UNIT - I

NETWORKS
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
“Computer network’’ to mean a collection of autonomous computers
interconnected by a single technology. Two computers are said to be
interconnected if they are able to exchange information.
The connection need not be via a copper wire; fiber optics, microwaves,
infrared, and communication satellites can also be used.
Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms, as we will see later.
They are usually connected together to make larger networks, with the
Internet being the most well-known example of a network of networks.
There is considerable confusion in the literature between a computer
network and a distributed system. The key distinction is that in a distributed
system, a collection of independent computers appears to its users as a single
coherent system. Usually, it has a single model or paradigm that it presents to
the users. Often a layer of software on top of the operating system, called
middleware, is responsible for implementing this model. A well-known
example of a distributed system is the World Wide Web. It runs on top of the
Internet and presents a model in which everything looks like a document (Web
page).

USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

1. Business Applications
 to distribute information throughout the company (resource sharing).
sharing physical resources such as printers, and tape backup systems, is
sharing information
 client-server model. It is widely used and forms the basis of much network
usage.
 communication medium among employees.email (electronic mail),
which employees generally use for a great deal of daily communication.
 Telephone calls between employees may be carried by the computer network
instead of by the phone company. This technology is called IP telephony or
Voice over IP (VoIP) when Internet technology is used.
 Desktop sharing lets remote workers see and interact with a graphical
computer screen
 doing business electronically, especially with customers and suppliers. This
new model is called e-commerce (electronic commerce) and it has grown
rapidly in recent years.
2 Home Applications
 peer-to-peer communication
 person-to-person communication
 electronic commerce
 entertainment.(game playing,)

3 Mobile Users
 Text messaging or texting
 Smart phones,
 GPS (Global Positioning System)
 m-commerce
 NFC (Near Field Communication)
4 Social Issues
With the good comes the bad, as this new-found freedom brings with it many
unsolved social, political, and ethical issues.
Social networks, message boards, content sharing sites, and a host of
other applications allow people to share their views with like-minded
individuals. As long as the subjects are restricted to technical topics or hobbies
like gardening, not too many problems will arise.
The trouble comes with topics that people actually care about, like politics,
religion, or sex. Views that are publicly posted may be deeply offensive to some
people. Worse yet, they may not be politically correct. Furthermore, opinions
need not be limited to text; high-resolution color photographs and video clips
are easily shared over computer networks. Some people take a live-and-let-live
view, but others feel that posting certain material (e.g., verbal attacks on
particular countries or religions, pornography, etc.) is simply unacceptable and
that such content must be censored. Different countries have different and
conflicting laws in this area. Thus, the debate rages.
Computer networks make it very easy to communicate. They also make it
easy for the people who run the network to snoop on the traffic. This sets up
conflicts over issues such as employee rights versus employer rights.
Many people read and write email at work. Many employers have claimed the
right to read and possibly censor employee messages, including messages sent
from a home computer outside working hours. Not all employees agree with
this, especially the latter part.
Another conflict is centered around government versus citizen’s rights.
A new twist with mobile devices is location privacy. As part of the process of
providing service to your mobile device the network operators learn where you
are at different times of day. This allows them to track your movements. They
may know which nightclub you frequent and which medical center you visit.

Phishing ATTACK: Phishing is a type of social engineering attack often used

to steal user data, including login credentials and credit card numbers. It occurs
when an attacker, masquerading as a trusted entity, dupes a victim into
opening an email, instant message, or text message.
BOTNET ATTACK: Botnets can be used to perform distributed denial-of-service
attack (DDoS attack), steal data, send spam, and allows the attacker to access
the device and its connection.
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four
fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
I. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must
be received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2 Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been
altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data
delivered late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means
delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that they are produced,
and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time
transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven
delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that
video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms
delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.
A data communications system has five components
I. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated.
Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2 Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by
which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of
transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable,
and radio waves.
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a
protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a
person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.

Data Representation
Text
Numbers
Images
Audio
Video

Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex
as shown in Figure.

Simplex In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-

way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can
only receive (Figure a). Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of
simplex devices.
Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice
versa (Figure b). Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-
duplex systems.
Full-Duplex
In full-duplex, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (Figure c).
One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network.
When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and
listen at the same time. The full-duplex mode is used when communication in
both directions is required all the time.
Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most
important of these are performance, reliability, and security.
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to
travel from one device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between
an inquiry and a response. The performance of a network depends on a number
of factors, including the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the
capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and
delay. We often need more throughput and less delay. However, these two
criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send more data to the network, we
may increase throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic
congestion in the network.
Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured
by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and
the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized
access, protecting data from damage and development, and implementing
policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.
Physical Structures
Before discussing networks, we need to define some network attributes.
Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a
communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
Point-to-Point A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between
two devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual
length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as
microwave or satellite links, are also possible
When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are
establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the
television's control system.
Multipoint A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection is one in which
more than two specific devices share a single link
In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a
spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared
connection.
Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically.
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The
topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all
the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring

MESH:
A mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node
in the network.

A mesh topology can be a full mesh topology or a partially connected

mesh topology.
In a full mesh topology, every computer in the network has a connection to
each of the other computers in that network. The number of connections in this
network can be calculated using the following formula (n is the number of
computers in the network): n(n-1)/2
In a partially connected mesh topology, at least two of the computers in the
network have connections to multiple other computers in that network. It is an
inexpensive way to implement redundancy in a network. In the event that one
of the primary computers or connections in the network fails, the rest of the
network continues to operate normally.
Advantages of a mesh topology
 Can handle high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit
data simultaneously.
 A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission
of data.
 Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other
devices.
Disadvantages of a mesh topology
 The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a
less desirable option.
 Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
 The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs
and potential for reduced efficiency.
STAR:

A star network, star topology is one of the most common network setups. In
this configuration, every node connects to a central network device, like
a hub, switch, or computer. The central network device acts as a server and the
peripheral devices act as clients. Depending on the type of network card used
in each computer of the star topology, a coaxial cable or a RJ-45 network cable
is used to connect computers together.
Advantages of star topology
 Centralized management of the network, through the use of the central
computer, hub, or switch.
 Easy to add another computer to the network.
 If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network continues to
function normally.
 The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs), High-speed LANs
often use a star topology with a central hub.
Disadvantages of star topology
 Can have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a switch or
router as the central network device.
 The central network device determines the performance and number of
nodes the network can handle.
 If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes down
and all computers are disconnected from the network
BUS:

a line topology, a bus topology is a network setup in which each computer

and network device are connected to a single cable or backbone.
Advantages of bus topology
 It works well when you have a small network.
 It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals
in a linear fashion.
 It requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of bus topology
 It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
 It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
 Bus topology is not great for large networks.
 Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
 Additional devices slow the network down.
 If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.

RING:
A ring topology is a network configuration in which device connections create
a circular data path. In a ring network, packets of data travel from one device to
the next until they reach their destination. Most ring topologies allow packets to
travel only in one direction, called a unidirectional ring network. Others
permit data to move in either direction, called bidirectional.
The major disadvantage of a ring topology is that if any individual connection in
the ring is broken, the entire network is affected.
Ring topologies may be used in either local area networks (LANs) or wide area
networks (WANs).
Advantages of ring topology
 All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.
 A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between
each workstation.
 Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.
 Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance of
the network.
Disadvantages of ring topology
 All data being transferred over the network must pass through each
workstation on the network, which can make it slower than a star topology.
 The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
 The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more
expensive than Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.

Hybrid Topology A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main
star topology with each branch connecting several stations in a bus topology as
shown in Figure

Types of Network based on size

The types of network are classified based upon the size, the area it covers and
its physical architecture. The three primary network categories are LAN, WAN
and MAN. Each network differs in their characteristics such as distance,
transmission speed, cables and cost.
Basic types
LAN (Local Area Network)
Group of interconnected computers within a small area. (room, building,
campus)
Two or more pc's can from a LAN to share files, folders, printers, applications
and other devices.
Coaxial or CAT 5 cables are normally used for connections.
Due to short distances, errors and noise are minimum.
Data transfer rate is 10 to 100 mbps.
Example: A computer lab in a school.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
Design to extend over a large area.
Connecting number of LAN's to form larger network, so that resources can be
shared.
Networks can be up to 5 to 50 km.
Owned by organization or individual.
Data transfer rate is low compare to LAN.
Example: Organization with different branches located in the city.
WAN (Wide Area Network)
Are country and worldwide network.
Contains multiple LAN's and MAN's.
Distinguished in terms of geographical range.
Uses satellites and microwave relays.
Data transfer rate depends upon the ISP provider and varies over the location.
Best example is the internet.

Other types
WLAN (Wireless LAN)
A LAN that uses high frequency radio waves for communication.
Provides short range connectivity with high speed data transmission.
PAN (Personal Area Network)
Network organized by the individual user for its personal use.
SAN (Storage Area Network)
Connects servers to data storage devices via fiber-optic cables.
E.g.: Used for daily backup of organization or a mirror copy

A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry

information from a source to a destination.
Classes of transmission media

Guided Media: Guided media, which are those that provide a medium from
one device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic
cable.

Twisted-Pair Cable: A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally

copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together. One of the wires
is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground
reference.

Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh
covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors. Although metal casing
improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or
crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.

The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack)
Applications
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data
channels.
Local-area networks, such as l0Base-T and l00Base-T, also use twisted-pair
cables.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in
twisted pair cable. coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire
(usuallycopper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in
an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two. The outer
metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second
conductor, which completes the circuit.This outer conductor is also enclosed in
an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.

The most common type of connector used today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman

(BNe), connector.
Applications
Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks,digital telephone
networks
Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables.
Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet LANs

Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form
of light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single
uniform substance.
If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another
substance(of a different density), the ray changes direction.
Bending of light ray
Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic
core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.

Propagation Modes

Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move

through the core in different paths. How these beams move within the cable
depends on the structure of the core, as shown in Figure.

In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from
the center to the edges. A beam of light moves through this constant density in
a straight line until it reaches the interface of the core and the cladding. The
term step index refers to the suddenness of this change, which contributes to
the distortion of the signal as it passes through the fiber.
A second type of fiber, called multimode graded-index fiber, decreases this
distortion of the signal through the cable. The word index here refers to the
index of refraction.
Single-Mode: Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source
of light that limits beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal.
Fiber Construction

The subscriber channel (SC) connector, The straight-tip (ST) connector,

MT-RJ(mechanical transfer registered jack) is a connector
Applications
Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide
bandwidth is cost-effective..
Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial
cable,thus creating a hybrid network.
Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet) and
1000Base-X also use fiber-optic cable
Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
Advantages Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable
(twisted pair or coaxial).
1 Higher bandwidth.
2 Less signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly
greaterthan that of other guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without
requiring regeneration. We need repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-
pair cable.
3 Immunity to electromagnetic interference. Electromagnetic noise cannot
affect fiber-optic cables.
4 Resistance to corrosive materials. Glass is more resistant to corrosive
materials than copper.
5 Light weight. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
6 Greater immunity to tapping. Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping
than copper cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be
tapped.
Disadvantages There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fiber.
1Installation and maintenance
2 Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we
need bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
3 Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of
other guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of
optical fiber cannot be justified.

UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication.
Radio Waves
Microwaves
Infrared

Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways:
ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation, as shown in
Figure

Radio Waves
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are
normally called radio waves. Radio waves are omni directional. When an
antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. This
means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. A
sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.
The omni directional property has a disadvantage, too. The radio waves
transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by another antenna
that may send signals using the same frequency or band.
Omni directional Antenna
Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all
directions. Based on the wavelength, strength, and the purpose of transmission,
we can have several types of antennas. Figure shows an omnidirectional
antenna.
Applications
The Omni directional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for
multicasting, in which there is one sender but many receivers. AM and FM radio,
television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging are examples of
multicasting.

Microwaves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional. The sending and receiving antennas
need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A
pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned
antennas
Unidirectional Antenna
Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one direction.
Two types of antennas are used for microwave communications: the parabolic
dish and the horn

Applications:
Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones,
satellite networks, and wireless LANs

Infrared
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1
mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-range communication. Infrared waves,
having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This advantageous
characteristic prevents interference between one system and another; a short-
range communication system in one room cannot be affected by another
system in the next room.
When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of
the remote by our neighbors. Infrared signals useless for long-range
communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building
because the sun's rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the
communication.
Applications:
Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed
area using line-of-sight propagation.

Switching
A network is a set of connected devices. Whenever we have multiple
devices, we have the problem of how to connect them to make one-to-one
communication possible. One solution is to make a point-to-point connection
between each pair of devices (a mesh topology) or between a central device
and every other device (a star topology). These methods, however, are
impractical and wasteful when applied to very large networks.
The number and length of the links require too much infrastructure to be
cost-efficient, and the majority of those links would be idle most of the time.
A better solution is switching. A switched network consists of a series of
interlinked nodes, called switches. Switches are devices capable of creating
temporary connections between two or more devices linked to the switch. In a
switched network, some of these nodes are connected to the end systems
(computers or telephones, for example). Others are used only for routing. Figure
shows a switched network.

We can then divide today's networks into three broad categories: circuit-
switched networks, packet-switched networks, and message-switched. Packet-
switched networks can further be divided into two subcategories-virtual-circuit
networks and datagram networks as shown in Figure.
OSI Model
o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that
describes how information from a software application in one computer moves
through a physical medium to the software application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-
computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each
layer is assigned a particular task.
Physical layer
o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one
node to another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected
physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex
or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.

Data-Link Layer
o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
 o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local
network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer
o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the
receiver that is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control
layer and the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known
as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which
is added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source address.

o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in
the header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the
technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that
no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with
higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing
speed.
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr, then
the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
 o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has
control over the link at a given time.

Network Layer
o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the
network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the
network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the
routing services within an internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols.
Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It
provides a logical connection between different devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of
the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the
best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts
them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet
protocol (IP).

Transport Layer
o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in
which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.
 o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol

o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the
internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the
data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the
internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the
destination. The transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the correct
order at the receiving end.
o User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this
reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one
computer to another computer but also from one process to another process. The
transport layer adds the header that contains the address known as a service-point
address or port address. The responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data
from one computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is
to transmit the message to the correct process.
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from
the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is
assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the
message has arrived at the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the
message based on their sequence numbers.
 o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service
and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual
packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-
oriented service makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine
before delivering the packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the
single route.
o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed
end-to-end rather than across a single link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer
ensures that message reach at the destination without any error.

Session Layer
o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.
o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between
two processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes
which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a
sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the
transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.

Presentation Layer

o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation
format to another format.
 o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of
character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding
methods, the presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different
encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common
format and changes the common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving
end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting
message over the network.
o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the
number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such
as text, audio, video.

Application Layer
o An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access
network service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to
access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to
manage the files in a remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used
to provide that global information about various objects.
TCP/IP Model
The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model. It was
designed to describe the functions of the communication system by dividing the
communication procedure into smaller and simpler components. But when we
talk about the TCP/IP model, it was designed and developed by Department of
Defense (DoD) in 1960s and is based on standard protocols. It stands for
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a
concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike seven layers in
the OSI model. The layers are:
1. Process/Application Layer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows :

1. Network Access Layer –

This layer corresponds to the combination of Data Link Layer and Physical Layer of the
OSI model. It looks out for hardware addressing and the protocols present in this layer
allows for the physical transmission of data.
We just talked about ARP being a protocol of Internet layer, but there is a conflict about
declaring it as a protocol of Internet Layer or Network access layer. It is described as
residing in layer 3, being encapsulated by layer 2 protocols.
2. Internet Layer –

This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which
are responsible for logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main
protocols residing at this layer are :
1. IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the
source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet
headers. IP has 2 versions:
IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using currently. But IPv6
is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses are limited in number when compared to
the number of users.
2. ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP
datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network
problems.
3. ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address
of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP,
Gratuitous ARP and Inverse ARP.
3. Host-to-Host Layer –

This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-
to-end communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer
applications from the complexities of data. The two main protocols present in this layer
are :
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – It is known to provide reliable and error-free
communication between end systems. It performs sequencing and segmentation of
data. It also has acknowledgment feature and controls the flow of the data through
flow control mechanism. It is a very effective protocol but has a lot of overhead due
to such features. Increased overhead leads to increased cost.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – On the other hand does not provide any such
features. It is the go-to protocol if your application does not require reliable
transport as it is very cost-effective. Unlike TCP, which is connection-oriented
protocol, UDP is connectionless.

4. Application Layer –

This layer performs the functions of top three layers of the OSI model: Application,
Presentation and Session Layer. It is responsible for node-to-node communication and
controls user-interface specifications. Some of the protocols present in this layer are:
HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, TFTP, Telnet, SSH, SMTP, SNMP, NTP, DNS, DHCP, NFS, X
Window, LPD. Have a look at Protocols in Application Layer for some information about
these protocols. Protocols other than those present in the linked article are :
1. HTTP and HTTPS – HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the
World Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers.
HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket
Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser need to fill out forms, sign in,
authenticate and carry out bank transactions.
2. SSH – SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to
Telnet. The reason SSH is more preferred is because of its ability to maintain the
encrypted connection. It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
3. NTP – NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on
our computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank
transactions. Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose
you carry out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while
the server records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
Differences between OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model –

OSI TCP/IP

OSI represents Open System TCP/IP model represents the Transmission

Interconnection. Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.

OSI is a generic, protocol independent TCP/IP model depends on standard

standard. It is acting as an interaction protocols about which the computer network
gateway between the network and the final- has created. It is a connection protocol that
user. assigns the network of hosts over the
internet.

The OSI model was developed first, and The protocols were created first and then
then protocols were created to fit the built the TCP/IP model.
network architecture’s needs.

It provides quality services. It does not provide quality services.

The OSI model represents defines It does not mention the services, interfaces,
administration, interfaces and conventions. and protocols.
It describes clearly which layer provides
services.

The protocols of the OSI model are better The TCP/IP model protocols are not hidden,
unseen and can be returned with another and we cannot fit a new protocol stack in it.
appropriate protocol quickly.

It is difficult as distinguished to TCP/IP. It is simpler than OSI.

It provides both connection and It provides connectionless transmission in

connectionless oriented transmission in the the network layer and supports connecting
network layer; however, only connection- and connectionless-oriented transmission in
oriented transmission in the transport layer. the transport layer.

It uses a horizontal approach. It uses a vertical approach.

The smallest size of the OSI header is 5 The smallest size of the TCP/IP header is
bytes. 20 bytes.

Protocols are unknown in the OSI model In TCP/IP, returning protocol is not difficult.
and are returned while the technology
modifies.
THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives. It has affected
the way we do business as well as the way we spend our leisure time. Count
the ways you've used the Internet recently. Perhaps you've sent electronic
mail (e-mail) to a business associate, paid a utility bill, read a newspaper from
a distant city, or looked up a local movie schedule-all by using the Internet. Or
maybe you researched a medical topic, booked a hotel reservation, chatted
with a fellow Trekkie, or comparison-shopped for a car. The Internet is a
communication system that has brought a wealth of information to our
fingertips and organized it for our use.

A Brief History

A network is a group of connected communicating devices such as

computers and printers. An internet (note the lowercase letter i) is two or
more networks that can communicate with each other. The most notable
internet is called the Internet (uppercase letter I), a collaboration of more than
hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks. Private individuals as well
as various organizations such as government agencies, schools, research
facilities, corporations, and libraries in more than 100 countries use the
Internet. Millions of people are users. Yet this extraordinary communication
system only came into being in 1969.
In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were
standalone devices. Computers from different manufacturers were unable to
communicate with one another. The Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) in the Department of Defense (DoD) was interested in finding a way to
connect computers so that the researchers they funded could share their
findings, thereby reducing costs and eliminating duplication of effort.
In 1967, at an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting,
ARPA presented its ideas for ARPANET, a small network of connected
computers. The idea was that each host computer (not necessarily from the
same manufacturer) would be attached to a specialized computer, called an
inteiface message processor (IMP). The IMPs, in tum, would be connected to
one another. Each IMP had to be able to communicate with other IMPs as well
as with its own attached host. By 1969, ARPANET was a reality. Four nodes, at
the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), the University of California
at Santa Barbara (UCSB), Stanford Research Institute (SRI), and the University
of Utah, were connected via the IMPs to form a network. Software called the
Network Control Protocol (NCP) provided communication between the hosts.
In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom were part of the core
ARPANET group, collaborated on what they called the Internetting Projec1.
Cerf and Kahn's landmark 1973 paper outlined the protocols to achieve end-
to-end delivery of packets. This paper on Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
included concepts such as encapsulation, the datagram, and the functions of
a gateway. Shortly thereafter, authorities made a decision to split TCP into two
protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internetworking Protocol
(lP). IP would handle datagram routing while TCP would be responsible for
higher-level functions such as segmentation, reassembly, and error detection.
The internetworking protocol became known as TCPIIP.
The Internet Today

The Internet has come a long way since the 1960s. The Internet today is not a
simple hierarchical structure. It is made up of many wide- and local-area
networks joined by connecting devices and switching stations. It is difficult to
give an accurate representation of the Internet because it is continually
changing-new networks are being added, existing networks are adding
addresses, and networks of defunct companies are being removed. Today
most end users who want Internet connection use the services of Internet
service providers (lSPs). There are international service providers, national
service providers, regional service providers, and local service providers. The
Internet today is run by private companies, not the government. Figure 1.13
shows a conceptual (not geographic) view of the Internet.
International Internet Service Providers:
At the top of the hierarchy are the international service providers that
connect nations together.
National Internet Service Providers:
The national Internet service providers are backbone networks created
and maintained by specialized companies. There are many national ISPs
operating in North America; some of the most well known are SprintLink,
PSINet, UUNet Technology, AGIS, and internet Mel. To provide connectivity
between the end users, these backbone networks are connected by complex
switching stations (normally run by a third party) called network access points
(NAPs). Some national ISP networks are also connected to one another by
private switching stations called peering points. These normally operate at a
high data rate (up to 600 Mbps).
Regional Internet Service Providers:
Regional internet service providers or regional ISPs are smaller ISPs that
are connected to one or more national ISPs. They are at the third level of the
hierarchy with a smaller data rate. Local Internet Service Providers:
Local Internet service providers provide direct service to the end users.
The local ISPs can be connected to regional ISPs or directly to national ISPs.
Most end users are connected to the local ISPs. Note that in this sense, a local
ISP can be a company that just provides Internet services, a corporation with
a network that supplies services to its own employees, or a nonprofit
organization, such as a college or a university, that runs its own network.
Each of these local ISPs can be connected to a regional or national service
provider.
Types of area networks – LAN, MAN and WAN
The Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different computers via
any medium. LAN, MAN, and WAN are the three major types of networks designed to operate
over the area they cover. There are some similarities and dissimilarities between them. One of
the major differences is the geographical area they cover, i.e. LAN covers the smallest
area, MAN covers an area larger than LAN and WAN comprises the largest of all.
There are other types of Computer Networks also, like :

 PAN (Personal Area Network)

 SAN (Storage Area Network)
 EPN (Enterprise Private Network)
 VPN (Virtual Private Network)

Personal Area Network (PAN)-

PAN is a personal area network having an interconnection of personal technology devices to

communicate over a short distance. It covers only less than 10 meters or 33 feet of area. PAN
has fewer users as compared to other networks such as LAN, WAN, etc. PAN typically uses
some form of wireless technology. PAN involves the transmission of data between information
devices such as smartphones, personal computers, tablet computers, etc.

Advantages:
 Allows for easy communication between personal devices in close proximity.
 Can be set up easily and quickly.
 Uses wireless technology, which eliminates the need for wires and cables.
 PANs are designed to be energy efficient, which means that devices can communicate with
each other without draining their batteries quickly.
 PANs are typically secured using encryption and authentication protocols, which helps to
prevent unauthorized access to data and resources.
Disadvantages:
 Limited coverage area.
 May not be suitable for large-scale data transfer or communication.PANs typically have
limited bandwidth, which means that they may not be able to handle large amounts of data
or high-speed communication.
 May experience interference from other wireless devices.
Local Area Network (LAN) –

LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that personal computers
and workstations can share data, tools, and programs. The group of computers and devices are
connected together by a switch, or stack of switches, using a private addressing scheme as
defined by the TCP/IP protocol. Private addresses are unique in relation to other computers on
the local network. Routers are found at the boundary of a LAN, connecting them to the larger
WAN.

Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked is limited. By definition,
the connections must be high-speed and relatively inexpensive hardware (Such as hubs,
network adapters, and Ethernet cables). LANs cover a smaller geographical area (Size is
limited to a few kilometres) and are privately owned. One can use it for an office building,
home, hospital, school, etc. LAN is easy to design and maintain. A Communication medium
used for LAN has twisted-pair cables and coaxial cables. It covers a short distance, and so the
Advantages:
 Provides fast data transfer rates and high-speed communication.
 Easy to set up and manage.
 Can be used to share peripheral devices such as printers and scanners.
 Provides increased security and fault tolerance compared to WANs.
Disadvantages:
 Limited geographical coverage.
 Limited scalability and may require significant infrastructure upgrades to accommodate
growth.
 May experience congestion and network performance issues with increased usage.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) –

MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that covered by a LAN and a
smaller area as compared to WAN. MAN has a range of 5-50km. It connects two or more
computers that are apart but reside in the same or different cit ies. It covers a large geographical
area and may serve as an ISP (Internet Service Provider). MAN is designed for customers who
need high-speed connectivity. Speeds of MAN range in terms of Mbps. It’s hard to design and
maintain a Metropolitan Area Network.
The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the network. It is
costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization. The data transfer rate and the
propagation delay of MAN are moderate. Devices used for transmission of data through MAN
are Modem and Wire/Cable. Examples of a MAN are part of the telephone company network
that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer or the cable TV network in a city.
Advantages:
 Provides high-speed connectivity over a larger geographical area than LAN.
 Can be used as an ISP for multiple customers.
 Offers higher data transfer rates than WAN in some cases.
Disadvantages:
 Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
 May experience congestion and network performance issues with increased usage.
 May have limited fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.

Wide Area Network (WAN) –

WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large geographical
area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or country. WAN has a range
of above 50 km. A WAN could be a connection of LAN connecting to other LANs via
telephone lines and radio waves and may be limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an
organization) or accessible to the public. The technology is high-speed and relatively
expensive.

There are two types of WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point WAN. WAN is difficult to
design and maintain. Similar to a MAN, the fault tolerance of a WAN is less and there is more
congestion in the network. A Communication medium used for WAN is PSTN or Satellite
Link. Due to long-distance transmission, the noise and error tend to be more in WAN.
WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed since it involves increased distance and
increased number of servers and terminals etc. The speed of WAN ranges from a few kilobits
per second (Kbps) to megabits per second (Mbps). Propagation delay is one of the biggest
problems faced here. Devices used for the transmission of data through WAN are Optic wires,
Microwaves, and Satellites.
Advantages:
 Covers large geographical areas and can connect remote locations.
 Provides connectivity to the internet.
 Offers remote access to resources and applications.
 Can be used to support multiple users and applications simultaneously.
Disadvantages:
 Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
 Offers slower data transfer rates than LAN or MAN.
 May experience higher latency and longer propagation delays due to longer distances and
multiple network hops.
 May have lower fault tolerance and security compared to LANs

ARPANET
ARPANET stands for Advanced Research Projects Agency NET. ARPANET was first
network which consisted of distributed control. It was first to implement TCP/IP protocols. It
was basically beginning of Internet with use of these technologies. It was designed with a basic
idea in mind that was to communicate with scientific users among an institute or university.
History of ARPANET :
ARPANET was introduced in the year 1969 by Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
of US Department of Defense. It was established using a bunch of PCs at various colleges and
sharing of information and messages was done. It was for playing as long separation diversions
and individuals were asked to share their perspectives. In the year 1980, ARPANET was
handed over to different military network, Defense Data Network.

The creation of ARPANET

The development of ARPANET started in 1966. The project aimed to connect various research
institutions and universities working on defense-related assignments.
ARPANET was created through a collaboration between researchers, data scientists, engineers,
and organizations funded by the U.S. Department of Defense’s Advanced Research Projects
Agency. The contract to build ARPANET was awarded to a technology company, Bolt, Beranek,
and Newman (BBN).
The company worked on designing and implementing the necessary hardware and software
components. The initial ARPANET architecture included four nodes: UCLA, SRI, UCSB, and
the University of Utah.
In 1969, a team of graduate students at UCLA attempted to send the first packet-switched
message using ARPANET. The message’s destination was a computer at the Stanford Research
Institute (SRI), marking a significant milestone in computer networking as the first message
between two computers.
 The system crashed, resulting in incomplete transmission. However, the moment is still
considered the birth of ARPANET and the first successful attempt at computer-to-computer
communication.

How did ARPANET work?

ARPANET utilized many technologies, including the TCP/IP protocol, interface message
processors, and packet switching. Here’s how each of ARPANET’s main components worked.
Packet switching

Packet switching was the key concept that enabled ARPANET’s operation. Here’s how it
worked:
 The data being transmitted between two computers was broken down into smaller units called
packets.
 Each packet contained a portion of the data with information about its destination.
 The packets were transmitted individually across the network and routed independently based on
the addressing information.

TCP/IP Protocol

TCP, which replaced the earlier NCP protocol, was vital in enabling more reliable
communication over ARPANET. The main functions of TCP/IP were:
 Providing reliable data transmission between multiple computers connected to the network.
 Introducing flow control mechanisms that prevented data overflow and network congestion.
 Checking for errors to ensure the integrity of the received data and prevent the transmission of
corrupt data packets.
 Providing more flexibility than the previously used NCP protocol, like working with different
types of networks and devices.

Interface message processors

Interface message processors (IMPs) were important components of ARPANET, serving as

intermediaries between host computers and the network. Here’s how they worked:
 IMPs were specialized computers designed to connect the host computers and the ARPANET
network. Each host computer had a dedicated IMP responsible for transmitting and receiving
data packets.
 The interface message processors acted as gateways. They translated data from the host
computers into packets to be transmitted across the network. IMPs also added the necessary
information to data packets and ensured they were correctly routed to their destinations.
 When a host computer wanted to send data, it would send it to its dedicated IMP. The IMP
would break the data into packets, add appropriate information (e.g., headers) and transmit them.
 The receiving interface message processor would strip off the headers and deliver the data to the
host computer.Overall, the IMPs acted as important intermediaries in the ARPANET
communication process.