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed from a public cloud storage
provider.
Public and private cloud computing
Public and private cloud computing
Advantages and Disadvantages of Cloud Storage
Public and private cloud computing
Public and private cloud computing
Advantages and Disadvantages of Cloud Storage
Public and private cloud computing
Public and private cloud computing
Cloud Storage Security Risks You Need to Know About
Wired and wireless networking
https://youtu.be/DXt-rXDu9M8

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Wired and wireless networking
Wireless
When you connect to a Wi-Fi hotspot at a cafe, a hotel, an airport lounge, or another public or private
place, you're connecting to that business's or your home wireless network. A wired network uses cables
to connect devices, such as laptop or desktop computers, to the Internet or another network. Both Wi-Fi
and Bluetooth offer wireless communication between devices. They both use electromagnetic radiation
as the carrier of data transmission.

A Wi-Fi-enabled device (such as a computer or smart phone) can access, for example, the internet
wirelessly at any wireless access point (WAP) or ‘hot spot’ up to 100 metres away. Wireless connectivity
uses electromagnetic radiation: radio waves, microwaves or infrared.

Wi-Fi also uses spread spectrum technology. However, Wi-Fi is best suited to operating full-scale
networks, since it offers much faster data transfer rates, better range and better security than Bluetooth.

Note: When a device wants to communicate, it picks one of the 79 channels at random. If the channel is
already being used, it randomly picks another channel. This is known as spread spectrum frequency
hopping.

Bluetooth creates a secure wireless personal area network (WPAN) based on key encryption.
Wired and wireless networking
Wired
A wired network uses cables to connect devices, such as laptop or desktop computers, to the Internet or
another network.
https://youtu.be/0rFZtCovx28

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Wired and wireless networking
Twisted pair cables
Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors of a single circuit are twisted together for
the purposes of improving electromagnetic compatibility. However, it is the cheapest option. There are
two types of twisted
pair cable: unshielded and shielded. Unshielded is used by residential users. Shielded is used
commercially (the cable contains a thin metal foil jacket which cancels out some of the external
interference).

Coaxial cables
Coaxial cable, or coax is a type of electrical cable consisting of an inner conductor surrounded by a
concentric conducting shield, with the two separated by a dielectric; many coaxial cables also have a
protective outer sheath or jacket, Coaxial suffers from the greatest signal attenuation, but
offers the best anti-jamming capabilities.

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Wired and wireless networking

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Wired and wireless networking

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Wired and wireless networking
Fibre optic cables
A fiber-optic cable, also known as an optical-fiber cable, is an assembly similar to an electrical cable, but containing one
or more optical fibers that are used to carry light. Unlike the other two types of cable,
fibre optics use pulses of light rather than pulses of electricity to transmit data. They have about
26 000 times the transmission capacity of twisted pair cables.

Fibre optic cables can be single- or multi-mode:

Single mode means the fiber enables one type of light mode to be propagated at a time. which results in less
light reflection along the cable. This allows the data to travel faster and further, making them a
good choice for CATV and telecommunications.

While multimode means the fiber can propagate multiple modes. so they work best over shorter distances (in a LAN, for
example).

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What is the internet?
Fibre optics
Fibre optic cabling is made from glass that becomes very flexible when it is thin. Light is
passed through the cable using a transmitter. Light travels quickly through the light-reflecting
internal wall of the cable.

The transmitter in the router sends light pulses representing binary code. When the data is
received, it is decoded back to its binary form and the computer displays the message.

Advantages
The individual cables are thinner, so larger quantities of cable can be joined together
compared to copper
There is less interference than copper
There is less chance for degeneration

Disadvantages
the UK or any others counties telephone network still has areas that use copper cable
replacing copper with fibre optic cabling is expensive
Wired and wireless networking
Watch the video for the Radio Waves: What is a Radio Wave?
https://youtu.be/mp6St2hgv8A

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Wired and wireless networking
Watch the video for Radio Waves?
https://youtu.be/ow26-5UirSc

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Wired and wireless networking
Radio waves
Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with the longest wavelengths in the electromagnetic
spectrum, typically with frequencies of 300 gigahertz and below. At 300 GHz, the corresponding
wavelength is 1 mm; at 30 Hz the corresponding wavelength is 10,000 kilometers

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Wired and wireless networking
Infrared.
Infrared, sometimes called infrared light, is electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer than those
of visible light. It is therefore invisible to the human eye. IR is generally understood to encompass
wavelengths from around 1 millimeter to the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum, around 700
nanometers.
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Wired and wireless networking
Watch the video for the Microwaves and Infrared?
https://youtu.be/ow26-5UirSc

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Wired and wireless networking
WiFi a Microwave or Radio Frequency Wave??
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2CK61ng4weE

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Wired and wireless networking
• Bandwidth: What Is Bandwidth in Networking?
Bandwidth, expressed in Hertz, relates to the range of frequencies that a communication
medium is capable of transmitting. There is a direct relationship between bandwidth and bit
rate. Higher bandwidth results in a higher bit rate.
https://youtu.be/7qZIBd1_2P4

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Wired and wireless networking
• Bandwidth: What Is Bandwidth ?
https://youtu.be/bNUIliQocTc

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Wired and wireless networking
• Attenuation at high frequency:
https://youtu.be/Y1_y_l-Libg

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Wired and wireless networking
• Interference:
https://youtu.be/CAe3lkYNKt8

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Wired and wireless networking
Penetration through a wall (wireless):
https://youtu.be/XWHzuTbJ1rU

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Wired and wireless networking
Need for Repeaters:
https://youtu.be/BH19eKBuKwY

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What is a repeater in computer network?

A repeater is an electronic device in a communication channel that increases the power

of a signal and retransmits it, allowing it to travel further.
They are incorporated in networks to expand its coverage area. They are also known
as signal boosters.

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Wired and wireless networking
Compares radio waves, microwaves and infrared. (Please note: the ‘>’ symbol in the
table means ‘better than’).
Penetration measures the ability of the electromagnetic radiation to pass through different media.
Attenuation is the reduction in amplitude of a signal (infrared has low attenuation because it can be
affected by, for example, rain or internal walls).
Infrared to be suitable for indoor use only; the fact that it can be stopped by walls is seen as an advantage
since this stops the signal causing interference elsewhere.
Microwaves seem to offer the best compromise, since they support reasonable bandwidth, and have
reasonable penetration and attenuation.

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Wired and wireless networking
Watch the video for How does the INTERNET with the use Satellite?
https://youtu.be/x3c1ih2NJEg

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Wired and wireless networking
Wired versus wireless
Wireless networking:
• It is easier to expand networks and is not necessary to connect devices using cables.
• Devices have increased mobility, provided they are within range of the WAPs.
• Increased chance of interference from external sources.
• Data is less secure than with wired systems; it is easier to intercept radio waves and
microwaves than cables so it is essential to protect data transmissions using encryption (such
as WEP, WPA2).
• Data transmission rate is slower than wired networks (although it is improving).
• Signals can be stopped by thick walls (in old houses, for example) and signal strength can vary, or ‘drop
out’.

Wired networking
• More reliable and stable network (wireless connectivity is often subjected to interference).
• Data transfer rates tend to be faster with no ‘dead spots’.
• Tends to be cheaper overall, in spite of the need to buy and install cable.
• Devices are not mobile; they must be close enough to allow for cable connections.
• Lots of wires can lead to tripping hazards, overheating of connections (potential fire risk) and
disconnection of cables during routine office cleaning.

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Hardware requirements of networks
What is a Server?:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UjCDWCeHCzY
Hardware requirements of networks
Hardware requirements of networks
Hardware requirements of networks
Hardware requirements of networks
It is worth Know difference between Hub, router and switch.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1z0ULvg_pW8

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Hardware requirements of networks

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Hardware requirements of networks

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Hardware requirements of networks

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Hardware requirements of networks

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Hardware requirements of networks

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Hardware requirements of networks
Gateway
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Hardware requirements of networks

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Hardware requirements of networks
Differences between routers and gateways

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Hardware requirements of networks

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Hardware requirements of networks
What is the role of a wireless access point WAP ?

A wireless access point (WAP) is a networking device that allows wireless-capable

devices to connect to a wired network. It is simpler and easier to install WAPs to
connect all the computers or devices in your network than to use wires and cables

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Hardware requirements of networks
MAC Address Explained
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TIiQiw7fpsU

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Hardware requirements of networks

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Hardware requirements of networks
What is Network Interface Card (NIC) and Wireless Network Interface Card (WNIC)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m9evUZtkEAc
NIC

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Hardware requirements of networks

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Hardware requirements of networks
Wireless Network Interface Card (WNIC)
Wireless network interface cards/controllers (WNICs) are the same as the more ordinary
NICs, in that they are used to connect devices to the internet or other networks. They use an
antenna to communicate with networks via microwaves and normally simply plug into a USB
port or can be internal integrated circuit plug in.

Infrastructure mode requires WAPs (wireless access points) and all the data is transferred
using the WAP and hub/switch; all the wireless devices connect to the WAP and must use the
same security and authentication techniques.

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Hardware requirements of networks
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iKn0GzF5-IU
Hardware requirements of networks
CSMA with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) is a network protocol for
carrier transmission that operates in the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer. It senses or
listens whether the shared channel for transmission is busy or not, and defers transmissions
until the channel is free. The collision detection technology detects collisions by sensing
transmissions from other stations. On detection of a collision, the station stops transmitting,
sends a jam signal, and then waits for a random time interval before retransmission.

Used CSMA/CD to minimise the effect of collisions.

Carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) is a media access control
(MAC) method used most notably in early Ethernet technology for local area networking. It
uses carrier-sensing to defer transmissions until no other stations are transmitting. This is used
in combination with collision detection in which a transmitting station detects collisions by
sensing transmissions from other stations while it is transmitting a frame. When this collision
condition is detected, the station stops transmitting that frame, transmits a jam signal, and
then waits for a random time interval before trying to resend the frame.
Hardware requirements of networks
What Is an Ethernet Switch??
https://youtu.be/WJ_UD3R7s2I

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Hardware requirements of networks
What is Ethernet and why it is used?

Ethernet is the traditional technology for connecting devices in a wired local area
network (LAN) or wide area network (WAN), enabling them to communicate with each
other via a protocol -- a set of rules or common network language.

Advantages and disadvantages

Ethernet has many benefits for users, which is why it grew so popular. However, there
are a few disadvantages as well.

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Hardware requirements of networks
What is Ethernet and why it is used?
Advantages
relatively low cost;
backward compatibility;
generally resistant to noise;
good data transfer quality;
speed;
data security -- common firewalls can be used.
Disadvantages

It is intended for smaller, shorter distance networks.

Mobility is limited.
Use of longer cables can create crosstalk.
It does not work well with real-time or interactive applications.
Increased traffic makes the Ethernet speed go down.
Receivers do not acknowledge the reception of data packets.
When troubleshooting, it is hard to trace which specific cable or node is causing the
issue.
Hardware requirements of networks
What is a Repeater ?
When signals are sent over long distances, they suffer attenuation or signal loss. Repeaters are devices which are added
to transmission systems to boost the signal so it can travel greater distances. They amplify signals on both analogue
(copper cable) and digital (fibre optic cable) communication links.
https://youtu.be/vrhb179CiiQ

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Hardware requirements of networks
Bit streaming
Bit streaming can be either on demand or real time.
What is a bit stream?
Bit streaming is a contiguous sequence of digital bits sent over the internet or a network that
requires a high speed data communication link (such as fast broadband). Since bit streaming
often involves very large files (such as video) it is necessary for the files to undergo some data
compression before transmission. It is also necessary to have some form of buffering to
ensure smooth playback of the media files. Low mark and high

The buffer is a temporary storage area of the computer.

The difference between the low water mark and high water mark is usually about 80% of the
total buffer capacity
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Hardware requirements of networks
Bit streaming
Advantage and Drawback of bit streaming.?

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Hardware requirements of networks
Bit streaming on demand
• Digital files stored on a server are converted to a bit streaming format (encoding takes place
and the encoded files are uploaded to a server).
• A link to the encoded video/music file is placed on the web server to be downloaded.
• The user clicks on the link and the video/music file is downloaded in a contiguous bit stream.
• Because it is on demand, the streamed video/music is broadcast to the user as and when
required.
• It is possible to pause, rewind and fast forward the video/music if required.

Bit streaming Real Time

• An event is captured by camera and microphone and is sent to a computer.
• The video signal is converted (encoded) to a streaming media file.
• The encoded file is uploaded from the computer to the dedicated video streaming server.
• The server sends the encoded live video to the user’s device.
• Since the video footage is live it is not possible to pause, rewind or fast forward.

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The internet
The Internet, sometimes called simply "the Net," is a worldwide system of computer networks, a network
of networks in which users at any one computer can, if they have permission, get information from any
other computer (and sometimes talk directly to users at other computers. Think of the internet as the
roads that connect towns and cities together.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dxcc6ycZ73M

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World Wide Web (WWW)
The World Wide Web, commonly known as the Web, is an information system enabling documents and
other web resources to be accessed over the Internet. Documents and downloadable media are made
available to the network through web servers and can be accessed by programs such as web browsers. The
world wide web contains the things you see on the roads like houses and shops.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J8hzJxb0rpc

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World Wide Web (WWW)
The World Wide Web (WWW or 'web' for short) is the part of the internet that you can access using a web
browser such as Internet Explorer or Firefox. It consists of a large number of web servers that host
websites. Each website will normally consist of a number of web pages. A web page can contain text,
images, video, animation and sound.

Accessing web pages:

You can access a website or web page by typing its URL (Uniform Resource Locator) into the address bar of
your browser. An example of a URL is https://www.epsom.com/.

URLs will have the format 'http' and a domain (such as .com).

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The internet and the world wide web
Differences between the internet and the World Wide Web:

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Hardware requirements of networks
Internet support infrastructure
Public switched telephone network (PSTN):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fukXUnLVCuE

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Hardware requirements of networks
Internet support infrastructure
• Public switched telephone network (PSTN):

Public Switched Telephone Network or PSTN is a telephone service that connects various
residents and businesses through underground copper wires.

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Networks including the internet
IP addresses
Public switched telephone network (PSTN):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=po8ZFG0Xc4Q

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Networks including the internet
IP Address
An IP address, or Internet Protocol address, is a series of numbers that identifies any device on a network.
such as sending mail, streaming video, or connecting to a website. Computers use IP addresses to
communicate with each other both over the internet as well as on other networks.

The internet protocols manage the process of assigning each unique device its own IP address. (Internet
protocols do other things as well, such as routing internet traffic.) This way, it’s easy to see which devices
on the internet are sending, requesting, and receiving what information.

Each device on the internet is given a unique address known as the INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP) ADDRESS.

This is a 32-bit number which is usually written in the

form: 192.168.1.1

For window user: click command prompt – type: ipconfig/all

Activity: Find your IP address on your laptop or MacBook ?

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Networks including the internet
Public IP Addresses:
Each LAN connected to the internet usually has a single public IP Address*. This is the address seen
by other computers and networks on the Internet and is the address attached to packets sent
across the Internet.

There are 2 main types of Public IP Addresses: Static and Dynamic

* For larger organizations they might have a whole IP range issued to them instead, depending on
what kind of network address translation (NAT) they are using.

Publics addresses are usually assigned by your ISP.

Public IP addresses are the ones allocated by a user’s ISP to identify the location of their
device. Devices using these IP addresses are accessible from anybody using the internet.
Public IP addresses are used by
• DNS servers
• network routers
• directly-controlled computers.
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Networks including the internet
Private IP Addresses:
Computers within a LAN have their own private IP Address, that is different to their
Public IP Address. This private IP Address is either:

Issued by the Server / Router using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

Set manually by the computer user themselves.

Private IP addresses are usually in the 192.168.x.x range though can also be in the
10.x.x.x and 172.x.x.x

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Networks including the internet
Private IP Addresses:

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Networks including the internet
Static Public IP Addresses:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hvip9SRINbY

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Networks including the internet
Static IP Addresses:
A static IP address is simply an address that doesn't change. Once your device is assigned a static IP address,
that number typically stays the same until the device is decommissioned or your network architecture
changes. Static IP addresses generally are used by servers or other important equipment.

Dynamic IP address:
A dynamic IP address is a temporary address for devices connected to a network that continually changes
over time. An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a number used by computers to identify host and network
interfaces, as well as different locations on a network.

Dynamic IP addresses are pulled from a pool of other IP addresses and change anywhere from within a few
days to a few months. In contrast, static IP addresses assign a single, unchanging IP address to a home
network.

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Networks including the internet
Static IP vs Dynamic IP:

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Networks including the internet
IP Address - IPv4 vs IPv6
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ThdO9beHhpA

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Networks including the internet
IPv4
IPv4 is a 32 bit address split into 4 sections

e.g. 255.255.255.255

Range 0 – 255 (256 Possibilities in each)

Total addresses = 256 x 256 x 256 x 256 = 4.3 Billion.
4.2 Billion Addresses is not enough for the modern world as the world has 7 Billion
plus inhabitants and many people have more than one internet connected device.

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Networks including the internet
IPv4

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Networks including the internet
IPv4
Classless inter-domain routing (CIDR): reduces this problem by increasing the flexibility of the
IPv4 system. A suffix is used, such as 192.30.250.00/18, which means 18 bits will be used for
the net ID and the last 14 bits will be used for the host ID (rather than the normal 24 bits and 8
bits for a class C network). The suffix clearly increases the flexibility regarding which bits
represent the net ID and which represent the host ID.

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Networks including the internet
IPv6
https://youtu.be/iR8ve5tTWAA

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Networks including the internet
IPv6
IPv6 is 128 Bit Address,
340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 Addresses.

IPv6 addresses are represented as eight groups, separated by colons, of four hexadecimal digits.
The full representation may be shortened; for example,
2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334 becomes 2001:db8::8a2e:370:7334.

Probably enough for the foreseeable future.

Advantages
Future proof – plenty of unique addresses for each device.
Security built in to the profile
Allows for QOS packet prioritizing.
Disadvantages
A bit more overhead in packet size
Many legacy devices and systems still don’t fully support IPv6 so we still need IPv4 backup.

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Networks including the internet
IPv6

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Networks including the internet
IPv6
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dUmhZOnz_qc

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Networks including the internet
Subnets vs VLANs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6_giEv20En0

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Networks including the internet
Subnet Mask – Explained. Watch it at hone (18 mn)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s_Ntt6eTn94

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Networks including the internet
Subnetting:
What is a subnet?

A subnet, or subnetwork, is a network inside a network. Subnets make networks more

efficient. Through subnetting, network traffic can travel a shorter distance without passing
through unnecessary routers to reach its destination.

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Networks including the internet
Sub-netting
Subnetting is the strategy used to partition a single physical network into more than one smaller
logical sub-networks (subnets). An IP address includes a network segment and a host segment.
Subnets are designed by accepting bits from the IP address's host part and using these bits to
assign a number of smaller sub-networks inside the original network. Subnetting allows an
organization to add sub-networks without the need to acquire a new network number via the
Internet service provider (ISP). Subnetting helps to reduce the network traffic and conceals
network complexity. Subnetting is essential when a single network number has to be allocated
over numerous segments of a local area network (LAN).

Subnets were initially designed for solving the shortage of IP addresses over the Internet.

Each IP address consists of a subnet mask. All the class types, such as Class A, Class B and Class C
include the subnet mask known as the default subnet mask. The subnet mask is intended for
determining the type and number of IP addresses required for a given local network. The
firewall or router is called the default gateway. The default subnet mask is as follows:
Class A: 255.0.0.0
Class B: 255.255.0.0
Class C: 255.255.255.0 131
Networks including the internet
Sub-netting
The subnetting process allows the administrator to divide a single Class A, Class B, or Class C
network number into smaller portions. The subnets can be subnetted again into sub-subnets.

Dividing the network into a number of subnets provides the following benefits:

Reduces the network traffic by reducing the volume of broadcasts

Helps to surpass the constraints in a local area network (LAN), for example, the maximum
number of permitted hosts.

Enables users to access a work network from their homes; there is no need to open the
complete network.

132
Networks including the internet
Sub-netting
Suppose a university network has eight departments and has a netID of
192.200.20 (11000000.11001000.00010100). All of the devices on the university network will be
associated with this netID and can have hostID values from 00000001 to 1111110 (hostIDs
containing all 0s or all 1s are forbidden). The university network will look something like this:

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Networks including the internet
Sub-netting
We have seven sub-nets with the same range of hostIDs.

134
Networks including the internet
Sub-netting

135
Networks including the internet
Sub-netting

136
Networks including the internet
Uniform resource locators (URLs)
A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is a unique identifier used to locate a resource on the
Internet. It is also referred to as a web address. URLs consist of multiple parts -- including a
protocol and domain name -- that tell a web browser how and where to retrieve a resource.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Jr-_Za5yQM

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Networks including the internet

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Networks including the internet
HTTP and HTTPS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hExRDVZHhig
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is an application protocol for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems
that allows users to communicate data on the World Wide Web.

139
Networks including the internet
Domain Name Service (DNS)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mpQZVYPuDGU
DNS servers translate requests for names into IP addresses, controlling which server an end user
will reach when they type a domain name into their web browser.

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 1

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 1

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 1

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 1

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 2

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 2

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 2

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 2

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 3

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 3

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 3

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 4

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 4

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 4

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 5

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 5

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 5

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 5

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 6

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 6

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 6

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 6

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 6

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 6

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 7

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 7

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 8

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 8

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 9

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 9

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 9

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 9

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 10

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 10

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 10

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 10

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 10

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 11

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 11

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 11

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IGCSE Past Exam: Answer 11

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 11

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 12

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 12

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 12

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 12

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 12

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 13

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 13

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IGCSE Past Exam: Question 13

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IGCSE Past Exam: Answer 13

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 13

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 14

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 14

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 14

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AS Level Past Exam: Question 14

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 14

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AS Level Past Exam: Answer 14

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AS Level Past Exam: Chapter 2: Communication more exercises

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