Wolita Sodo University

College of Social Sciences and Humanities

Geography and Environmental Studies; Year III
Bio-Geography GeES-4015

CHAPTER 1
1. Introduction
1.1. Meaning and Scope of Biogeography
Biogeography literally means the geography of life. Specifically, however, it is defined as the
study of the spatial and temporal variations of different life forms on the surface of the Earth. In
its spatial context, biogeography attempts to describe and explain the variations of the
distributions of different life forms over the face of the world. In its temporal aspects, it tries to
explain the changing distributions of organisms over time, either in the short term or over
geological time. Today, biogeography is broken into three main fields of study. The three fields
are historical biogeography, ecological biogeography, and anlytical biogeography. Eachfield,
however, looks at phytogeography (the past and present distribution of plants) and zoogeography
(the past and present distribution of animals). Historical biogeography is called
paleobiogeography and studies the past distributions of species. It attempts to reconstruct the
origin, evolution, dispersal and extinction of different species of organisms through time. It also
looks at their evolutionary history and things like past climate change to determine why a certain
species may have developed in a particular area. For example, the historical approach would say
there are more species in the tropics than at high latitudes because the tropics experienced less
severe climate change during glacial periods. This led to fewer extinctions and more stable
populations over time. Historical biogeography is paleo-biogeography because it often includes
paleo-geographic ideas- most notably plate tectonics. This type of research uses fossils to show
the movement of species across space via moving continental plates. Paleo-biogeography also ta
kes varying climate as a result of the physical land being in different places into account for the
presence of different plants and animals. Ecological biogeography looks at the current factors
responsible for the distribution of plants and animals. The most common fields of research
within ecological biogeography are climatic equability, primary productivity, and habitat
heterogeneity.

Analytical biogeography examines the dispersal of organisms (usually individuals or

populations) and the mechanisms that influence this dispersal, and then uses this information to
explain the spatial distribution patterns of these organisms. It looks at where living organisms
live today and how they spread. This branch of study may involve mappings of the species or
ecosystems, which is very important from the point of view of conservation and management of
resources. Biogeography is not an experimental science. The spatial and temporal scales are
often too large for experimentation. Instead, theories are developed by searching patterns, testing

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assumptions and making predictions with new observations. Often nature's experiments are used
to shed light on biogeography through monitoring natural events over time to look for changes.

1.2 History of Biogeography

Many of the greatest scientists including Charles Darwin, Alfred Russell Wallace and Alexander
Humboldt, to mention a few, could be regarded as bio-geographers even though they did not
usually refer to themselves as biogeography. However, it is only recently that biogeography has
emerged as a widely respected branch of study. The stimulus to the emergence of biogeography
as a vigorous science can be attributed to several coincident and interesting developments.
The first stimulus to the emergence and transformation of the discipline from a largely
descriptive science closely linked to traditional taxonomy to conceptually oriented discipline
concerned with the building and testing of biogeographic theory is attributed to new
developments in the area of mathematical modeling and advances in Earth sciences. The
introduction of mathematical theory into ecology, evolution and systematic biology and
contemporary advances in the Earth sciences, especially the theory of plate tectonics and a
wealth of data from fossil records have contributed a lot in bringing major conceptual progress in
biogeography.

A second stimulus to the progress of biogeography has been the development and application of
new technology. As known computers have allowed the compilation and manipulation of
enormous quantities of data on distributional records and other information of organisms on truly
geographic scales. Advances in computer science have made it possible for using simulation
modeling, geographic information system techniques and very many complex statistical methods
to study distribution of organisms in a much better way than ever before.

Satellites, submersible vessels, and ground based data collection systems have provided a wealth
of new information on the environment of the Earth, including distributional aspects of its
organisms. Such and other techniques have, thus, permitted increasingly accurate reconstruction
of the history of both the Earth and its organisms. Biogeography, being one of the synthetic
sciences, has readily adopted new technologies from many other disciplines and has made a
rapid use of the new kinds of information that they can provide. Thus, in less than two decades,
biogeography has grown from being rather unappreciated science to a vigorous and respected
science whose practitioners are using the latest conceptual advances and technological tools to
say and do important things about the Earth and its living inhabitants.

1.3 Origin and Evolution of Life

1.3.1 Origin of Life
Originally our Earth was formed from the same cloud of gas and interstellar dust that formed our
sun and the rest of the solar system. A sour solar system began to come together, the sun formed
within a cloud of dust and gas that continued to shrink upon itself by its own gravitational force.
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During this process, the remaining clouds of dust and gas that surrounds the sun began to form
into smaller lumps called planetesimals, which eventually formed into planets we know today.
The Earth went through a period of catastrophic and intense formation during its earliest
beginnings. For nearly the first one billion years of its geological history, it was an inhospitable
pile of rocks accreted from cosmic debris, hot inside and cooling on the outside. The mantle was
convecting and volcanism was intense. Big asteroids kept on coming, producing craters and
large-scale disturbance.

It was also bombarded continuously by the remnants of the dust and debris of space until it
formed into a solid sphere, fell into orbit around the sun and began to cool down. As the Earth
began to take solid form, it was still so hot that at, this temperature, water droplets in the
atmosphere could not settle down to form surface water or ice. Its atmosphere was also so
poisonous that no living organism would have been able to survive. Gradually, however, the
Earth's surface began to cool and stabilize, creating the solid surface with its rocky terrain.
Clouds formed as it began to cool, producing enormous volumes of rainwater that formed the
oceans. Geochemical evidence suggests that at that time the Earth's atmosphere consisted of four
simple gases: methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), hydrogen (H2) and water vapor (H2O). Oxygen
gas could not have existed as such since the atmosphere was too hot: it would have combined
with other materials (iron, silicon etc.) whose oxides form much of the Earth's crust. Water vapor
is thought to have been formed mainly from volcanic activities, as about ten percent of the
material in volcanic eruption is water.

How did the first forms of life appear on Earth? It is generally believed that the first organism
was generated spontaneously from non-living matter, thus, the theory of spontaneous
generation. Somehow or other, certain of these organic compounds came together to form the
first organism, i.e., they must have combined in such a way as to produce a stable and integrated
chemical system capable of releasing energy and replicating itself.

First and foremost it must have been able to obtain energy, presumably by the breakdown of
organic molecules. Since there was not oxygen present at this time, its respiration must have
been anaerobic. With respiration proceeding all the time, it would need some way of
replenishing its supplies of organic compounds. The possibility that it could synthesize these for
itself (autotrophic nutrition) is hardly acceptable. That it must have fed heterotrophically,
presumably on the 'organic soup' surrounding it is reasonable to accept.

Secondly, it must have been able to reproduce itself. Most probably at this early stage of
evolution, reproduction must have been a simple asexual process involving nothing more than
the replication of macromolecules. Once the first reproducing organisms had originated, rapid
evolution would be expected to have produced more complex and better-adapted forms.
Assuming the Darwinian Theory to be sound, this would mean that the offspring resulting from
reproduction of our primitive organism would not be absolutely accurate, but would show

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deviations. Our knowledge of gene mutations helps us to understand how such deviations may
have arisen. Further variation would result from sexual reproduction, and we must assume that
sex, involving the transfer of genetic material from one individual to another, arose at a very
early stage of evolution.

1.3.2 The Evolution of Life

It is generally accepted that life first began in the sea but exactly when is not know. We know
little about organisms living in pre-cambrian time, i.e. earlier than about 6000 million years ago.
Traces of life are rare because soft- bodied organism did not lend themselves of preservation. It
is possible to suggest that certain algae, fungi and unicellular organisms, comparable with simple
plant forms, existed fully 1,000 million years before Cambrian times.

The first small primitive mammals appear to have developed around 220 million years ago in
Triassic times but their growth was slow and they did not become really important until the
tertiary era. Many present day trees, such as oak, willow, plane, sycamore, walnut and fig
developed and spread.

The Tertiary period is known as the age of mammals. The Pliocene’s epoch which followed the
Miocene saw the decline of the large mammals and the rise of the man– as a species. The
Pleistocene gave rise to modern man. This briefly traces the development of forms of life from
their beginning in pre-cambrian times up to the present.

Evolution of Advanced Life

It is quite likely that the ever-growing population of hetrotrophs gradually exhausted the supply
of organic molecules originally present in vast quantities in the primitive oceans. It is thought
that there now evolved certain organisms capable of synthesizing their own organic food from
inorganic materials (autotrophic nutrition). Independent of the rapidly declining organic food
supply, these autotrophs would have been at a distinct advantage over their hetrotrophic
contemporaries.

They must be a type of chlorophyll chemically simple than that of more highly evolved
autotrophs. However, we must assume that sooner or later autotrophs arose that could
photosynthesize like modern green plants. The arrival of photosynthesizing autotrophy would
have resulted in oxygen accumulating in the atmosphere. This was important for two reasons.
Firstly it resulted in the formation of a layer of ozone (O 3) high in the Earth's atmosphere. This
forms a barrier to the sun's ultraviolet radiation that would have initially prevented any further
synthesis of organic compounds in the atmosphere, and in later stages of evolution it would have
protected organisms from exposure to harmful rays.
Secondly, it is envisaged that some organisms evolved the ability to utilize this free oxygen for
aerobic respiration, thereby achieving a more thorough breakdown of organic substances with

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the release of additional energy. It can safely be said that these secondary heterotrophs must have
acquired the ability to ingest and digest other organisms.
So, we finish up with autotrophs and heterotrophs coexisting side by side. These provide the
basic components of a balanced ecosystem, the autotrophs providing oxygen and organic
compounds for the hetrotrophs, the hetrotrophs providing carbon dioxide and other inorganic
elements for the autotrophs. Both were presumably unicellular at this early stage of evolution. It
is thought that the autotrophs gave rise to the plant kingdom, the hetrotrophs to the animal and
fungus kingdoms. The unicellular forms are represented today by the protists (microorganisms)
kingdom, which includes both autotrophic and hetrotrophic forms. The theory just propounded
assumes that animals and plants had a common ancestry, a belief that is substantiated by their
many biochemical similarities.
As shown above, oxygen is the by-product of photosynthesis. Before photosynthesis, there was
no free oxygen in the atmosphere. With the emergence of such photosynthesizing organisms,
slowly free oxygen began to accumulate in the atmosphere until it finally reached the
concentration of 21%, which is what it is, in fact, now. Any higher than this proportion would
blow up the atmosphere at any lightning storm. The question, however, is why does the
concentration remain the same while the plants are still photosynthesizing? The answer is simply
that the process of respiration maintains always the balance. However, if these two processes are
in equilibrium, how did the oxygen accumulate in the first place? The answer to this is that
before there was 21 % oxygen in the atmosphere, all respiration was anaerobic (without free
oxygen).
Free oxygen allowed organisms to extract more energy from respiration, which they could use
for the formation of more cells, which through time became able to perform various specialized
functions. Moreover, the appearance of free oxygen allowed the formation of the ozone layer,
which serves as a shield to living organisms against ultra-violet rays. Such developments created
favorable conditions for more organisms to move out of the sea and colonize the land, i.e., spread
into the continents, allowing more species to come into existence in these varied environments

1.4 Classification and Organization of Life

Estimates of the total number of living species on earth greatly vary. Most scientists agree that
the actual number is in the order of 13 million to 14 million, with most being insects and
microscopic life forms. However, it appears that we may never know how many there are
because many of them will become extinct before being counted and described. The great
diversity of life is largely a result of branching evolution or adaptive radiation, i.e.,
diversification of species to adapt to different ecological riches.
With so many organisms in the world, it is important to be able to classify them to make it easier
for sorting and description. The science of classifying organisms is called taxonomy. There are
seven classification levels or taxa (singular = taxon), from kingdom, the most inclusive (many
organisms) to species: the most exclusive (only one type organism). Organisms, which have

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certain basic features in common, are grouped together into kingdom. Kingdom is split into
smaller units called phyla (singular= phylum). Phyla are again split into classes; classes into
orders, orders into families and families into genera (singular= genus) while genera are finally
divided into species. Intermediate divisions are sometimes used: for example sub-phylum can be
inserted between phyla and class and subclass between class and order. In plants the word
subdivision is used instead of phylum.

Taxonomic Hierarchy of organisms

A species is a group of organisms which have numerous detailed features in common and which
do not normally breed with other species. Sometimes species are split into sub-species or
varieties. These are capable of interbreeding but can be distinguished by slight structural
differences as indicated below.
 Phylogenetic: Group of sexually reproducing organisms that share one feature absent in
other organisms.
 Biological: Group of organisms that interbreed.
 Evolutionary: Direct ancestor-descendent relationship traceable in fossil record.

Traditionally, a two-kingdom system of classification (plants and animals) was instituted in the
mid-18th centaury by Carolus Linnaeus. But it obviously had several major problems of
ambiguity.

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In 1969 the American ecologist named Whittaker instituted a new five-kingdom system of
classification, as shown below:
Kingdom Animalia (Animals): The defining characteristic is that all organisms develop from an
embryo with a blastula stage. They also have senses and nervous systems, to aid in locomotion
and searching for food. All are hetrotrohpic organisms.
Kingdom Plantae (Plants): The main characteristic is that plants develop from an embryo
without a blastula stage and have cellulose in their cell walls. Almost all of them are autorophs,
organisms that can make their own food. Plants produce food through photosynthesis, and have
chloroplasts for this purpose. Most are immobile. A few eat insects for extra nutrients, such as
the Venus flytrap.
Kingdom Fungi: These are hetrotrophic organisms that develop from spores and have chitin in
their cell walls. They are mostly immobile. Most are decomposers. Examples are mushrooms,
molds and bracket fungus.
Protista: The protists are basically a miscellaneous category, with no defining characteristic. The
only real similarity is that they are all eukaryotes (cells have nucleus). Some are autotrophs,
some hetrotrophs, and some are decomposers. They can be single celled or multi celled.
Examples are slime molds, algae, protozoa, and amoebas.
Kingdom Monera (prokaryota): includes bacteria and all prokaryotes. Prokaryotes are
organisms with cells that have no nucleus or membrane-enclosed organelles. Monera is the only
kingdom, which includes prokaryotes, so, that is the determining, factor for inclusion in this
kingdom. Most are single-celled organisms. In terms of number of species and places where they
live, bacteria are the most diverse group of the organisms.

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 CHAPTER TWO
2. ENERGY CONTROLS OF ECOSYSTEM
2.1. Forms of Energy
Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. Energy varies in quality or ability to do useful
work. Hence, energy quality is a measure of energy usefulness. High quality energy is organized,
concentrated and has great ability to perform useful work. By contrast, low quality energy is
disorganized, weak and has little ability to do useful work.

Radiant Energy: It comes in the form of short (ultra -violet), medium (visible light) and long
waves (infrared) rays. Solar radiation, as it is also called, is energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves involving a rhythmic exchange between potential and kinetic energy. It is
upon this energy that life on Earth depends. When these rays reach the Earth, they are
transformed into other forms, one form of which is heat, which warms the Earth and atmosphere,
driving the water cycle, and causing air movements. The range of wavelengths between 400 and
700mm, known photochemically as active radiation is absorbed by green plants during
photosynthesis and changed into chemical energy, which becomes the source of energy for all
living organisms on Earth.

Chemical Energy: is the form of energy contained in the covalent atomic bond of chemical
substances such as those found in food. In fact, the source of potential energy for all living
organisms is found in the chemical energy of food. Potential energy, in this sense, is the stored
energy in the food, which can be converted to kinetic energy through the process of respiration.
Mechanical Energy: is free or useful energy which a body posses by virtue of its motion or
other biological activities. In other words, this is the form of energy which living organisms use
to conduct the various life activities.
Heat Energy: is a special form of energy resulting from the random motion of atoms and
molecules in a body.

2.2. Sources of Energy

There are a variety of direct sources of energy. These include the direct inputs of energy
including wind, hydropower (falling and flowing water) biomass (solar energy converted into
chemical energy in trees and other plants), fossil fuels (partially decomposed remains of ancient
life in the form of coal, oil and natural gas) as well as other minerals and elements. Cosmic
energy influxes from stars beyond the Solar System may also be included in the list. The main
source of energy, however, is the sun. Most of the sources of energy mentioned above directly or
indirectly obtained their energy primarily from the sun.

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2.3. Energy Transformation

The basic relationship between organisms and their environment is reflected in the maintenance
of life through various kinds of energy exchanges. All forms of energy are inter-convertible and
when conversions occur, they do so according to rigorous laws of exchange known as the Laws
of Thermodynamics. Of the total incoming solar energy potentially available to green plants
only 1% to 5% will be finally converted into chemical energy and tied up in foods in plants. The
remaining 95 to 99% escapes.

On the basis of food synthesis, organisms, hence, can be divided in to two groups:

1. Producers: Organisms, such as a variety of bacteria, many varieties of blue-green algae

and nearly all plants that produce their own food are called autotrophs. They are called
producers because all of the species of the ecosystem depend on them.
2. Consumers: They include fungi, many varieties of bacteria, a few varieties of flowering
plants and all animals. All of these organisms cannot make their own food (and need
producers) are called heterotrophs. In an ecosystem heterotrophs are called consumers
because they depend on others
There are different levels of consumers. Those that feed directly from producers, i.e. organisms
that eat plant or plant products are called primary consumers. Grasshopper is a primary consumer

Organisms that feed on primary consumers are called secondary consumers. Those who feed on
secondary consumers are tertiary consumers. The snake acts as a secondary consumer and the
hawk as a tertiary consumer. Some organisms, like the squirrel are at different levels. When the
squirrel eats acorns or fruits (which are plant product), it is a primary consumer; however, when
it eats insects or nestling birds, is it is a tertiary consumer. Consumers are also classified
depending on what they eat. Herbivores: are those that eat only plants or plant products.
Examples are grasshoppers, mice, rabbits, deer, beavers, moose, cows, sheep, goats and
groundhogs. Carnivores: on the other hand, are those that eat only other animals. Examples of
carnivores are foxes, frogs, snakes, hawks, and spiders. Omnivores: are the last types and eat
both plants (acting as primary consumers) and meat (acting as secondary or tertiary consumers).
Examples of omnivores are:

Grass Grasshopper Hawk Lizard

Ecosystem Structure
One way of describing an ecosystem is according to its trophic structure. The trophic structure
constitutes the levels of feeding (trophic = food) and the feeding relationships of the components
of the ecosystem. All ecosystems must be based upon autotrophs. Autotrophs (literally self
feeders) produce organic food for themselves and all members of their community.

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Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process of converting water and carbon dioxide into chemical energy of
food and oxygen with the help of sunlight energy. It chemically unites two common inorganic
compounds to form organic matter with the release of oxygen.

Respiration
While photosynthesis builds up chemical energy in food, respiration is the process by which
organisms break down the complex food stuff with the help of oxygen, thus, releasing the atomic
bond energy to be used as source of kinetic energy for the organisms to perform their life
activities.

2.4 Food Chain and Food Wed

2.4.1 Food Chain

Food chain refers to the transfer of energy and chemicals through a series of organisms involving
eating and being eaten. It represents the different links along which chemical energy and other
materials pass from organism to the other. Each link in the food chain feeds on and obtains
energy from the one preceding it and in turn is eaten by and provides energy for the one
following it. The idea of the food chain indicates that all organisms are linked together that
anything that affects one link in the chain affects all the rest in the chain.
Food chains are, thus:
 Channels for the one-way flow of the sun's high quality energy captured by
photosynthesis through living organisms and back to the environment as low-quality
heat.
 Pathways for the recycling of nutrients from producers to consumers and carnivores
as well as decomposers.
Each of the separate level in food chain is known as trophic level. A trophic level consists of,
hence, all organisms that share the same general type of food. In this form of transfer of food
energy from one trophic level to another (producers or plants to consumers or animals),
considerable energy is used up, lost and returned to the environment in the form of low quality
heat energy. The number of links in the food chain is usually three or four and rarely exceeds five. Due
to considerable loss of energy at each trophic level, the producers contain the greatest amount of mass
and energy. Consequently, many organisms at lower feeding levels are required to furnish sufficient
food energy for a single organism at a higher level.

Plant =====> herbivore====>carnivore1==>Carnivore2====>Carnivore3

Primary Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary
Producer Consumer Consumer Consumer Consumer
I II III IV V

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Relationships in food chains are, however, rarely as obvious as those presented above and are
rarely more than three or four trophic levels. For that matter most herbivores do not feed on just
one kind of plant nor are they eaten by only one type of carnivore. Rather, most organisms
consume a variety of organisms and are in turn eaten themselves by several other species so that
simple food chains usually comprise of parts of a large food web and a much more complex
arrangement of energy movement. Within natural ecosystems, two major types of food chains
may exist either separately or in conjunction with each other: the grazing food chain and detritus
food chain; the grazing food chain and detritus food chain.

Grazing Food Chain: Involves a fairly direct and rapid transfer of energy from living plants
through grazing herbivores to carnivores.
Detritus Food Chain: Transmits energy much more slowly through the decomposing elements
of dead plant and animal materials to other living organisms that feed on them.

These simpler nutrients are returned to the soil and can be used again by the plants. The energy
transformation chain starts all over again.Food chains, also called, food networks and/or trophic
social networks, describe the eating relationships between species within an ecosystem.
Organisms are connected to the organisms they consume by lines representing the direction of
organism or energy transfer. It also shows how the energy from the producer is given to the
consumer.
Food chains, also called, food networks and/or trophic social networks, describe the eating
relationships between species within an ecosystem. Organisms are connected to the organisms
they consume by lines representing the direction of organism or energy transfer. It also shows
how the energy from the producer is given to the consumer. Typically a food chain or food web
refers to a graph where only connections are recorded, and a food network or ecosystem network
refers to a network where the connections are given weights representing the quantity of
nutrients or energy being transferred.

Sun producer Primary consumer secondary consumer tertiary consumer

Grasshopper Snake Hawk

Grass

Decomposer
Nutrients
Water
Fungi

Energy and food chain

2.4.2 Food Webs

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The concept of food chain looks very simple, but in reality it is more complex. Think about it.
How many different animals eat grass? And how many different foods does the hawk eat? One
doesn't find simple independent food chains in an ecosystem, but many interdependent and
complex food chains that look more like a web and are therefore called food webs.

A food web showing the energy transformations in an ecosystem

2.5 Ecological Pyramids

To examine the patterns of energy exchange and to study the establishment of organisms within
the food chains and webs, we use ecological pyramids of numbers, biomass and energy.
In a food chain the number of individuals decreases at each trophic level (a trophic level refers to
an organism’s position in the food chain) with huge number of tiny individuals at the base and a
few large individuals at the top. This formation is known as Ecological pyramid. It shows the
trophic structure of an ecosystem as a graph representing organism number, biomass or energy
content of each trophic level in a food web. The base of the pyramid represents the producer
trophic level, and from there the consumer trophic level is stacked, with the apex representing
the highest consumer trophic level.

Generally speaking, in the biotic pyramid the greatest numbers of organisms, the greatest mass
and greatest amount of energy are to be found in the lowest layer of organisms, i.e. the green
plants. In other words, partly because of the necessary inefficiency in energy transfer, number,

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mass and energy total decrease as one moves up the pyramid. This means that there must be
more plants than herbivores and more herbivores than carnivores. This is because the amount of
energy available to the next higher level is only a fraction of the energy of the previous level.
Specifically speaking, however, the precise form taken by pyramids of numbers depends on the
type of ecosystems under consideration, but usually one of three situations is encountered.

Normally, the number of organisms’ decreases up the food chain and the pyramid constructed
will be normal. The normal pyramid is one in which many small primary producers support a
relatively large number of herbivores and carnivores.

The Ecological Pyramid

This pyramid helps one visualize the fact that in an ecological system there need to be many
producing organisms at the bottom of the pyramid to be able to sustain just a couple of
organisms at the top. In looking at the pyramid, can you guess how much larger the volume of
each layer is as compared to the one just above it?

2.6 Biological productivity

It is mentioned time and again that in passing through the ecosystem much energy is degraded to
heat, therefore, becoming unavailable for growth process within it. This is particularly important
as it is related to the rate of production of organic matter or biological productivity. Biological

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production is usually measured in as a rate at which energy or biomass is produced per unit area
per unit time, or productivity.

Primary production of World Ecosystems: refers to the energy accumulated by green plants.
Estimates taken from a wide range of areas in the world suggest that substantial variations in the
rates of primary productivity do occur and are dependent partly on differences in energy income
on a latitudinal basis, partly on environmental limitations and partly on the type of organisms,
which may be found there.
The most productive terrestrial ecosystem is the equatorial rain forest with high rainfall and high
temperature throughout the year (net primary productivity ranging between 1000 to 3500 g/
m2/yr). Temperate forests range between 600-2500 g/ m 2/yr) while shrub lands and grasslands
have values ranging between 700-1500 g/ m 2/yr and deserts and the tundra range between 100-
250 g/ m2/yr.
 Gross primary productivity: refers to the total amount of energy assimilated by green
plants before, some or any energy is lost in the form of heat through respiration. It can be
simply taken as the amount of energy fixed by green plants for the synthesis of plant
foods. It is also known as gross photosynthesis. Forests have higher gross primary
production (total photosynthetic carbon fixation) and net ecosystem production than any
other type of ecosystem because of their large biomass. Hence, forests are considered as
biotic reservoir of nutrients. About 80% of the total biomass of forests is visible above
the ground; the remaining 20% is below the ground. Nearly half of the total organic
matter lies below the soil surface in the form of roots, soil organisms and humus.
 Net primary production or Net photosynthesis: refers to the energy that is used to
build up plant tissues and organs after a certain amount is lost during respiration. It is the
difference between gross productivity (production of plant material by photosynthesis)
and respiration. So long as the rate of production exceeds that of respiration, the plant
will grow.

Primary Productivity:
 Amount of energy fixed by plants
 Gross PP (GPP) = Total energy fixed
 Net PP (NPP) = GPP – Respiration
The Secondary Production of World Ecosystems: refers to the amount of energy transfer from
primary producers to consumers. It is the energy available to the hetrotrophic component of the
ecosystem. The secondary productivity of individual organisms within limited ecosystems may
range from between 6% and 37%. Thus, while the secondary producers depend ultimately on the

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primary producers for food, they can influence the rate and form of primary producers for food, they
can influence the rate and form of primary production.

CHAPTER THREE
3. ELEMENT EXCHANGES IN ECOSYSTEMS
3.1 Chemical Elements in Living organisms
The chemical elements essential to life may be obtained form any one of pool areas to be found
in the atmosphere, ocean, soil and bedrock and, furthermore, are continually re-circulated among
ecosystems, so being reused indefinitely. After hydrogen, carbon and oxygen the elements
required in greatest quantity by living organisms are nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium,
calcium, magnesium and iron. The first four elements in the list are derived ultimately from the
atmospheric sources, and the remaining ones are obtained from the soil and the bedrock or seas.
Although all of the known elements are capable of being absorbed by living organism, usually
oxygen, carbon and hydrogen are found in appreciable quantities within living organism. These three
often comprise of 90% of the dry weight of organisms and the same atoms in the form of water may
account for much of the remaining total weight of all life forms.
However, since animals differ fundamentally from green plants in their more varied nutritional
requirements, it is to be expected that chemical reactions within their cells also, in some measure,
be dissimilar to those described above, despite the fact that identical elements are circulating in
both plant and animal systems. Indeed, animal cells in general have a more limited capacity to
synthesize organic constituents than do those of plants and their metabolism cannot be often
maintained unless they are provided with a wide selection of readily available organic foods such
as proteins, vitamins, fats and carbohydrates. These are usually obtained directly in their diet
from chemical substances already synthesized in existing plant and animal materials. Most
elements enter living organisms either in a gaseous state such as O 2 and Co2 or as water-soluble
salts such as NaCl and KCl.

3.2 The Biogeochemical Cycles

The chemical elements tend to circulate in the biosphere in characteristic paths from the
environment to organisms and back to the environment. This more or less circular path is known
as biogeochemical cycle. The movement of these elements and inorganic and organic
compounds that are essential to life is termed nutrient cycle.
Another component of ecosystem structure is the pathway of each chemical element through the
components of the biosphere. Every element that is used by living organisms passes between the
biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components of the biosphere. The pathways taken by
these chemical elements are called the biogeochemical cycles. These cycles fall into two
categories:

15
 1. The gaseous cycles: include all gaseous elements whose reservoir is the atmosphere or
hydrosphere and for that reason such elements have global circulation patterns.
The elements falling into this category are carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. Carbon is found
in the atmosphere in carbon dioxide (CO 2), nitrogen as nitrogen gas (N2), and oxygen as
oxygen gas (O2). The carbon and nitrogen cycles are shown below.

Carbon is found in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide which is taken into plants to become plant
tissues (we ignore other products of photosynthesis such as oxygen because we are only
interested in what is happening to the carbon).
Carbon is stored on our planet in the following major sinks:
1. as organic molecules in living and dead organisms found in the biosphere;
2. as the gas carbon dioxide in the atmosphere;
3. as organic matter in soils;
4. in the lithosphere as fossil fuels and sedimentary rock deposits such as limestone, dolomite
and chalk; and
5. in the oceans as dissolved atmospheric carbon dioxide and as calcium carbonate shells in
marine organisms. However, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and hydrosphere form the main
reserve of carbon.
The nitrogen cycle also uses the atmosphere as a component, but plants don't get their nitrogen
from the atmosphere. Nitrogen gas is mostly inert, while plants obtain needed nitrogen from
soluble nitrates in the soil. These nitrates are produced from the decomposition of detritus, i.e.
composting. Plants absorb soluble nitrates, along with other minerals, and use them to make
plant tissues. It's proteins that especially require nitrates, making the nitrogen cycle (the nitrogen
budget) so critical for nutritious crops.
Among the important soil organisms, NFB (Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria) and other organisms
which convert gaseous nitrogen to soluble forms useful to plants. These organisms take the
nitrogen found in the small air pockets in the soil and fix it, turning it into a form that plants can
absorb. Nitrogen fixing bacteria live frequently in the company of legumes, a family of plants
which includes peas, beans, clover, alfalfa, and many others. The relationship between the
nitrogen fixing bacteria and legumes constitutes a type of symbiosis. These plants evolved to live
in poor soils. In the process of fixing nitrogen the soils are built up and that makes possible the
growth of other plants.
In heavy rains much nitrogen is washed downwards away from the root zone of plants by
leaching, to which it is susceptible or it may be broken down into elemental nitrogen and return
to the atmosphere by the process of denitrification by the activities of denitrifying bacteria. This
is true in soils, which lack oxygen, especially, on which large amounts of organic matter have
accumulated, where nitrate may be quickly reduced to elemental form or oxide of nitrogen

16
through the activities of anaerobic bacteria. The common denitrifying bacteria include several
species of which the commonest being Pseudomonas. Their activities result in substantial losses
of nitrogen into the atmosphere, roughly balancing the amount of nitrogen fixation that occurs
each year.

2 The sedimentary cycles: are those in which the element is not found in a gaseous form. In
other words it includes those elements whose reservoir is the Earth's crust or the soil.
This group of elements varies in many respects, but each of them has two abiotic phases: the salt
solution phase and rock phase. Mineral elements found in rocks come directly from the Earth's
crust and are released slowly by weathering. Then they enter the water cycle as soluble salts.
Unless they are absorbed by plants, such mineral salts move through the soil to streams and lakes
and eventually reach the seas, where they remain deposited at the bed or dissolved in the water
and other salts may return to the crust of the Earth through sedimentation, eventually all of them
incorporated in rock forms, but sooner or later released back to the environment for use by
organisms as they enter the cycle through weathering
Minerals such as phosphorus are not found in the atmosphere as part of their cycle. Their cycles
are sometimes called sedimentary because some of the mineral is always being transported to
deep sediments. These sediments are only very slowly recycled as the sediments eventually uplift
and are subjected to erosion.
Phosphorus is derived from the soil and weathered bedrock. It is essential for the healthy growth
of living organisms; and available in relatively short supply in terms of its biological demand. It
also serves as the most important link in the chain of chemical elements necessary to life.
Phosphorus supplies may be present in the soil either organically as chemical compounds, or
inorganically as mineral salts. A smaller, but not less important source of phosphorus is the
droppings (guano) of fish-eating sea birds.
The sulfur cycle: Sulfur is important in the formation of amino acids, cystine, cystein and
methionine. Most elemental sulfur is present in the form of inorganic compounds developed
from weathered rock materials.
Generally speaking biogeochemical exchanges require the presence of a wide variety of living
organisms, whose patterns of birth, life and death all encourage the movement of chemical
elements. Therefore, one may expect biogeochemical cycles to occur at every level of the
biosphere and, indeed, some very minor exchanges have been detected not only in the upper
troposphere, but also in the bedrock several thousand meters below ground surface, where some
micro-organisms live off oily liquids. However, most exchanges take place in the immediate
contact zone between the lower atmosphere and uppermost parts of the land and ocean in which
organic life is abundant and the annual turnover of materials is enormous.
The Oxygen Cycle: The atmosphere under which life arose on the Earth was almost certainly
devoid of free oxygen. The first organism was, thus, not only anaerobe; it was also a hetrotroph,

17
dependent on pre-existing organic food supply and incapable of manufacturing its own food by
photosynthesis or other autotrophic processes. Through evolution, however, autotrophs evolved
and became capable of manufacturing their own food. These autotrophic organisms started
photosynthetic activities, thus, releasing free oxygen into the atmosphere. From that time
onwards, oxygen became one of the most important elements that play a fundamental role in
aerobic respiration that allowed organisms to extract more energy from organic matter they
consumed.
Atmospheric oxygen, thus, played a role in the evolution and present functioning of the
biosphere. Hence, Oxygen not only supports life, it also arises from life. In other words, the
oxygen now in the atmosphere is mainly, if not wholly, of a biological origin. Chemically, some
of the oxygen of the atmosphere is converted to Ozone (O 3), thus, serving as a screen to high-
energy wavelengths to be filtered out of the radiation band that reaches the surface of the Earth.
It also combines with a wide range of other elements in the Earth's crust to form minerals and
rocks. The result of these and other processes is an intimate evolutionary interaction between the
biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere.
3.3 Structure of biogeochemical cycles
Although the biogeochemical cycles of the various essential nutrients required by autotrophs and
heterotrops differ in detail from the perspective of the ecosystem, all biogeochemical cycles have
a common structure, sharing three basic components: inputs, internal cycling, and outputs.
1 Inputs: The input of nutrients to the ecosystem depends on the type of biogeochemical cycle.
Nutrients with gaseous cycle, such as carbon and nitrogen, enter the ecosystem via the
atmosphere; in contrast, nutrients such as calcium and phosphorus have sedimentary cycle, with
inputs dependent on the weathering of rocks and minerals. The process of soil formation and the
resulting soil characteristics have a major influence on processes involved in nutrient release and
retention.
Supplementing nutrients in the soil are nutrients carried by rain, snow, air currents, and animals.
Precipitation brings appreciable quantities of nutrients, called wet fall. Some of these nutrients,
such as tiny dust particles of calcium and sea salt, form the nuclei of raindrops; others are
solutions of trace gases. Additional nutrients such as sulfates and nitrates wash out of the
atmosphere as the rain falls. For some nutrients the amount brought in by airborne particles and
aerosols, collectively called dry fall, may exceed that carried by precipitation.
The major sources of nutrients for aquatic life are inputs from the surrounding land in the form
of drainage water, detritus, and sediment, and from precipitation. Flowing water, aquatic systems
are highly dependent on a steady input of detritus material from the watersheds through which
they flow.
2 Internal Cycling: Cycling of nutrients through the ecosystem depends on the processes of
primary productivity and decomposition. Primary productivity determines the rate of nutrient

18
transfer from inorganic to organic form and decomposition determines the rate of transformation
of organic nutrients into inorganic form. Therefore, the rates at which nutrients cycle through the
ecosystem will be directly related to the rates at which these two processes occur.
Primary productivity in ecosystems depends on the uptake of essential mineral (inorganic)
nutrients by plants and their incorporation in to living tissues. Nutrients in organic form, stored
in living tissues, represent a significant proportion of the total nutrient pool in most ecosystems.
As these living tissues senesce, the nutrients are returned to the soil or sediments in the form of
dead organic matter. Various microbial decomposers transform the organic nutrients in to a
mineral form, a process called mineralization and the nutrients are once again available to the
plants for uptake and incorporation into new tissues. This process is called internal cycling and is
an essential feature of all ecosystems. It represents a recycling of nutrients within the ecosystem.
3 Outputs: The export of nutrients from the ecosystems represents a loss that must be offset by
inputs if a net decline is not to occur. Loss can occur in a variety of ways, depending on the
nature of the specific biogeochemical cycle. For instance, carbon is exported to the atmosphere
in the form of CO2 via the process of respiration by all organisms. Likewise, a variety of
microbial and plant processes result in the transformations of organic and inorganic nutrients to a
gaseous phase that can subsequently transported be from the ecosystem in the atmosphere. Other
transports of nutrients can also occur in the form of organic matter from terrestrial ecosystems
through surface flow of water in streams and rivers. Organic matter can also be transferred
between ecosystems through herbivores, as for example; man and birds eating fish or other
aquatic organisms can allow the spread of waste in terrestrial ecosystem.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
4. LIVING ORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
4.1 Factors Affecting Geographic distributions of living organisms
4.1.1. Environmental Factors
Environment is defined as the totality of things that in any way may affect organism. Landforms,
soils and nutrients, weather and climate all comprise an organism’s environment. Living
organisms require a variety of materials and conditions such as water, soil nutrients, light, heat,
oxygen and other gases to survive. They also require surface or a substratum on or within which
they can establish themselves. The substratum can comprise of almost any solid or liquid
substances such as wood, leaves, soil and water. There are an infinite number of substrata but
they all have a common feature, in the sense that each must be able to provide a source of food
and a safe home for the organisms, which live upon, or in it.
The existence and distribution of an organism can be controlled by the qualitative and
quantitative deficiency or excess of any one of the several factors which may approach the limits
of tolerance for that organism. Just as a deficiency of any one kind may limit the survival of an
organism, so will also the excess. This means that too much or too little of any abiotic factor can
limit or prevent growth of organisms in an ecosystem even if all factors are at or near the
optimum range for that organism. Such single factor found to restrict the growth of organisms in
an ecosystem is called a limiting factor.
The adaptation of an organism to its environment is exhibited by its ability to function between
some upper and lower limits in a range of environmental conditions. For plants, the basic
nutrients necessary for growth can be subdivided into two categories, the abundant substances
called the macro nutrients which are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium; and
the substances which are present in very small amounts called trace elements or micro nutrients:
iron, manganese, boron, chlorine, copper, zinc, molybdenum, vanadium, phosphorus etc.
Leibig's experiments showed that only rarely did the macronutrients become limiting factors and
instead it was the micronutrients that were the problem. According to him, trace element
deficiency in soils was believed to be responsible for poor yields from cereal and other crops.
From this, Leibig produced his famous so-called Law of the Minimum, which states that growth
of a plant responds to the amount of foodstuff, which is present to it in minimum quantity. In
other words, what limits the successful growth and, thus, the yield of plants is the nutrient that is
present in minimum quantity even if all other nutrients and conditions are present in optimum
quantities.
Organisms, of course, withstand the effects of too much or too little of these elements or factors to a
certain extent. As a matter of fact, if the quantity of the limiting resources increases, so that the rate

20
of growth of that plant increases, then that substance is no longer limiting, but another substance
might become limiting as the increased growth of the plant places more demand on other resources.
An organism's ability to withstand the effect of a variety of environmental conditions is called its
Tolerance. Thus, each species of organisms has ecological minimum and maximum tolerance
ranges, which represents the limits of tolerance. The relationship between a limiting factor and a
range of tolerance, shown in Figure below, is an example of a limiting factor and a range of
tolerance. All organisms within a given environment have limits of tolerance outside which they
will not survive or succeed. This is what is called the Law of Tolerance, which states that the
existence, abundance and distribution of organisms in an ecosystem are determined by whether
the levels of one or more physical or chemical factors fall above or below the levels tolerated by
the organisms, the optimum being the most ideal.
Many types of organisms can also change their tolerance to environmental factors if exposed to
gradually changing conditions. This adaptation to slowly changing new condition is a useful
protecting device to the continuity of organisms in time and space, but it can also be dangerous for
each small change may lead the organisms closer to the final limit of tolerance that may trigger a
threshold to the survival of the organism.
Organisms show differing tolerance rates to different factors. Organisms may have a wide range of
tolerance for one factor and narrow range for another. For example, creatures, which inhabit the
inter-tidal zone along coasts, can withstand considerable fluctuations in wetness and dryness as the
tide ebbs and flows. Organisms that have the widest tolerance range usually have the widest
geographical range.
The presence of a limiting factor may not by itself be capable of killing an organism but it so
weakens that individual that it becomes vulnerable to another hazard, which normally is
insufficient to bring about death. The availability of some substances or the action of some factors
other than the minimum one may modify the rate of utilization of the minimum. The period of
reproduction is usually a critical one when environmental factors are most likely limiting. The limits
of tolerance for reproductive individuals, seeds, eggs, embryos, seedlings, and larvae are usually
narrower than non-reproductive adult plants and animals.

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 The relationship between a limiting factor and a range of tolerance

4.2 Limiting Factors

These factors could be either biotic (adaptation to new conditions, dispersal through continuous
habitat, “jump dispersal” across a major barrier (sea; mountain, etc.) or abiotic (climatic,
geologic factors, plate movements, etc). Accordingly, for land based organisms, seven overriding
divisions of potential limiting factors on growth result from them and may be categorized as:
1. Climatic Factors: which are usually most important, involving conditions of light, heat
and temperature, moisture availability and wind.
2. Topographic Influences: which can assume significance especially where effects of altitude,
aspect and slope help to modify vegetations formations and animal communities on high
mountains or in high altitudes.
3. The Influence of Soil: Which is related to the physico-chemical properties of soils?
4. Geological Factors
5. Biotic Restrictions: which are felt because of the influence of organisms on other organisms,
notably when animal populations overgraze their ranges
6. Evolution Factors
7. Anthropogenic Factors

The organisms of any given area reflect, therefore, the sum total of these factors. All these
conditions of existence may not, however, only be limiting factors in the detrimental sense,
but also regulatory factors in the beneficial sense in that adapted organisms respond to these
factors in such a way that the community of organisms achieves the maximum homeostasis
(balance) possible under the conditions.

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 1. Climatic Factors
What type of correlation does exist between climate and number of species?
There seem to be a correlation between climate and number of species; although attempting to
define “favorable climate” is not easy. Areas which are climatically favorable to life support
many species. For different forms of plant and animals life need widely differing conditions. It is
much easier to say what unfavorable conditions are; for example, speaking in general terms, low
temperatures and scarcity of moisture are the two climatic conditions most unfavorable to
organic life. In specific cases, other climatic conditions such as too much sunshine, excessive
moisture and wind, may have ill effects. Broadly speaking, however, low temperatures and lack
of water are the two most significance operative factors, affecting both plant and animal life. A
high degree of warmth and moisture seem, generally, to encourage profile life.

This relationship between climatic conditions and number of species can be illustrated in a broad
way. In the first place there is a clearly recognizable decrease in the number of species of both
flora and fauna between the tropics and the Polar Regions. One can compare, for instance, the
thousands of species of trees found in tropical forests with those found in the northern forest
which amount only to a few dozen. Similarly, there is a much more varied fauna in the plant
formation type, such as the coniferous forest, one finds a reduction in the number of species of
trees as one goes towards the poles. In like manner there is a general decline in the variety of
animal life in the forest.

The South American tropics support thousands of species of plants of diverse groups and many
diverse animals, too, including thousands of species of indicts of many orders. For example, the
Amazonian rain forest probably includes at least 2,5000 species of trees, but only 6 species occur
on Tierra del Fuego, and one of Antarctica. The latter supports only three species even of smaller
flowering plants, and they confined to the Antarctic Peninsula. The only plants that now tolerate
the climate of the main part of the continent are mosses, lichens and algae terrestrial vertebrates
diminish in numbers southwards in South America and no strictly terrestrial vertebrates now
occur on Antarctica. Of insects (other than ectoparasties of birds and marine mammals), only two
species of files reach Antarctica and they too are confined to the peninsula or islands of the
peninsula, although collembolan and free – living mites reach parts of the Antarctic continents
proper.

While we may accept that there is a fundamental relationship between favorableness of climate
and number of species and number of species and agree that the diversity of terrestrial life is
greatest in the inter – tropical zone, we must remember that is acceptable only in general terms,
for it is fairly clear that some types of plants and animals prefer and thrive best temperature
climates while the richest diversity of plant life may occur in the marginal tropic and sub tropical
lands of South – east Asia.

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Although there seems to be a positive relationship between size of area and variety of species
and organic dispersal it is much less easy to discern any relationship between climate and
dispersal. Darlington argues that the dominant animals have usually evolved in favorable
(general tropical) climates and those dominant groups have then spread into areas of less
favorable climates, he say that selection in competition with other organisms presumably makes
generally superior organisms, and should do most effectively in favorable climates where
organisms are most numerous.

Generally the impact of climate upon the distribution of living organisms can be described in to
different climatic groups as follows.
Light: Certain characteristics of the solar radiation may be responsible for shaping (and
sometimes limiting) the growth of organisms within ecosystems. Thus, the presence and intensity
of light are the most important single factors which stimulate the process of photosynthesis and
the production of chlorophyll, the opening and closing of stomata (leaf-pores) and the formation
of auxins (growth forming substances) in green plants.
Taken as a whole, three aspects of light income: intensity, quality and photoperiod are
significant to plant growth and each of these may vary diurnally and seasonally according to
latitude. High light intensities are observed around the equator and in arid climates while place
of high altitudes, areas with high percentage of could cover and urban areas with major
atmospheric pollution experience low light intensities.
Despite the ease with which many species can adapt successfully to a wide range of different light
intensities, it is also the case that both too much and too little light at times may restrict growth
considerably. Some plants (heliophytes) prefer strong sunlight while others (sociophytes) grow well
in low intensities.
It frequently happens that not only the intensity, but also quality of light can affect plant growth.
Ultraviolet rays (which are usually absorbed by ozone layers approximately 16 km form sea
level) may often continue to remain substantial at place of higher altitudes so, usually more of
them are taken into plant systems in high mountainous ecosystems than on other parts of the
Earth's surface, consequently resulting in different plant distributions at different altitudes.
For many species organisms, the photoperiod (or duration of sunshine) is a further critical factor
in successful growth. Even though physiological reactions among some seedlings are sufficiently
sensitive to be stimulated by moon light, most plants require either direct or diffuse sunlight for
their healthy development, so that differences in the length of the day according to latitude,
ranging from the constant 12 hours at the equator to the 6 months of 24 hours day light or
darkness period at the poles, may be expected to produce some modifications to growth patterns.
Heat and Temperature: an adequate supply of heat is essential to the growth of organisms, all
of which have their own maximum, minimum and optimum temperature requirements. The most
favorable temperature for photosynthesis are usually lower than those for respiration, a feature

24
which may give rise to some physiological problems since the rate of photosynthesis will fall
appreciably should the temperature rise to the optimum for respiration.
On the basis of their adaptation to heat, plants species may be broadly divided into:
 Megathermal: occurring in the tropics, where mean monthly temperatures do not fall
below 200c and are usually above 250c.
 Microthermal: occurring within high latitudes in areas where mean monthly
temperature doesn't exceed 100c.
 Mesothermal: plants in mid-latitude, with a physiology adapted to strongly- marked
seasonal rhythm of life.
However, the effects of altitude, distance from sea and the type of ocean currents may disrupt the
general pattern formed by latitude. Over the world as a whole, the known extremes of air
temperature in land ecosystems ranges from 88.2 0C (-1260F in Vostok, Antarctica to 58 0c (136
0F) in Northern Sahara. At times, temperatures on non-organic surfaces exposed to direct

sunlight may approach 1000c.

The mean monthly temperatures are much more important than the mean annual temperatures for
some terrestrial ecosystems. Much more than this, however, it is usually the case that daily
ranges in temperature, especially those near to the ground where germination and sprouting
occur, are the most critical of all to plant growth. It must be understood that despite the very
narrow tolerances found in most plants to changes in temperature, some will; however, grow
well in widely contrasting regimes of heat availability. Temperature limitations of non-tropical
species derive from the need of these plants for a considerable winter chilling during the first
phase of growth of many meso-thermals and micro-thermal plants.
Humidity and Moisture: Water is essential not only to the maintenance of many physiological and
chemical processes within organisms but also as a carrier of their nutrient food supply in solution.
Water is taken into green plants largely through root hairs and lost through transpiration in the leaves
and barks. Complex mechanisms are required to aid its transportation through the plant and these
must be extremely efficient in the case of vary tall trees.

Usually, the initial intake of water into plant roots is achieved through:
 Imbibitions: in which it is drawn into cell walls and then into protoplasms through the
natural attraction of solid substances for liquids; or through.
 Passive Absorption: which takes place when usually high transpiration rates prevail up
in the leaves, in which case root cells are passively subject to a massive inflow of water,
induced by the direct demands of transpiration from above; or through.
 Osmosis: involving the diffusion of watery substances from areas of high to low
concentration.

25
Once admitted into plant systems, water is then drawn upwards through stems, stimulated by the
difference in vapor pressure (the pressure that water vapor exerts in the atmosphere) between leaf
surfaces and root hairs. This is referred to as the diffusion pressure gradient, and at times, can
reach very great proportions.
Field capacity-the point reached by the levels of the soil water beyond which no more can be
absorbed and for also long as this condition remains, all water reaching the ground surface from
precipitation will be removed into through runoff (floods or evaporation).
Transpiration: is the loss of water from plant leaves. Water exits the leaf through stomata. The
rate of transpiration depends on air temperature and solar radiation. As pointed out earlier,
transpiration is a cooling process for plants when temperatures or incident light rise too high and
cause heating of the plant.
Transpiration may be effected in three ways from plants:

 Water can be evaporated directly from moist membranes into the atmosphere through the
cuticle in a process termed cuticular or direct transpiration, which together guttation
accounts for up to 10% of the loss of water.
 In relatively few plants, water may be lost in liquid form through injured stem or
hybothodes by means of guttation.
 Stomata transpiration in which moisture is defused through cuticular or stomatal pores
within leaf surfaces.
On the basis of tolerance to water, plants, for example, can be broadly classified into:
Hydrophytes: moisture loving plants. They can have their roots in water or are present in soil
with above normal quantities of water within it.
Xerophytes: plants adapted to drought conditions. They are able to withstand long periods and
even years of atmospheric and soil drought by means of specific physiological and
morphological adaptations, some of which are the following:
 Storing water in stems or leaves (e.g. cactus)
 Limiting the growth period (e.g. Perennial grasses)
 Developing extensive and long root systems to reach deep soil water (e.g. Mesquite)
 Widely spacing to increase the supply of water (e.g. the creosote bush)

 Postponement of the permanent wilting phase by decreasing transpiration by developing

grey pigmentation in the leaves, or possessing thorny leaves, or leaves with hard-
cuticularized layer.
Mesophytes: show a wide range of adaptation to life in environments, which are neither too wet
nor too dry and form a group, which include most of the plant species to be found in terrestrial
ecosystems.

26
Wind: Strong and persistent winds can restrict growth within ecosystems either by means of
abrasive action and mechanical injury or through altering the rates of transpiration or the
effective temperature.
On high mountain ridges or in exposed situations at high latitudes, where wind effects may
induce not only physiological drought, but also an above normal degree of cold penetration into
plant tissues (Wind-chill), plants may eventually be killed off completely (wind kill) or restricted
to much lower altitudes or the sheltered valleys than would usually be the case. In coastal areas,
due to strong winds and salt spray there is wind-beveling (a process that smoothly moulds the top
of shrub or tree canopies at their upper limits as they rise away from windward shores.
2. Topographic Influences:
The three major topographic influences, which may sometimes act as limiting factors, are
altitude, aspect and relative steepness of slope.
Altitude: refers to the height or elevation of land in reference to mean sea level. Generally,
airtemperature decreases and rainfall increases, at least to a certain height, with an increase in
altitude. Those changes of temperature and rainfall conditions result in the occurrence of
different zones of climate at different altitudes along the slopes of highlands. Moreover,
mountains act as major barriers to the spread of organisms as well as defined lines or division
between regions of broadly dissimilar climates and ecosystems on different sides.
Aspect: refers to the face of the slope of land in relation to the sun. Local variations in aspect
also give rise to some restrictions on plant growth in mountain and hilly regions of the mid and
high latitudes, where the angle of incidence of the solar radiation is relatively low, especially
during the winter months. Because of this, the intensity, quality and duration of insulation in
these areas may be dissimilar on different sides of certain valleys as to give rise to major
alterations in the general vegetation pattern. Usually the sun facing slopes can support more
diverse communities.
Slope: refers to the gradient or degree of steepness of the land. On occasions, the relative
steepness of slope is also important. Its importance is in its effect on drainage and runoff and
consequently upon the depth of soil as well as the water and nutrient content of the soil.

As a general rule, steeper slopes are, therefore, drier than more gentle ones, so that the
vegetation communities developed upon them can be expected to be of a more xerophytic
nature than elsewhere.
3. The Influence of Soil
Soil may be defined as a natural body, developed in profile form from a variable mixture of
broken and weathered minerals and decaying organic matter, which covers the Earth in a thin
layer and which supplies, when containing the proper amounts of air and water, mechanical
support and substances necessary for plant growth.

27
The influence of soil upon plant distribution is both know and appreciated, but little is known of
the effects of soils upon animal life. Although the porosity and thickness of soil may influence
plant growth, the most important property affecting the distribution of plants is probably the
chemical composition of the soil.
Soil micro organisms often play a significance role in plant soil relationship. For example, there
is an intimate relationship between certain bacteria and leguminous plant; these bacteria living in
nodules on the roots of legumes undertake nitrogen fixation and make the nitrogen, needed by
the plants, readily available. Such bacterial cannot tolerate a soil which is strongly acid. In
contrast, mycorrhizal fungi, which perform a similar sort of function for many other types of
plants, require an acid soil.
Animals, like plants, require a variety of chemicals, most of which are obtained indirectly
through plants on which they feed. Even where an animal appears to be restricted to a particular
kind of soil, it is rather probable that the restriction is a reflection of the nature of the plant cover
rather than a specific relationship with the soil, although it is possible to see a clear association
between animals and soil in some cases. E.g. snails, which require lime for their shells, are prone
to occur in limestone area but are noticeable absent from acidic bog land and marsh were lime is
lacking.
The Zonal soils, so named because of their affinities with the major latitudinal based divisions of
climate on the Earth's surface, have their responses to these through the development of stratified
vertical layers or horizons, three of which may usually be detected: an A- horizon which is
greatly influenced by climate and surface weathering processes: a lower C–horizon often
consisting of only slightly weathered fragment of the underlying rock; and an intermediate B–
horizon that may show characteristics of both A and C layers. The overall soil structure as
represented by the horizons is termed the soil profile.
In humid climates, leaching gives rise to an infertile A-horizon, which is often extremely acidic
(and if in sufficient magnitude may lead to an excessively white or bleached sub- horizon); the
B-horizon is filled with accumulation of leached minerals while the C-horizon is normally little
affected.
In semi-arid and light rainfall grassland regions of the middle latitudes, where evapo-
transpiration exceeds precipitation and the year round movement of nutrients and minerals in soil
solution is predominantly upward through capillary action and thus fertile elements tend to
accumulate in an A-horizon, so creating a rich, black, neutral humus soil known as chernozem,
which encourages the growth of grass and its roots; in turn, the decaying grass eventually adds
more organically derived nutrients to the A-horizon, increasing its fertility still further. Thus, the
A-horizon becomes gradually so great that the B-horizon is reduced in scale; while the C-horizon
is generally little affected by these processes.
Taken as a whole the zonal soil group falls into two major overriding divisions:
Pedalfers: soils that are characterized by heavy leaching. They are poor in soluble minerals, but
rich in sesquioxides of iron and aluminum. They are acidic and infertile. They are common in
humid and mainly forested areas.

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Pedocals: found mainly in arid and semi-arid regions, which are characterized by the presence of
calcium in relatively large quantities. There is always a predominantly upward movement of
soluble nutrients through the capillary action of water. Such soils are rich in lime in their upper
layers and alkaline in nature. They are generally fertile.

3. Geological Factors
Wagener, suggested that land areas were originally linked together in a great southern land mass
or protocontinent, called by him -“Gondwanaland’’, which subsequently split up into pieces
which drifted apart. Most vertebrates that live today belong to groups that arose after the
Jurassic (i.e. the geological period when drift is commonly thought to have taken place), and
zoogeographers have therefore concerned themselves but little with problems of continental drift.
The higher plants on average are much older than the higher animals, and phytogeography have
often accepted the drift theory with gratitude. Not only would drift explain some minor puzzles
of plant geography (for example, the amphi-Atlantic and some “Tropical” patterns of
discontinuous distribution): it would also throw considerable light on two major problems:
1. The respective floras of Australia and the Cape kingdom are far more alike than would be
exceptive from the great distance that separates the two regions,
2. The respective floras of Australia and New Guinea are far more different than would be
anticipated from the proximity of the two, even granting the climatic differences.

4. Evolution Factors
The distribution of a species or group of organisms is influenced by the time and place of its
organ. Not all the plants and animals which have evolved during the geological period have
survived; many species died out as a result of geological and climatic changes, and competition
from other species, etc. The age of a group, however is of some significance in the extent of its
present geological range. It may be said that evolutionary factors are responsible in part for
present – day distributions.

4.3 Population Interactions

It is already mentioned in the previous sections that population growth could be encouraged or
inhibited due to the various forms of interactions that take place between two or more species
populations. Members of one population may eat members of the population, compete for food,
nutrients, space or light, excrete harmful wastes, or otherwise interfere with the other population.
Likewise, populations may help one another, the interaction being either one-way or reciprocal.
Therefore, population interactions often involve food, nutrients, space, light, waste materials, and
many other mutual (positive) interactions. Theoretically, populations of two species may interact
in basic ways that correspond to combinations of no significant interaction, growth, survival, or
other population attributes benefited and growth and other population attributes inhibited, thus,
resulting in nine important combinations.

 Neutralism: in which neither population is affected by association with the other.

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  Mutual Inhibition Competition type: in which both populations actively inhibit each
other.
 Competition Resource Use type: in which both populations actively inhibit each other.
 Ammensalism: in which one population is inhibited and the other not affected.
 Parasitism: in which one population adversely affects the other by direct attack, but is
nevertheless dependent on the other.
 Commensalisms: in which one population is benefited, but the other is not affected.
 Protocooperation: in which both populations benefit by the associations, but relations
are not obligatory.
 Mutualism: in which growth and survival of both populations is benefited and neither
can survive under natural conditions without the other.

4.3.1 Negative Interactions

Competition: One of the negative interactions that regulate population growth is competition.
Competition between organisms for the same commodity is to be found in every ecosystem
except in populations of low densities. Populations do not exist as isolated entities relating
themselves only to their physical environment, but interact extensively and continuously with
one another. This competition could be between plants, between animals or even between plants
and animals.

Predation: some authors believe that predation is an interaction between two species
populations, which result in negative effects on the growth, and survival of one of the
populations. Predators certainly kill and injure individuals, and depress in some measure at least
the growth rate of populations or reduce the total population size. However, this doesn't mean
that populations would be better of without predators. Without predators, prey populations would
crash and tremendously reduce their size due to the short supply of resources. This is to say that
predators may play a role in bringing down the number of their prey, but they may be ineffective
when the prey populations erupt or escape from density independent controls. That is, negative
interactions become less negative with time if the ecosystem is sufficiently stable and spatially
diverse to allow reciprocal adaptations. Therefore, where predators have long been associated
with their respective prey, the effect is moderate, neutral or even beneficial from the long term
view and that it is newly acquired predators that are most damaging.

Parasitism: When the resource relationship between two populations is more intimate and
individuals of the population utilizing the other as food actually locate themselves in or on
individuals of the one population, the interaction is called parasitism. The relationship between a
parasite and a host is essentially similar to that between predator and prey, the difference being
that many parasite populations can utilize individuals of the same host population, whereas, in
general, only a few predator individuals can utilize one prey individual.

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4.3.2 Positive Interactions

Associations between two species populations, which result in positive effects, are exceedingly
widespread and probably as important as competition, predation and parasitism in determining
the nature of populations. Positive interactions may be considered in an evolutionary series as
follows.
Commensalism: represents a simple type of positive interaction and perhaps represents the first
step toward the development of beneficial relations. Many of the commensals are not host-
specific but some apparently are found associated with only one species of host. E.g. Worms live
in the shell of crabs.
Protocooperation: is an interaction between two species populations in which both organisms
benefit by the association. E.g. Coelenterates and crabs
Mutualism or Obligate Symbiosis: is a relation in which both interacting species become
dependent of one another. Often quite diverse kinds of organisms with widely different
requirement are involved in this kind of interaction. E.g. Nitrogen fixing bacteria and legumes.

CHAPTER FIVE
5. World Biome
5.1 Meaning of Biome
A biome can be defined as a major regional community of plants and animals with similar life
forms and environmental conditions or it is simply a large area with similar flora, fauna, and
microorganisms. It is the largest geographical biotic unit, across which the interactions of
climate, soil and topography are sufficiently uniform to permit the development of similar life
forms or types of vegetation. It is named after the dominant type of life form, such as tropical
rain forest, grassland, except in aquatic ecosystems where the zones are used such as wetlands
and lakes. A single biome can be widely scattered about the planet.
As indicated earlier, the biosphere is divided into two general ecosystems: terrestrial (land) and
aquatic (water), each of which is further subdivided into smaller formations that we have already
termed biomes. An ecosystem is much smaller than a biome. Conversely, a biome can be defined
as various similar ecosystems throughout the World grouped together.

5.2 Terrestrial and Aquatic Biome

5.2.1 Terrestrial Biome

5.2.1.1 Terrestrial Ecosystem

The terrestrial ecosystem is further classified into four main biomes: Forest, grassland, tundra
and desert biomes. Each biome, such as forest or grassland, has vegetation with a characteristic

31
similar structure wherever it is found. There are also species of animals and decomposers in the
biome that have similar patterns of life. But the species of organisms are not the same and often
have very different evolutionary origins. The general similarity in the structure of the organisms
is a result of similarities of adaptation to the similar environmental factors that operate there.
Therefore, each biome shows remarkable variation in its species composition, even though it
may grossly appear similar externally.
I Forest Biomes: are found in undisturbed areas with moderate to high average annual
precipitation. They occur in areas where mean annual precipitation and temperatures and
conditions of soils and other factors permit the growth of predominantly various species of trees
and few lower forms of vegetation. Forests are made up of tree associations that grow close
together, with their canopies so interlocked that the light of the sun does not normally reach the
forest floor. Due to variations in temperature and precipitation both spatially and temporally,
forests also exhibit wide variations and are, thus, subdivided into various groups.
A Equatorial Forests
They occur in lowlands, coastal plains and valleys near the equator, mainly within the area
bounded by latitudes 10 degrees N and 10 degrees S. The most extensive Year-round high
temperatures characterize the biome, with a daily range exceeding the seasonal range. Day
lengths are essentially the same all year round. Temperature is on average 20-25° C and varies
little throughout the year: the average temperatures of the three warmest and three coldest
months do not differ by more than 5 degrees. Precipitation is almost evenly distributed
throughout the year, with annual rainfall exceeding 2000mm. There may be one or more
relatively dry months (with less than 100 mm rainfall) almost anywhere in the zone, but there is
no moisture stress in the region.

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 Terrestrial Biomes

Tree growth is luxuriant, with emergent trees to 60 m and canopy trees to 30m or more. These
are complex forests with as many as five moderately well defined layers- emergent, upper
canopy, lower canopy, under-story and shrub/herb.
 A layer/ emergent: the emergent. Widely spaced trees 100 to 120 feet tall and with
umbrella-shaped canopies extend above the general canopy of the forest.
 B layer/ upper canopy: a closed canopy of 80-foot trees. Light is readily available at the
top of this layer, but greatly reduced below it.
• C layer/ lower canopy: a closed canopy of 60-foot trees. There is little air movement in
this zone and consequently humidity is constantly high.
• Understory/sapling layer: Less than 3 percent of the light intercepted at the top of the
forest canopy passes to this layer. Arrested growth is characteristic of young trees capable
of a rapid surge of growth when a gap in canopy above them opens.
• Ground / shrub or herb layer: sparse plant growth. Less than 1 percent of the light that
strikes the top of the forest penetrates to the forest floor. In such darkness few green
plants grow. The canopy above also reduces moisture: one third of the precipitation is
intercepted before it reaches the ground. Most plant species are evergreen.
Animal life is highly diverse. Common characteristics found among mammals and birds (and
reptiles and amphibians, too). Animal diversity is also of the highest in the world, with almost
incomprehensible variety of insects. As in plants, animal species are never in pure stands, i.e.,
many species live together.

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B Tropical Dry Forest
Normally, is found in a broad zone extending between the equatorial rain forest and the savanna.
Here temperatures are high all year, but there is well-developed alternate long dry season and
short wet season. Soils are essentially like those of tropical rain forests with similar processes.
The deciduousness of most tree species is a significant difference from the tropical rain forest.
Many evergreen tree species of the rain forest become deciduous in this zone. Growing
conditions are not so optimal, thus the tree canopy is lower (10-30m) than in the rain forest and
the trees are less dense where drought is more extreme. The undergrowth is often dense and
tangled because of greater light penetration.

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Species diversity is high on a world scale, but most of the taxonomic groups in the dry forest are
less diverse than in the rain forest. Dry forest is important as habitat for migratory birds in their
non-breeding season (Central America, India). Trees have thicker bark (anti-fire adaptation),
thicker and smaller leaves (anti-desiccations adaptation), thorns (anti-herbivore adaptation),
longer roots (to reach deeper water table), and other features along a gradient toward the well-
developed drought adaptations of woody plants of the savanna and desert zones. With more
space between trees, larger mammals are more prominent in the environment.

The high productivity during the rainy season, coupled relief from rains during the dry season,
makes this a favorable environment for humans and stock, so much of the zone has been cleared
and developed for pastureland as well as agriculture.

C Mediterranean Shrub Lands

Occur roughly between 30° and 40° latitude on the west coasts of continents, where offshore
there are cold ocean currents. Each region in which the Mediterranean scrublands and woodlands
occur is island-like in character and thus there is frequently a high degree of endemism. The
Mediterranean Climate is unique in that the wet season coincides with the low sun or winter
period. Summers are dry.

The Mediterranean Climate is unique in that the wet season coincides with the low sun or winter
period. Summers are dry. Temperatures are those of the subtropics moderated by maritime
influence and fogs associated with the cold ocean currents. The result is a very limited, but
predictable, growing season when there is both sufficient soil moisture and adequately warm
temperatures. Many plants are adapted to withstand drought.

Shrubs characterize the Mediterranean biome. In most regions these shrubs are evergreen and
have small, leathery (sclerophyllous) leaves with thick cuticles. Sometimes the leaves are so
reduced as to appear needle-like. Many typical members of the shrub flora are aromatic (for
example, sage, rosemary, thyme, and oregano) and contain highly flammable oils.

Humans especially through the use of fire and the grazing of livestock have long impacted
Mediterranean regions. The area was formerly forested with live oaks, pines, cedars, wild carob

35
and wild olive. The shrub lands of California, likewise, are believed much more extensive today
than before aboriginal burning and Spanish livestock grazing. Much of the area is now disturbed
due to settlement, cultivation and grazing.

D Temperate Broadleaf Deciduous Forest

The Temperate Broadleaf Deciduous Forest occurs in three major, disjunctive expressions in
western and central Europe, eastern Asia, including Korea and Japan, and eastern North
America. The region is characterized by warm summers and cold winters, with precipitation
often spread throughout the year. Snow is common in the northern part of the zone but decreases
to the south end of it. The non-growing season is due to temperature-induced drought during the
cold winters.

These forests are composed primarily of deciduous trees, which shed their leaves each fall and
grow a new complement each spring. With a decrease in latitude in this forest zone, more and
more evergreen broadleaf tree species appear. The forest is layered, with one or two tree layers, a
shrub layer and herb layer. These forests are relatively complex structurally; some of them
support a great diversity of plant species, which in turn provide both food and space resources
for a great diversity of animals. Each major forest type supports its own assemblage of plant and
animal species, and conifer stands in particular provide otherwise broadleaf forests with a quite
different physiognomy, thus with distinct floras and faunas to augment diversity on a local basis.

Human populations are quite high in this zone (which includes many of world's large cites) fairly
pleasant climatically and very productive of harvestable plant and animal life. Because the soil is
excellent for agriculture, much of it has been cleared for a very long time all over the world for
this purpose. In addition, hard wood trees are valuable for timber, so these forests were severely
altered for thousands of years even before extensive farming. In some areas, they are now
growing back in second-growth stands of many of same tree species. Many fire-climax pine
forests are succeeding in to deciduous forests where protected from fires by humans.

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E Boreal or Taiga Forests

The boreal forest or the northern coniferous forest, often referred to as the taiga, is restricted to
the continents of Eurasia and North America. It is circumpolar in distribution. It exists as a
nearly continuous belt of coniferous trees across formerly glaciated areas and areas of patchy
permafrost on both continents. In North America, it extends approximately from the Arctic

Circle in the west and 55o N in the east to as far south as 450N in the eastern part of the
continent. In the western part of North America, the taiga extends much further south as montane
and tall coniferous forest. In Eurasia, the boreal forests extend from the tundra southwards to

roughly 600N in the European part and to roughly 50 0N in eastern Asia, although there are also
here montane extensions and transitional forests extending much further south. The low
temperatures inhibit bacterial and fungal action, so the decomposition rate is low and leaf litter
relatively deep.

II Grasslands

Grasslands are characterized as lands dominated by grasses rather than large shrubs or trees.
There are two main divisions of grasslands: tropical grasslands, called savannas, and temperate
grasslands.

A Savanna: Savannas or Tropical grasslands are associated with the tropical wet and dry
climate type, but they are not generally considered to be a climatic climax. The savanna actually
encompasses a broad spectrum of vegetation types from pure grasses and forbs at one end
through trees and shrubs at variable densities to thorn bush at the other end, which in turn grades
to tropical dry forests in areas of higher rainfall. Tree growth is controlled not only by rainfall,
but also by sol type. Large areas of hardpan soils allow no trees to penetrate except through
cracks, and the cracks determine tree distribution. Tree growth is also often controlled by the
nearness of the water table, with trees always along water bodies, grading into gallery forests,
which in turn may be comparable to tropical dry forests or tropical rain forests. Seasonality is
much pronounced, with a flush of grass growth and the appearance of many annual forbs at the
beginning of the rains. Savanna soils are often reddish, acid latosols, as in the tropical
rainforests, but there may be gray to reddish calcareous soils also, especially in drier areas.

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B Temperate Grasslands

Located in the interior of the continent of Eurasia North America, South America and Southern
Africa, far removed from maritime influence. They are found between the temperate forests and
deserts. These grasslands have hot summers and cold winters. The temperature range is very
large over the course of the year. Rainfall is moderate and usually occurs in the late spring and
early summer. The soil of the temperate grasslands from the growth and decay of deep, many-
branched grass roots. The rotted roots hold the soil together and provide a food source for living
plants. This fertile soil is called chernozem, soil that is more of alkaline nature because net water
movement within it has been upward, carrying calcium with it, which precipitates as calcium
carbonate. This zone is largely dominated by grasses.

As in the savanna, seasonal drought and occasional fires are very important to biodiversity. The
seasonal drought, occasional fires, and grazing by large mammals all prevent woody shrubs and
trees from invading and becoming established. However, a few trees grow among the grasses.
Plant and animal diversity is rather low in this structurally simple, temperate climate. Southern-
hemisphere grasslands adjacent to tropical forests and savannas may have higher animal
diversity than those in the northern hemisphere.

C Desert Scrubs

Develop under four distinct geographic conditions:

 Under zones of high atmospheric pressure associated with the subtropics and centered
near 30° latitude. Air descending from the upper atmosphere at these latitudes causes
evaporation to exceed precipitation. Much of the Sahara and the Australian desert can be
associated with this phenomenon.
 West coasts of continents between 20° and 30° latitude where prevailing winds are
easterly and prevent moist air from coming onto the west coast. Cold ocean currents also
occur in these locations and moisture in the sea air condenses as fog along the shore.
 Rain shadows of high mountain ranges where air masses are forced over mountains and
down slope, warming and their capacity for holding water vapor increasing. Evaporation

38
 exceeds precipitation and an arid environment or rain shadow is created on the leeward
side.
 Interiors of continents where usually, in combination with the rain shadow effect,
distance from a major source of moist air results in dry climates in the interior of a
landmass.

Desert climates are those, which average less than 250mm of precipitation a year. Potential
evaporation exceeds precipitation in the annual water budget. Furthermore, rainfall is highly
localized and relatively unpredictable in terms of when it will occur, although usually there are
seasons of highest probability for precipitation. Temperatures are also variable. Winters are cool
to cold: "hot deserts" rarely experience frost; "cold deserts" may have prolonged periods of
below freezing temperatures and snowfall.

Desert areas are rarely devoid of life. Instead, they abound with wonderfully adapted plants and
animals that have evolved various mechanisms for tolerating or avoiding the extremes of aridity
and temperature that might be encountered in their environment. Shrubs are the dominant growth
form of deserts. They may be evergreen or deciduous; typically have small leaves; and
frequently have spines or thorns and/or aromatic oils. Shallow but extensive root systems procure
rainwater from well beyond the canopy of the shrub whenever it does rain. These are the true
xerophytes adapted to tolerate extreme drought. They form an open canopy and, except after
rains when annuals may cover the desert floor, the ground between shrubs is bare of vegetative
growth.

Water is not entirely lacking in the desert environment and several other growth forms represent
strategies to reach water or to store water:

 Phreatophytes are plants with long taproots that may extend downward to tap ground
water supplies. Especially along intermittent streams or under dunes, underground water
may be readily available.
 Succulents store water during rains for use during the intervening dry spells. Different
species store water in different parts of the plant; hence we can recognize stem
succulents, leaf succulents, root succulents, and fruit succulents. Many plant families

39
 have members that evolved succulence. Most prominent among stem succulents are the
cactus, euphorbia and agaves species;
 Another growth form adapted to desert conditions is the ephemeral. This is especially
short-lived annual forb that completes its life cycle in two-three weeks. The seeds are
encased in a waterproof coating that prevents desiccation for years if necessary. These
plants essentially avoid drought by occurring as seeds most of the time.
 Perennial forbs with underground bulbs store nutrients and water in underground tissues
and also remain dormant most of the year. They can sprout rapidly after sufficient rains
and replenish their underground stores.
 Like the plants, the animals of the desert have evolved an array of strategies for dealing
with aridity. They exhibit many physiological and anatomical adaptations to drought
including:
 Ability to go without free water (their metabolic water is obtained entirely from plants).
 Many species are active only at night (or early and late in the day in diurnal species),
when the humidity is higher and the temperature lower.

With grazing and farming, much soil is lost to wind erosion on the habitable edges of large desert
areas, particularly in Africa, where deserts are expanding markedly ("desertification"). In some
desert soils are often very favorable for plant growth if water is provided.

Desert biomes can be classified according to several characteristic deserts: Hot and Dry,
Semiarid, Coastal, and Cold.

D The Tundra

The word tundra derives from the Finnistundra is the simplest biome in terms of species
composition and food chains. It is restricted to the high latitudes of the northern hemisphere in a
belt around the Arctic Ocean. Many of its species, both plant and animal, have circumpolar
distribution areas.

The high latitude conditions of climate type that impact life in this biome include:

• Extremely short growing season (6 to 10 weeks)

40
 • Long, cold, dark winters (6 to 10 months with me
• Low precipitation, coupled with strong, drying winds. Snowfall is actually advantageous
to plant and animal life as it provides an insulating layer on the ground surface.
Permafrost, not cold temperatures per se, are generally believed to be what prevents tree
growth
• Furthermore, freeze-thaw activity, a thin active layer, and solifluction during the warmer
month contribute to strong controls on vegetation patterns and create a mosaic of
microhabitats and plant communities.

E Montane Ecosystems:

Mountain is quite variable depending on latitude and altitude. Climates are always cooler with
increased elevation and usually wetter than lowland environments of the same area; there is
increased cloud cover, especially up to the 1-2,000 meter range. With still higher elevation, the
climate is still cooler but usually drier than at middle elevations. Climate may be extremely
severe at very high elevations, with permanent snow and ice and very little life.

Mountain soils are very variable, depending on the parent rock, which is often exposed at higher
elevations. There are always changes in vegetation (often in discrete zones) with elevation
change up the mountains. With ascent up higher mountains, the upper limits of forests, trees, and
plant life are reached one after another with successively higher elevations.

Diversity generally decreases with elevation just as it does with latitude. The altitudinal
replacement of plant and animal species with a change in elevation promotes moderate diversity
in most mountainous areas. Flora and fauna in north-temperate montane regions are usually
derived from the lowland biota farther north, whereas in tropical mountains they are usually
derived from the adjacent tropical lowlands. Thus there are interesting convergences between
unrelated tropical and temperate alpine species. Important animal groups include sheep and
goats, well adapted for precipitous terrain, and birds of prey, with good flying conditions and
abundant small-mammal prey. Plant associations of mountainous areas have generally been
disturbed less than those of their lowland equivalents because of the relative difficulty of human
access to the higher elevations.

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F Islands

Islands have variable climates, depending on the location, but temperature extremes are usually
less than on the mainland because of the ameliorating effects of the ocean. Climates range from
very wet to very dry depending on the wind regime and the presence of mountains, although the
humidity is usually relatively high because of the proximity of the ocean even on islands that are
dry because of their low rainfall. Seasonality is often less well defined than on the adjacent
mainland.

Sufficiently large islands may have the full complement of bioclimatic zones appropriate for
their latitude. On small islands, plant associations may be limited to the beach or strand
vegetation types characteristic of the region.

Species diversity is always lower on islands than in comparable mainland environments.

Extinction rates are dependent to some degree on island size and are relatively high on small
islands because many populations are small. Immigration rates are dependent on distance from
mainland or other island sources, with the probability of survival upon immigration dependent on
presence of appropriate habitat, shelter, and food and abundance of predators. Diversity is
somewhat increased in archipelagos (as opposed to single islands) because of speciation and
recolonization opportunities. Oceanic islands exhibit a high degree of endemism, often with
substantial adaptive radiation in relatively few groups.

Islands, especially small ones, are very vulnerable to the negative effects of humans; human-
caused extinction is much more likely there than on the mainland. Total habitat destruction is
likely in circumscribed areas with human population growth. Many island plants and animals
evolved in the absence of predators, thus they have no resistance to human hunters and
introduced predators or competitors.

5.2.2 Aquatic Ecosystems

It is believed that life began in the ocean, possibly around deep volcanic vents in the ocean floor,
or perhaps in warm, shallow seas. The chemicals of life move easily in water, and water
environments support many forms of animals and plants. Aquatic life is dependent on access to

42
sunlight and nourishing chemicals that are dissolved in the water. Some of these chemicals are
carried into the ocean from the land; some are reclaimed from the decaying bodies of dead
animals and plants. The availability of these elements limits the numbers of life forms that live in
different areas.

Light is an important factor in determining the makeup of aquatic populations. In some waters,
such as muddy rivers, light may barely penetrate below the surface of the water: in the deep,
clear waters of the ocean; it may go down to 100 meters. However, the light (and the nutrients) is
most abundant in the first meter of water below the surface. Plants can only grow where they
have light.

I Freshwater Ecosystems

Freshwater is defined as having a low salt concentration-usually less than 1%. Plants and animals
in freshwater regions are adjusted to the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (i.e., ocean). Freshwater Aquatic Biomes have close ties to their
surrounding terrestrial biomes. Runoff of water from land creates streams and rivers, and where
runoff in trapped, ponds and lakes are formed. Also, the characteristics of a freshwater biome are
influenced by the pattern and speed of water flow, as well as the climate to which the biome is
exposed. There are different types of freshwater regions: ponds and lakes, streams and rivers,
and wetlands. The following sections describe the characteristics of these three freshwater zones.

A Ponds and Lakes

Range in size from just a few square meters to thousands of square kilometers. Many ponds are
seasonal; lasting just a couple of months (such as sessile pools) while lakes may exist for
hundreds of years or more. Ponds and lakes may have limited species diversity since they are
often isolated from one another and from other water sources like rivers and oceans. Lakes and
ponds are divided into three different “zones” which are usually determined by depth and
distance from the shoreline.

The topmost zone near the shore of a lake or pond is the littoral zone. This zone is the warmest
since it is shallow and can absorb more of the Sun’s heat. It sustains a fairly diverse community,

43
which can include several species of algae, rooted and floating aquatic plants, grazing snails,
clams, insects, crustaceans, fish, and amphibians. In the case of the insects, such as dragonflies
and midges, only the egg and larvae stages are found in this zone. The vegetation and animals
living in the littoral zone are food for other creatures such as turtles, snakes, and ducks.

The near-surface open water surrounded by the littoral zone is the limnetic zone. The limnetic
zone is well lighted (like the littoral zone) and is dominated by plankton, both phytoplankton and
zooplankton. A variety of freshwater fish also occupy this zone.

B Streams and Rivers

These are bodies of flowing water moving in one direction. The characteristics of a river or
stream change during the journey from the source to the mouth. The temperature is cooler at the
source than it is at the mouth. The water is also clearer, has higher oxygen levels, and freshwater
fish such as trout and heterotrophs can be found there. Towards the middle part of the
stream/river, the width increases, as does species diversity-numerous aquatic green plants and
algae can be found. Toward the mouth of the river/stream, the water becomes murky from all the
sediments that it has picked up upstream, decreasing the amount of light that can penetrate
through the water. Since there is less light, there is less diversity of flora, and because of the
lower oxygen levels, fish that require less oxygen can be found.

C Wetlands: are areas of standing water that support aquatic plants. Marshes, swamps, and
bogs are all considered wetlands. Plant species adapted to the very moist and humid conditions
are called hydrophytes. Wetlands have the highest species diversity of all ecosystems. Many
species of amphibians, reptiles, birds (such as ducks and waders), and furbearers can be found in
the wetlands. Wetlands are not considered freshwater ecosystems as there are some, such as salt
marshes, that have high salt concentrations-these support different species of animals, such as
shrimp, shellfish, and various grasses.

II Marine Biomes

Marine regions cover about three-fourths of the Earth’s surface and include oceans, coral reefs,
and estuaries. Marine algae supply much of the world’s oxygen supply and take in a huge

44
amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide. The evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for
the land.

A Oceans

Oceans are the largest of all the ecosystems. Over 70 percent of the Earth's surface is covered by
water. In fact, when seen from space, our Earth looks blue, because of the large bodies of water,
which cover most of it. Although we speak of separate oceans, the world is really covered by one
huge ocean in which the continents are islands! There are four main oceans: the pacific, Atlantic,
Indian, and Arctic.

Like ponds and lakes, the oceans are separated into different zones: inter-tidal, pelagic, abyssal,
and benthic. All four zones have a great diversity of species. Some say that the ocean contains
the richest diversity of species even though it contains fewer species than there are on land. The
intertidal zone is where the ocean meets the land-sometimes it is submerged and at other times
exposed, as waves and tides come in and out. Because of this, the communities are constantly
changing. On rocky coasts, the zone is stratified vertically. Where only the highest tides reach,
there are only a few species of algae and mollusks. In those areas usually submerged during high
tide, there is a more diverse array of algae and small animals such as herbivorous snails, crabs,
sea stars, and small fish. At the bottom of the intertidal zone, this is only exposed during the
lowest tides, many invertebrates, fishes, and seaweed can be found.

The pelagic zone includes those waters further from the land, basically the open ocean. The
pelagic zone is generally cold though it is hard to give a general temperature range since, just
like ponds and lakes; there is thermal stratification with a constant mixing of warm and cold
ocean currents. The flora in the pelagic zone includes surface seaweeds. The fauna include many
species of fish and some mammals, such as whales and dolphins. Many feed on the abundant
plankton.

The benthic zone is the area below the pelagic zone, but does not include the very deepest parts
of the ocean. The bottom of the zone consists of sand, slit, and/or dead organisms. Here
temperature decreases as depth increases toward the abyssal zone, since light cannot penetrate

45
through the deeper water. Flora are represented primarily by seaweed while the fauna, since it is
very nutrient-rich, include all sorts of bacteria, fungi, sponges, worms, sea stars, and fish.

The deep ocean is the abyssal zone. The water in this region is very cold, highly pressured, high
in oxygen content, but low in nutritional content. The abyssal zone supports many species of
invertebrates and fish. Mid-ocean ridges (spreading zones between tectonic plates), often with
hydrothermal vents, are found in the abyssal zones along the ocean floors. Chemosynthetic
bacteria thrive near these vents because of the large amounts of hydrogen sulfide and other
minerals they emit.

B Coral Reefs

Coral reefs are widely distributed in warm shallow waters. They can be found as barriers along
continents (e.g., the Great Barrier Reef off Australia), fringing islands, and atolls. Naturally, the
dominant organisms in coral reefs are corals. Corals are interesting since they consist of both
algae and tissues of animal polyp. Since reef waters tend to be nutritionally poor, corals obtain
nutrients through the algae via photosynthesis and also by extending tentacles to obtain plankton
from the water. Besides corals, the fauna include several species of microorganisms,
invertebrates, fish, sea urchins, octopuses, and sea stars.

C Estuaries

Estuaries are areas where freshwater streams or rivers merge with the ocean. This mixing of
waters with such different salt concentrations creates a very interesting and unique ecosystem.
Micro-flora like algae, and macro-flora, such as seaweeds, marsh grasses, and mangrove trees
(only in the tropics), can be found here. Estuaries support a diverse fauna, including a variety of
worms, oysters, crabs, and waterfowl.

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 CHAPTER SIX

6. ECOSYSTEM CHANGES AND BIODIVERSITY

6.1. Ecosystem Changes

One of the simplest and most fundamental observations that one can make with regards to
ecosystems is that there is geographic variation in the distributions of the species of organisms of
the systems. The species of organisms within the different ecosystems vary in response to spatial
and temporal variations. This shows that living things are closely related to their environment,
both the physical and biotic. Any change in one part of an environment causes a ripple effect of
change in through other parts of the environment. To understand the influences the environment
on living organisms and their responses to these influences, it is important here to see, at least, in
general terms concepts related to evolution and adaptations of organisms within different
settings.

6.2. Evolution and Adaptation

Evolution refers to a complex process by which the characteristics of living organisms change
over many generations as traits are passed from one generation to the next. It addresses how,
over the course of time, various plant and animal species branch off to become entirely new
species, and how different species are related through complicated family trees that span millions
of years. In other words evolution describes the process by which species come to possess
genetic adaptations to their environment. Natural selection is the process by which species
evolve.

Natural selection works through environmental conditions, which cause some physical
characteristics of a species to become more pronounced than others: in times of environmental
change, minor variations between individuals within a species may allow some individuals to
survive, while others die off. The minor variations that allowed survival will become
increasingly pronounced over successive generations, as more and more individuals possessing
those variations survive, and those that lack the variations die off. If the environment does not

47
change again, the variations will become so significant over many generations that the species no
longer resembles its original form. If it is different enough, it is a new species altogether.

A central, and historically controversial, component of evolutionary theory is that all living
organisms, from microscopic bacteria to plants, insects, birds, and mammals, share a common
ancestor. Species that are closely related share a recent common ancestor, while distantly related
species have a common ancestor further in the past. Evolutionary biologists attempt to determine
the history of lineages as they diverge and how differences in characteristics developed over
time.

6.2.1. Natural Selection

The mechanism by which species of organisms evolve is called natural selection. Natural
selection is tied to traits that organisms pass from one generation to the next. Such traits are
controlled by specific bits of biochemical instructions known as genes. Genes are composed of
individual segments of the long, coiled molecule called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). They
direct the synthesis of proteins, which serve as building blocks of cells, control chemical
reactions, and transport materials to and from cells.

Evolutionary change takes place in populations over the course of many generations. All
populations contain some variations in traits. In interbreeding populations, the genes are
rearranged in each generation, a process termed recombination. Although the combinations of
genes in individuals change with each new generation, the gene frequency, or ratio of different
alleles in the entire population, remains relatively constant if no evolutionary forces act on the
population. One such force is the introduction of new genes into the genetic material of the
population, or gene pool.

Genes themselves are constantly being modified through a process called mutation—a change in
the structure of the DNA in an individual’s cells. Mutations can occur during replication, the
process in which a cell splits itself into two identical copies known as daughter cells. Normally
each daughter cell receives an exact copy of the DNA from the parent cell. Occasionally,
however, errors occur, resulting in a change in the gene. Such a change may affect the protein
that the gene produces and, ultimately, change an individual’s traits. While some mutations occur

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spontaneously, others are caused by factors in the environment, known as mutagens. Examples
of mutagens that affect human DNA include ultraviolet light, X rays, and various chemicals.

Natural selection only allows organisms to adapt to their current environment. Should
environmental conditions change, new traits may prevail. Moreover, natural selection does not
always favor a single version of a trait. In some cases, multiple versions of the same trait may
instill their carriers with equal evolutionary benefit. Nor does natural selection always favor
change. If environmental conditions so dictate, natural selection maintains the status quo by
eliminating extreme versions of a particular trait from the population.

Natural selection only allows organisms to adapt to their current environment. Should
environmental conditions change, new traits may prevail. Moreover, natural selection does not
always favor a single version of a trait. In some cases, multiple versions of the same trait may
instill their carriers with equal evolutionary benefit. Nor does natural selection always favor
change. If environmental conditions so dictate, natural selection maintains the status quo by
eliminating extreme versions of a particular trait from the population. Often, shifts in
environmental conditions, such as climate change or the presence of a new disease or predator,
can push a population toward one extreme for a trait. In periods of prolonged cold temperatures,
for example, natural selection may favor larger animals because they are better able to withstand
extreme temperatures. This mode of natural selection, known as directional selection, is evident
in cheetahs. About 4 million years ago, cheetahs were more than twice as heavy as modern
cheetahs. But quicker, with warmer conditions, lighter members of the population had greater
reproductive success than did larger members of the population. Thus, over time, natural
selection favored smaller and smaller cheetahs.

6.2.2 Genetic Drift

Natural selection is not the only force that changes the ratio of alleles present in a population.
Sometimes the frequency of particular alleles may be altered drastically by chance alone. This
phenomenon, known as genetic drift, can cause the loss of an allele in a population, even if the
allele leads to greater evolutionary fitness. Conversely, genetic drift can cause an allele to

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become fixed in a population-that is, the allele can be found in every member of the population,
even if the allele decreases fitness.

6.2.3. Origin of New Species

The forces of natural selection and genetic drift continuously influence and change the
characteristics of a population. However, most often these forces are not sufficient to create an
entirely new species. Different species arise when, for one reason or another, members of a
population cease to interbreed. When something prevents populations from mating, they are said
to be reproductively isolated from one another. Two reproductively isolated populations cannot
randomly exchange genetic material with each other, and as a result, the groups diverge as they
evolve independently of one another. In this process, called speciation, the members of each
group become so different that they can no longer successfully interbreed. At this point, a new
species has formed.

Interbreeding normally continues if there is nothing to stop it. Anything that hinders
interbreeding is called an isolating mechanism. Geographic barriers, for example, isolate
populations, leading to the formation of entirely new species in a process called allopatric
speciation. Less frequently, mutations or subtle changes in behavior prevent individuals living in
close proximity from reproducing. This may lead to sympatric speciation, in which two distinct
subgroups of a population cease exchanging genetic material and evolve into two or more
distinct species.

In general for speciation to occur, a population must diverge and then be reproductively isolated.
Biologists usually recognize two types of speciation: Allopatric and sympatric.

Allopatric Speciation: When a physical barrier, such as a stretch of sea or a mountain range,
divides one population in to two or more populations. The separate populations eventually will
contain organisms that, if enough time has passed, will no longer be able to breed successfully
with one another. Most scientists think that allopatric speciation is the most common form of
speciation. Speciation caused by geographic isolating mechanisms, or allopatric speciation, is
evident in the many different populations of pupfish that live in the Death Valley region of

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California and Nevada. Geographic barriers can include mountain ranges, channels between
islands, wide rivers, and lava flows.

Sympatric Speciation In sympatric speciation, isolating mechanisms may be triggered by

differences in habitat, sexual reproduction, or heredity. Similar plants may fail to breed together
because their flowering seasons are different.

Sometimes two subpopulations of the same species do not produce offspring with one another,
even though they come into breeding contact. This may be due, for example, to reproductive
incongruities between two subpopulations that cause embryos to die before development and
birth. In other instances, if viable offspring are produced, reproductive isolation is still
maintained because the offspring are sterile. For example, asses and horses are capable of
mating, but their offspring are usually sterile. Both types of reproductive dysfunction occur when
the hereditary factors of the two groups have become incompatible in some way and cannot
combine to produce normal offspring.

Gradual Change: Speciation may occur even when no isolating mechanism is present. In this
case, a new species may form through the slow modification of a single group of organisms into
an entirely new group. The evolving population gradually changes over the course of generations
until the organisms at the end of the line appear very different from the first.

6.3. Biodiversity

Biological diversity or biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms: the different plants,
animals and microorganisms, the genes they contain, and the ecosystems they form. This living
wealth is the product of hundreds of millions of years of evolutionary history. The process of
evolution means that the pool of living diversity is dynamic: it increases when new genetic
variation is produced, a new species is created or a novel ecosystem formed; it decreases when
the genetic variation within a species decreases, a species becomes extinct or an ecosystem
complex is lost. The concept emphasizes the interrelated nature of the living world and its
processes.

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6.3.1. Types of Diversity

Diversity can be expressed in three ways.

Genetic Diversity: refers to the variation of genes within species. This covers genetic variation
between different populations or within a population. Nowadays, we can measure genetic
variation using a variety of DNA-based and other techniques. New genetic variation is produced
in populations of organisms that can reproduce sexually by recombination and in individuals by
gene and chromosome mutations.

Species Diversity refers to the variety of species. Aspects of species diversity can be measured
in a number of ways. Most of these ways can be classified into three groups of measurement:
species richness, species abundance and taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity.

Measures of species richness count the number of species in a defined area. Measures of species
abundance sample the relative numbers among species. A typical sample may contain several
very common species, a few less common species and numerous rare species. Measures of
species diversity that simplify information on species richness and relative abundance into a
single index are in extensive use. Another approach is to measure taxonomic or phylogenetic
diversity, which considers the genetic relationships between different groups of species. These
measures are based on analysis which results in a hierarchical classification usually represented
by a 'tree' that depicts the branching pattern which is thought to best represent the phylogenetic
evolution of the taxa concerned.

In addition, diversity in land ecosystems generally decreases with increasing altitude. Other
factors which are generally believed to influence diversity on land are rainfall patterns and
nutrient levels. In marine ecosystems, species richness tends to be concentrated on continental
shelves, though deep sea communities are also significant.

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Ecosystem Diversity

Ecosystem diversity encompasses the broad differences between ecosystem types, and the
diversity of habitats and ecological processes occurring within each ecosystem type. Different
physical settings favor very different communities of species.

Measuring changes in the extent of ecosystems is difficult, because there is no globally agreed
classification of ecosystems and boundaries are often variable and vague. Species contained
within a given ecosystem also vary over time. Some of the World’s richest habitats are tropical
moist forests. Although they cover only 7% of the World’s surface, these areas contain at least
50%, and possibly up to 90% of all plant and animal species. Isolated islands are often rich in
endemic species.

Ecosystems will fail if they do not remain in balance. No community can carry more organisms
than its food, water, and shelter can accommodate. Food and territory are often balanced by
natural phenomena such as fire, disease, and the number of predators. Each organism has its own
role to play. We have affected ecosystems in almost every way imaginable! Every time we walk
out in the wilderness or bulldoze land for a new construction, we are drastically altering an
ecosystem. We have disrupted the food chain, the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, and the water
cycle. Mining minerals also takes its toll on an ecosystem. We need to do our best not to interfere
in these ecosystems and let nature take its toll.

6.3.2. Current Distributions and Processes

Temporally, a large number of processes or events can cause change, but for sake of simplicity
they can be categorized roughly as either abrupt or gradual. Abrupt changes are generally
referred to as disturbances; these include things like wildfires, high winds, landslides, floods,
avalanches and the like. Their causes are usually external (exogenous) to the community-they are
natural processes occurring (mostly) independently of the natural processes of the community
(such as germination, growth, death, etc).

Such events can change vegetation structure and species composition very quickly and for long
time periods, and they can do so over large areas. Very few ecosystems are without some type of

53
disturbance as a regular and recurring part of the long term system dynamic. Fire and wind
disturbances are particularly common throughout many vegetation types worldwide. Fire is
particularly potent because of its ability to destroy not only living plants, but also the spores and
seeds representing the potential next generation, and because of fire's impact on faunal
populations and soil characteristics.

Temporal change at a slower pace is ubiquitous; it comprises the field of ecological succession.
Succession is the relatively gradual change in structure and composition that arises as the
vegetation itself modifies various environmental variables, including light, water and nutrient
levels over time. These modifications change the suite of species most adapted to grow, survive
and reproduce in an area, causing floristic changes.

On a broad scale, species diversity is not evenly distributed across the globe. The single most
obvious pattern in the global distribution of species is that overall species richness is
concentrated in equatorial regions and tends to decrease as one move from equatorial to Polar
Regions. In general, there are more species per unit area in the tropics than in temperate regions
and far more species in temperate regions than there are in Polar Regions. This is true for many
groups of animals and plants. Much of the tropical diversity is due to the greater predominance
of fruit-eating way of the greater number of insectivores, many of which are eating insects that in
turn feed on the fruits of the forest. So, diet appears to be the factor of diversity among animals,
but what about of plants? Plants show increasing diversity in equatorial regions, but they do not
vary in their diet as they all need sunshine energy for their photosynthesis.

Most scholars agree that the highest diversity in equatorial latitudes is related to be the prevailing
climate, which is hot, wet and relatively free from extreme seasonal variations. These suitable
climatic conditions allow higher productivity and a large mass of vegetation to develop, leading
to the formation of complex structure in the vegetation. Such complex structure of the vegetation
in turn has a strong influence on the animal life inhabiting the site. It forms the spatial
environment within which animals feed, move around, shelter, live and breeds.

The complex structure of vegetation even affects the climate on a local scale, influencing light
intensity, humidity and both the range and extremes of temperature. The complexity of

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microclimate is closely related to the complexity of structure in vegetation and, in general, the
more complex the structure of vegetation the more species of animal are able to make a living
there. In other words, the high plant biomass in the tropics leads to a greater spatial complexity
in the environment and this will lead to a greater potential for diversity in the living things that
occupy the region.

The diversity of life in the tropics in relation to the high latitudes can also be seen in historical
perspectives. It is generally accepted that the earth’s climate has been constantly changing.
Specially, during the last few millions of years the high latitudes were affected by the most
severe disruptions in the form of ice masses destroying almost all of the vegetation and animals.
On the other hand, equatorial latitudes were in a position to endure fewer disturbances than their
temperate counterparts and, to a certain degree, maintained themselves throughout the period of
stress and this is believed to have assisted them in the continued evolution and diversification.

6.3.2.1. Dispersal

Plants and animals disperse throughout the Earth and occupy habitats favorable for their
survival. Organisms can disperse, either actively, moving under their own power, or passively,
being carried by physical agents such as wind and water or by the aid of other organisms. Only a
few animals have the capacity to travel long distances under their own power. Of these, the fliers
such as many species of birds, bats and large insects (such as dragonflies, monarch flies and
beetles) have the greatest ability to long distance dispersal.

There are three pathways by which organisms may spread between different areas.

Corridor: This is the first and easiest pathway. Such pathways must include a wide variety of
habitats so that the majority of organisms found at either end of the corridors would find little
difficulty in traversing it. In other words, this kind of corridor a taxonomically balanced
assemblage of plants and animals from one large source area to another, so that both areas obtain
that are representative of the other. A corridor does not selectively discriminate against any form,
and must, therefore, provide an environment similar to those of the two source areas.

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Filters: are routes that are more restrictive than the corridor. They selectively block the passage
of contain forms while allowing those able to tolerate the conditions of the barrier to migrate
freely.

Sweepstakes Route: is completely surrounded by totally different environments so that it is

extremely difficult for any organisms to reach them such as islands isolated from land by wide
stretches of water, mountain peaks isolated caves, large and deep lakes. The chances of dispersal
from or to these areas are extremely low and are only possible to chance combinations of
favorable circumstances such as high winds or floating rafts of vegetation.

6.3.2.2. Distributions Patterns

The most pervasive feature of geographic distributions is the fact that they have limits. Habitat
occupation may be limited due to the inability for plants and animals to disperse throughout the
environment. No species is completely cosmopolitan, and most species are confined to restricted
areas such as a single continent or ocean. Some distributions are even more limited.

Continuous: Some existing patterns of distributions are continuous, the area occupied by the
group consisting of a single region or a number of regions which are closely adjacent to one
another.

Discontinuous or disjunct: is a pattern of distributions in which two or more closely related taxa
occur in widely separated regions but are absent in the intervening areas.

Some organisms restricted to single and isolated areas are called endemics to that area.
Endemism may be due to physical barriers to dispersion of faunas and floras, or the fact that they
have only recently evolved and have not yet had time to spread from their centers of origin. It is
important to note here that as time goes by such endemic organisms may undergo further
evolution until they become progressively different from their relatives in other areas and
develop into other species. In contrast to such narrow endemics are cosmopolitans, organisms
that are widely distributed throughout the world except the continent of Antarctica.

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It is the case most often that organisms separated by great physical barriers are usually quite
different, even though their physical environments may be the same. The physical characteristics
from one area to another may be identical yet they may have few organisms in common. For
instance, Mediterranean climates in Europe, Chile and California have no plants in common but
identical growth forms. Different desert areas of the world have also few if any plants in
common. However the growth forms are nearly identical. And Australia contains climates
similar to many other areas on earth. However the animals are quite different, e.g. no large
gazing ungulates.

Such phenomena are the result of convergent evolution - the evolution of similar structures in
unrelated organisms. They are similar because they are shaped by the similar environments, e.g.
the desert environment favors certain adaptations necessary to survive there. Such distribution
patterns reflect the fact that the species of each area had evolved in place from local species from
the surrounding areas.

6.3.2.3. Temporal Variations and Processes

Some aspects of the spatial gradient in diversity that we find over the surface of the Earth may
best be explained in terms of their persistence in time even if only as fragments. Such temporal
studies permit us to examine changes in species composition of a habitat over certain period of
time, both short and long. Changes of species diversity over periods of time are termed
successions, especially if they follow a predictable and directional course of development.

Succession is a natural change in the structure and species composition of a community. It can be
thought of as a series of changes in community structure and species composition. At its most
extreme, this sequence of succession starts on bare, uncolonized ground, which has never had
any vegetation growing on it before or in newly formed lakes. This is known as primary
succession. However, it is uncommon to find the early stages of primary succession today. Bare
areas are rare, but they may occur on sand dunes, the lava flows of volcanoes, new volcanic
islands, landslips and glacial debris left by melting glacier.

Most bare areas of land today are exposed areas because existing vegetation has been destroyed
by fire or covered with flood silt or volcanic or destroyed through clearance for agriculture or

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overgrazing. The sequences of vegetation developing on these previously vegetated and
disturbed areas are called secondary succession. The sequence of vegetation types, which occur
in successions, is called a sere.

Primary Succession: Where organisms colonize bare dry ground, the subsequent primary
succession is called a xerosere. Xerosere succession can occur on landslips and where valley
glaciers retreat to provide ground for such seres.

The End of Succession

The nature of the final community is understood to be well suited to the environment in the area,
in particular the climate, and was often called the climatic climax vegetation. The climax
vegetation is thought of as the most stable and the representative vegetation of the major climatic
regions of the world.

Human Influence on Succession:

Human interference for agricultural production has halted vegetation change or completely
destroyed the natural vegetation. The most obvious effect of farming practices are found on
arable land where the natural vegetation has been cleared and monocultures of crops are grown
instead. Such plants are usually only grown all around us.

6.4. Hotspots of biodiversity

In a world where conservation budgets are insufficient due to the large number of species
threatened with extinction, identifying conservation priorities is crucial. British Ecologist,
Norman Myers, defined the biodiversity hotspot concept in 1988 to address the dilemma that
conservationists face. Hotspots are regions that harbor a great diversity of endemic species and,
at the same time, have been significantly impacted and altered by human activities. Plant
diversity is the biological basis for hotspot designation.

To qualify as a hotspot a region must satisfy the following conditions:

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  Must support 1500 endemic plant species, 0.5% of the global total. Existing primary
vegetation is the basis for assessing human impact in a region,
 Must have lost more than 70% of its original habitat.

Plants have been used as qualifiers because they are the basis for diversity in other taxonomic
groups and are well known to researchers. Typically, the diversity of endemic vertebrates in
hotspot regions is also extraordinarily high. Thus hotspots are areas that are extremely rich in
species, have high endemism, and are under constant threat.

The hotspot concept targets regions where the threat is greatest to the greatest number of species
and allows conservationists to focus cost effective efforts there. The 25 biodiversity hotspots of
the world contain 44% of all plant species and 35% of all terrestrial vertebrate species in only
1.4% of the planet’s land area.

Generally island ecosystems are fragile and most of the species that have been lost to extinction
were island species. By definition, island species are no widespread. They are restricted to
islands of suitable habitat, whether on actual island or in an isolated part of continent. Once that
population is gone, the species is lost. They are also vulnerable because their evolutionary
history has only acquainted them with their usual neighbors, i.e. species that they have coevolved
with over long periods of time.

During the last five hundred years, many species were harvested to the last individual. Today the
fast growing human populations in the hotspots contribute to their deterioration by the following
actions:

 Introduction of exotic species

 Illegal trade endangered species
 Industrial logging
 Slash and burn agricultural practices
 Mining
 Construction of highways, dams, and oil wells

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The following is the list of identified biodiversity hotspots of the world:

1.Tropical Andes 13. Succulent karoo

2.Mesoamerica 14. Mediterranean basin

3.Caribbean 15. Caucasus

4.Brazil’s Atlantic Forest 16. Sundaland

5.Choc.Darien/westernEcuador 17. Wallacea

6.Brazil’s Cerrado 18. Philippines

7.Central Chile 19. Indo-Burma

8.California Floristic Province 20. South central China

9. Madagascar 21.Western Ghats/Micromesia

10. Eastern Arc and coastal 22. SW Australia

forests of Tanzania/Kenya 23. New Caledonia

11. Western African Forest 24. Neewzealand

12. Cape Floristic Pprovince 25. Polynesia /Micronesia

6.5. Threats to biodiversity

Human activities are endangering other species around the globe. Extinction is a part of the
evolutionary process, but today’s rate of extinction is much greater than the scale at which
species disappear due to evolution alone. Species are now vanishing faster than at any other time
in Earth’s history. In Earth’s 4.6 billion year history, there have been five major ‘’mass
extinctions’’ recorded in the fossil record, the most recent of which, 65 million years ago, killed
the last of the true dinosaurs.Although 99.9% of all animals that once lived on Earth are now
extinct, the mass destruction attributable to one species (human beings) is apparently unique in
the Earth’s history.

Even conservative figures predict a loss of at least 1% of existing species per decade, which
means we are losing at least two species an hour. Most threats to biodiversity are directly or

60
indirectly attributable to a growing human population, which is increasing at about 90 million
people per year. The world’s population is currently more than 6 billion people, and is projected
to reach 10 billion by the year 2050. This rapid population growth will put additional stress on
the world’s ecosystems and species.

The biodiversity we rely on is often threatened by more than just one cause, some of this
combined threats can be reduced in the short term, while others like reversing climate change
trends are of a long term nature. The following is a list of promint threats to biodiversity.

􀂾 Habitat Degradation and loss

􀂾 Invasion of non-native species

􀂾 Pollution

􀂾 Overexploitation of resources

􀂾 Global environmental change

The sequences of the above are loss of potentially valuable organisms and biological compounds
for agriculture, silviculture and medicine.

6.6. Islands and Organisms

Biogeographically, islands may be classified as either oceanic or continental. Oceanic islands

typically have faunas that are ecologically and taxonomically unbalanced (incomplete).
Colonization of these islands is by some form of over-water dispersal. Continental islands
generally have a more complete and balanced fauna that fills the available habitats and closely
resembles that of the adjacent mainland portion of the continent. Separation of continental
islands and mainland terrestrial faunas is due to division of pre-existing faunas (vicariance)
rather than to over-water dispersal. Islands have fewer species because relatively few organisms
can successfully cross the great water barriers.

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