Electronic Report

AUSTIN BODI OUMA SCT-253-040/2021 APCS Y 2.
MULTIMEDIA UNIVERSITY OF KENYA
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
APPLIED PHYSICS AND COMPUTER SCIENCE
SCT-253-040/2021
AUSTIN BODI OUMA
Electronic Devices and Circuits I

AUSTIN BODI OUMA SCT-253-040/2021 APCS Y 2.2
EXPERIMENT 1
INTERNAL IMPEDANCE OF INSTRUMENTS AND INFLUENCE OF

INSTRUMENTS ON CIRCUITS
OBJECTIVES
Demonstrating the difference between "ideal" and real instruments and the influence of real
instruments on circuits.
Measurements of internal resistances of digital and analog voltmeters, ammeters, and the
output resistance of a voltage source (a waveform generator).
INTRODUCTION
In the previous experiments we built circuits and made measurements on them by attaching
instruments (a voltmeter, an ammeter or a scope) to various circuit points. In analyzing
circuit's performance we neglected the instruments presence assuming tacitly that they have
no influence on current and voltage distributions. Such an assumption is valid only for "ideal"
instruments but may be quite reasonable also for real instruments in most practical cases.
There are situations, however, where the presence of an instrument attached to a circuit alters
its performance to the point where the measurement is meaningless, and other methods of
circuit evaluation are needed. For instance, if a voltmeter connected across a circuit element
draws a current comparable to the current flowing through that element, it changes the
current and voltage distribution in the rest of the circuit. An ideal voltmeter does not draw
any current, a good voltmeter very little.
A real instrument, such as a digital or analog voltmeter, may be represented by an equivalent
circuit consisting of an ideal meter and its internal resistance. In general we should consider
internal impedance, which beside resistance may have a capacitive or inductive component.
For example, a capacitive component of the scope input impedance plays a role in high
frequency measurements.
Another class of instruments in which internal resistance plays an important role is
represented by power supplies. A voltage supply, such as a battery or the power supply at
your bench can be represented as an ideal voltage source and a resistance (output resistance).
In an ideal voltage source this resistance is zero, so there is no voltage drop across it, and the
output voltage is independent of the amount of the current drawn.
In this set of experiments you will measure internal resistance of basic instruments used in
the laboratory and demonstrate simple situations where their internal resistance plays an
important role. The lesson is worth remembering whenever you attach external instruments to
an electronic circuit.
PRELAB
Knowing that to measure voltage you need to connect a voltmeter between two points of a
circuit and that the voltmeter should have little effect on the circuit, what do you think is the
value of the voltmeter internal resistance, high or low? It must have a very high internal
resistance so that it does not draw a significant amount of current from the circuit being
measured. If the internal resistance of the voltmeter is too low, it will create a parallel
path for current flow in the circuit, causing a significant error in the voltage
measurement.
1. What is the resistance of an ideal voltmeter which does not influence a circuit at all
(does not draw any current)? An ideal voltmeter has an infinite internal resistance,
which means that it draws no current from the circuit being measured. It is an
open circuit and does not affect the circuit in any way. This is because the ideal
voltmeter has no path for current to flow through it, and hence, it has no impact
on the circuit being measured.
2. A real voltmeter can be represented by a circuit consisting of an ideal voltmeter and a
resistor representing its internal resistance. Draw the schematic of that circuit,
indicating terminals which represent leads used for voltage measurements.
3. Write an equation for finding the unknown voltmeter internal resistance Rint if you
know the value of the resistor R and the voltage Vs of this laboratory.
Rint = (Vs * R) / (Vmeter - Vs)
Where:
Rint is the internal resistance of the voltmeter in ohms
Vs is the voltage of the voltage source in volts
Vmeter is the voltage measured by the voltmeter in volts
R is the resistance of the resistor in ohms
4. Draw an equivalent circuit of a real ammeter, consisting of an ideal instrument and the
internal resistance. Again, a good instrument should have a minimal effect on a circuit
being measured. Remember that, unlike a voltmeter, an ammeter connects in series
with the measured circuit. So, an ideal ammeter should not resist current flow and
should not develop any voltage across its terminals.
5. An ideal voltage source gives voltage which is independent of current. A real source
can be represented by an ideal source and the internal resistance, on which a voltage
drop develops as the current flows. Thus a real voltage source gives lower voltage
with a load (e.g. a resistor) than without a load. Write an equation for finding the
unknown waveform generator internal resistance Rint if you know the value of the
load resistor R, and the voltages measured. = (DMM Voltage resistor value)/ (input
voltage- DMM Voltage)
Rint = (Vopen - Vloaded) * R / Vloaded
Where:
Rint is the internal resistance of the waveform generator in ohms
Vopen is the voltage output of the waveform generator with no load
attached in volts
Vloaded is the voltage output of the waveform generator with the load
resistor attached in volts
R is the resistance of the load resistor in ohms
APARATUS
Equipment needed from the stockroom: analog universal meter, resistance substitution box,
leads.
PROCEEDURE
a) The internal resistance of the digital voltmeter was measured at our bench in the DC mode
on two different ranges i.e 20V and 200V ranges and the results explained.
1. First the voltage battery with the DMM was measured.
2. The resistor was measured secondly in mega ohms
3. Then the voltage was measured again but this time the resistor was used in the
positive pole of the power supply and the voltmeter in series as shown below
Fig. 4.1 Measurement of the internal resistance of a voltmeter
c) The measurement was repeated

a) for the analog voltmeter. You may need to use different R than in part a).
Internal resistance of analog and digital ammeters (DC).
a) Analog ammeter
We used a 10k resistor in series with the analog ammeter to protect it from excessive current!
We used a digital voltmeter to measure the voltage drop cross the tested analog ammeter
which showed the current (see the schematic below). Ohm's law will give you the answer. We
made measurements in two ranges: small current (less than 1 mA) and a larger current (about
100 mA). For the larger current, we replaced the 10 k resistor with a light bulb Set these
currents by adjusting the power supply voltage.
b) Digital ammeter
To measure the de resistance of a digital ammeter does not use an analog voltmeter. It will not
show well the very small voltage drop you expect to measure. Use an oscilloscope instead.
From your measurements determine the resistance of the ammeter. Give the scale of the
ammeter you used along with the resistance.
Fig. 4.2 Measurement of the internal resistance of an analog ammeter with a
digital voltmeter.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the results of this experiment demonstrate the importance of considering the
internal impedance of instruments when measuring electrical circuits. The experiment
showed that different instruments can have significantly different internal impedances, which
can affect the accuracy of measurements and the behavior of circuits. It was found that a
voltmeter with a high internal impedance can significantly affect the voltage measured across
a circuit, while an ammeter with a high internal impedance can affect the current measured in
a circuit.
In addition, the experiment showed that the influence of instruments on circuits can be
mitigated by selecting instruments with low internal impedances. By selecting instruments
with low internal impedances, the circuit behavior can be preserved, and accurate
measurements can be obtained.
Overall, this experiment provides valuable insights into the importance of considering
instrument internal impedance when measuring electrical circuits. The results of this
experiment can be used to guide future experiments and practical applications in electrical
engineering and other related fields.
REFERENCE
1. Madelung, O. (2004). Semiconductors: data handbook. Springer Science & Business
Media.
2. Grundmann, M. (2010). Physics of semiconductors (Vol. 11, p. 1). Berlin: Springer.
3. Ferry, D. K. (1991). Semiconductors (pp. 179-185). New York: Macmillan.
4. Cardona, M., & Peter, Y. Y. (2005). Fundamentals of semiconductors (Vol. 619).
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
5. Lab manuall

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AUSTIN BODI OUMA SCT-253-040/2021 APCS Y 2.

MULTIMEDIA UNIVERSITY OF KENYA

FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

APPLIED PHYSICS AND COMPUTER SCIENCE

AUSTIN BODI OUMA

Electronic Devices and Circuits I

INTERNAL IMPEDANCE OF INSTRUMENTS AND INFLUENCE OF

c) The measurement was repeated

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