16

16.
Light rays travel in straight lines and can change direction only when they encounter a
.boundary
In the ray model of light, light is represented as a ray that travels in a straight path, the
.direction of which can be changed only by placing an obstruction in the path
.Objects such as the Sun that emit their own light are luminous sources
Objects you see due to light reflecting from them, such as the Moon, are illuminated
.sources
A medium, such as brick, that does not transmit light but reflects and absorbs light is
.opaque
.A medium that transmits most light, such as air and glass, is transparent
A medium that transmits and reflects light but does not permit objects to be seen clearly
.through it, such as frosted glass, is translucent
Transparent or translucent media not only transmit light, but they can also reflect a fraction
.of the light
The rate at which light energy is emitted from a luminous source is called the luminous flux
.(P)
.The unit of luminous flux is the lumen (lm)
.The luminous flux falling on a given surface area at any instant is called illuminance (E)
.It is measured in lux (lx), which is equivalent to lumens per square meter (lm/m2)
,If a sphere completely encloses a point source

all the bulb’s luminous flux strikes the surface
Some luminous sources are specified in

candelas (cd). A candela is not a measure
.of luminous flux but of luminous intensity
.Luminous intensity is luminous flux divided by 4π
To increase brightness, you could use a brighter source (increasing the luminous flux) or you
.could move closer to the light (decreasing the distance)
P
E= 2
4πr
Galileo was the first to hypothesize that light has a finite speed and to suggest a method of
.measuring its speed using distance and time
Danish astronomer Ole Roemer was the first to determine

that light does travel with a measurable speed by recording
.the times when Io emerged from Jupiter’s shadow
Michelson measured the time required for light

to make a round-trip between two California mountains
.For many calculations, the value c = 3.00×108 m/s is precise enough
16.2
Like all waves, light diffracts around objects, has a wavelength and frequency, and can be
.Doppler shifted
.The bending of light as it passes the edges of a barrier is called diffraction
This unequal bending of the different colors causes

.the white light to be spread into a spectrum
.Light falls within the range of wavelengths from about 400 nm to 700 nm
.White light can be formed by adding red, green, and blue light in equal amounts
.For this reason, red, green, and blue are each called a primary color
.This is called the additive color process
The colors yellow, cyan, and magenta are each called a secondary color, because each is a
.combination of two primary colors
.Complementary colors are two colors of light that can be combined to make white light
The color of an object depend on the

wavelengths
A pigment that absorbs only one primary

color and reflects two from white light is called
.a primary pigment
A pigment that absorbs two primary colors and

.reflects one color is called a secondary pigment
Note that the primary pigment colors are the secondary colors. In the same way, the
.secondary pigment colors are the primary colors
.Polarization is the production of light with a specific pattern of oscillation
parallel to the polarizing axis passes through, while the light with the portion of the electric
field that oscillates perpendicular(angle is right angle=90)
.to the axis is absorbed
If a polarizer is placed in a beam

of nonpolarized light, only the
components of the waves in the
same direction as the polarizing axis
.can pass through
As a result, half of the total light

passes through, reducing the intensity
.of the light by half
Polarized reflected light causes glare

The law that explains the reduction of light
intensity as light passes through a second
.polarizing filter is Malus’s law
Malus’s Law
2
Ι 2=Ι 1 cos θ
When a light source is moving relative to an observer, the light is Doppler shifted and the
.frequency changes
Observed Light Frequency
( vc )
f obs =f 1±
()
v
( λ obs −λ ) =Δ λ=± c λ Doppler Shift
This quantity is positive if they are moving away from each other or negative if they are
.moving toward each other
.When objects are moving apart, Δλ is positive, light is red-shifted, and frequency decreases
When objects are moving toward each other, Δλ is negative, light is blue-shifted, and
.frequency increases
17.1
:Mirrors come in three types
Plane (flat)
Concave
Convex
.A plane mirror is the name given to a flat reflective surface
This flat surface makes it easier to understand what will happen to light when it reflects off
.the mirror
.The law of reflection states the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
.This applies to both smooth and rough surfaces

θi=θr
Specular reflection is caused by a smooth surface, in which parallel light rays are reflected in
.parallel
.Diffuse reflection is caused by the scattering of light off a rough surface
.A plane mirror is a flat, smooth surface from which light is reflected by specular reflection
An object is a source of light rays that are to be reflected by a mirrored surface
The combination of the image points produced by reflected light rays forms the image of the
.object
It is a virtual image, which is a type of image formed by diverging light rays. Images of real
.objects produced by plane mirrors are always virtual images
Using the law of reflection and congruent-triangle geometry, it can be shown that object
.height (ho) is equal to the image height (hi)
Plane-Mirror
Image Position
x i=−x o
.There is a difference between you and the appearance of your image in a mirror
In the figure, the ray that diverges from the right hand of the boy converges at what appears
.to be the left hand of his image
Left and right appear to be reversed by a plane mirror. It actually produces a front-to-back
.reversal
The mirror only reverses the

boy’s image such that it is
facing in the opposite
.direction as the boy

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16.

.The unit of luminous flux is the lumen (lm)

,If a sphere completely encloses a point source

Some luminous sources are specified in

.Luminous intensity is luminous flux divided by 4π

Danish astronomer Ole Roemer was the first to determine

Michelson measured the time required for light

.The bending of light as it passes the edges of a barrier is called diffraction

This unequal bending of the different colors causes

.This is called the additive color process

The color of an object depend on the

A pigment that absorbs only one primary

A pigment that absorbs two primary colors and

.Polarization is the production of light with a specific pattern of oscillation

If a polarizer is placed in a beam

As a result, half of the total light

Polarized reflected light causes glare

Observed Light Frequency

:Mirrors come in three types

.A plane mirror is the name given to a flat reflective surface

.This applies to both smooth and rough surfaces

.Diffuse reflection is caused by the scattering of light off a rough surface

The mirror only reverses the

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