13.1.

INTRODUCTION

The electrical power is exclusively generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of ac
almost
consideration but for operation of most of the electronic devices and circuits,
hecause of economical
cells and batteries can be used for this purpose. No doubt, they have the
dc supply is required. Dry
but their voltages are low, they need frequent replacement
advantages of being portable and ripple free
almost all electronic
and are expensive in comparison to conventional de power supplies. Nowadays,
The part of equipment that converts
equipment include a circuit that converts ac supply into dc supply.
ac into dc is called the dc power supply.
In general, at the input of the power supply, there is a power
and then by a voltage regulator
transformer. It is followed by a rectifier (a diode circuit), a smoothing filter
13.1.
circuit. A block diagram of such a power supply is given in Fig.
is constituted by
As obvious from the block diagram shown in Fig. 13.1, the basic power supply
The output of the
four elements viz. a transformer, a rectifier, a filter, and a regulator put together.
across the load. Let us briefly outline the
dc power supply is used to provide a constant dc voltage
function of each of the elements of the dc power supply.

VOLTAGE
RECTIFIER FILTER REGULATOR
TRANSFORMER

REGULATED DC
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
AC INPUT SsIGNAL

Fig. 13.1 Block Diagram of a DC Power Supply

to step down) supply the voltage as per need
ranstormer is used to step up or step down (usually
electronic devices and circuits to be supplied by the de power supply. It can provide
Solid-state It may also include internal shield-
on from line-an important safety consideration.
the supply
the power line from getting into the power supply
"and prevent unwanted electrical noise signal on

possibly disturbing the load.

or negative pulsating de.
ectifier is a device which converts the sinusoidal ac voltage into either positive
P-N " Junction diode, vhich conducts when forward biased and practically does not conduct when
 reverse biased, can be used for rectification i.e., for conversion of ac into dc. The rectifier typically
needs one, two or four diodes. Rectifiers may be either half-wave or full-wave (centre-tap or bridge)

type.
The output voltage from a rectifier circuit has a pulsating character i.e., it contains unwanted
ac components (components of supply frequency f and its harmonics) along with dc component,
For most supply purposes, constant direct voltage is required than that furnished by a rectifier,
To reduce ac components from the rectifier output voltage a filter circuit is required. Thus filter
1S a device which passes dc component to the load and blocks ac components of the rectifier
output. Filter is typically formed from reactive circuit elements such as capacitors and/or inductors
and resistors.
The magnitude of output dc voltage may vary with the variation of either the input ac voltage
the magnitude of load current. So at the output of a rectifier-filter combination a voltage regulator
is required, as shown in Fig. 13.1, to provide an almost constant de voltage at the output of the
regulator. The voltage regulator may be constructed from a zener diode, and/or discrete transistors,
and/or integrated circuits (ICs). Its main function is to maintain a constant dc output voltage. However,
it also rejects any ac ripple voltage that is not removed by the filter. The regulator may also include
protective devices such as short-circuit protection., current limiting, thermal shutdown, or overvoltage
protection.

13.2. HALF-WAVE RECTIFIERS

When a single rectifier unit is placed in series with the load across an ac supply, as illustrated in Fig. 13.2, it
converts alternating voltage into unidirectional pulsating voltage, using one half cycles of the applied
voltage, the other half cycles being suppressed because it conducts only in one direction. Unless there is an
inductance or battery in the circuit, the current will be zero, for half the time. This is called half-wave
rectification.

Vsmax VLmax OR max

27 Vs VL 27T 3Tt T

-VSmax RECTIFIED OUTPUT VOLTAGE/CURRENT

WAVEFORMS
INPUT VOLTAGE WAVEFORM

Fig. 13.2 Half-Wave Rectifiers

As already discussed, diode is an electronic device consisting of two elements known as cathode
and anode. Since in a diode electrons can flow in one direction
the diode provides the unilateral conduction
only i.e., from cathode to anode so
necessary for rectification. This is true for diodes of all
types-vacuum, gas-filled, crystal, semiconductor or metallic (copper oxide and selenium types) di-
odes. Semiconductor diodes, because of their inherent
advantages (already mentioned in Art. 11.3) are
usually used as a rectifying device. However, for very high voltages, vacuum diodes
Circuit. The half-wave rectifier circuit using a semiconductor diode with a may be employed.
load resistance R, but
no smoothing filter is
given in Fig. 13.2. The diode is connected in series with the secondary of the
ansfomer and the load resistance R, the primary of the transformer is
mains.
being connected to the ac supply

Working. The ac voltage across the secondary

winding changes polarity after every half cycle.
During the positive half cycles of the input ac voltage i.e., when upper end of the secondary winding
is positive w.r.t. its lower end, the diode is forward biased and, therefore, conducts current. If the
forward resistance of the diode is assumed to be zero (in practice, however, a small resistance exists)
nut voltage during the positive half cycles is directly appliedto the load resistance R,
er end positive w.r.t. its lower end. The making
ts upper
of the same shape as that of the input ac
waveforms
voltage.
of the output current and output voltage
are
During the negative half
cycles of the input ac voltage i.e., when the lower end of the secondary
nding is positive w.r.t. ts upper end, the diode is reverse biased and so does not conduct. Thus during
eoative half cycles of the input ac voltage the current through and voltage across the load remains
en if the reverse current, being very small n magnitude, is neglected. Thus for the negative half cycles
delivered to the load.
no power is
huss
Thus the output voltage developed across load resistance R, (V) is a series of
positive half cycles
of alternating voltage, Witn intervening very small constant negative voltage levels, as shown in the
132 It is obvious from the figure that the output is not a steady dc, but only a pulsating dc wave.
Fig.
Since only half cycles of the input wave are used, it is called a half-wave rectifier.

Power Supply Specifications. The most important characteristics which are required to be specified
are given below:
for a power supply
1. The required output dc voltage.
2. The average and peak currents in the diode.
3. The peak inverse voltage (PIV) of each diode.
4. The regulation.
5. The ripple factor.
The above factors will be considered in the analysis of the circuit given below.

Analysis of Half-Wave Rectifier. Under this sub-article, the following items will be considered.
() Peak inverse voltage
(ü) Average and peak currents in the diode
(ii) DC output voltage
(iv) RMS current and voltage
()Rectification efficiency
(vi) Ripple factor, and
(vii) Regulation.
diode has to withstand,
Peak Inverse Voltage. It is the maximum voltage that the rectifying
.
of a diode is of the primary importance
when it is reverse biased. The peak inverse voltage (PIV) rating
in the
design of rectification systems.
reverse biased, no current flows
During negative half of the input voltage, the diode is
cycles
load resistance R; and conse-
load resistance R and so causes no voltage drop
across
the
gn diode. Thus the maximum voltage, that
the whole of the input voltage appears across the
yEy value of the secondary voltage i.e., VSmax
Thus for a half
Psacross the diode, is equal to the peak
wave rectifier

PIV = Vs max
(13.1)
transformer secondary sinusoidal of peak value
4Feak Current. Assuming the voltage across the
to the rectifier is given as
max nstantaneous value of the voltage applied
Vsmax Sin ot
.(13.2)
Vs
neglecting diode cutin voltage Vg» being very small as compared with V.S
max

forward resistance of RF Ohms and reverse resistance eaual

the diode is assumed to have a
t h e n the current flowing through the diode (or load resistance R) is given as
i =max sinot
for 0 S or ST
...(13.3)
 = 0 for T or S 27n

where peak value of current flowing through diode (or load resistance R) is given as
.(13.4)

max
Vsmax
R +RL (13.5)
3. DC Output Current. The average or de value of output current is given as
2T 2Tt
-
i d(on) =
ma sincord(or)+ od(or)
m f cosor) a = 0.3181max (13.6)
Substituting the value of Imax from Eq. (13.5) we have

VSmax
Vsmax Vsmax if R >
R .13.7)
r(R; +R^) TRL
4. DC Output Voltage. Average or de value of voltage across the load is given as

VSmax
Vdc aeRL T(RL +RF).RL VsmBx 13.8)
L

If R>> Rp, then V Smax

.(13.9)
5. RMS Value of Current. RMS value of current flowing through the diode (or load resistance R)
is given as
2T 2T

dcon) = sin ordiar)+ fodan-

or rms ma (13.10)
Substituting the value of Imax
ma
from Eq. (13.5), we have

ns
Vsmax
2(RF +RL) ..(13.11)

6. RMS Value of Output Voltage. RMS value of voltage across the load is given as

VSmax X RL
L ms msR= Vsmax
2(RF +RL) .(13.12)

If R >> Rp, then VL ms Vsmax ..(13.13)

2
7. Form Factor and Peak Factor. The form factor, defined as the ratio of value
rms to average
value, is given by

K
K, RMS value VSnax 2(Rp *KL2
==1.57 .(13.14)
Average value de VSmax T(Rp + R)2157
 The peak factor, defined as the ratio of peak value to rms value, is given by

Peak value
RMSRMS value Smax /(R +RL)_Vsmax=2
VSmax/ 2(R +RL) Smax /22
.(13.15)

8. Output Frequency. The output frequency is the same as the input frequency. This can be
realized by comparing output waveform with the input waveform in Fig. 13.2. Thus for an half-wave
rectifier

Joutin .13.16)
9. Rectification Eficiency. Rectification efficiency, which is defined as the ratio of de output
pOwer to
the ac input power, is given as

DC power delivered to the load

A C input power from the transformer Pac
Now dc power delivered to the load,
2
P R max RL .(13.17)

AC power input from the transformer

Pa Power dissipated in diode junction + power dissipated in load resistance R;
2
..(13.18)
4

So rectification efficiency,

Pac max RL/7 RL 0.406 .(13.19)

nPac
P Imax (R +RL)/4 (Rp +RL) I+RE
RL
If R is neglected, n becomes equal to 0.406 or 40.6 per cent. Obviously it is the maximum possible
efficiency for a half-wave rectifier.
10. Ripple Factor. The pulsating output of a rectifier can be considered to contain a de component
and ac components called the ripples. The ripple current is undesirable and its value should be the smallest
possible in order to make the rectifier effective
The ripple voltage or current is measured in terms of the ripple factor which is defined as the ratio
of the effective value of the ac components of voltage (or current) present in the output from the rectifier
to the direct or average value of the output voltage (or current).
The effective value of the load current is given as
.(13.20)
Where I, , etc. are the rms values of fundamental, second etc. harmonics and 1 is the sum of the squares
of the rms values of the ac components.

So ripple factor, y =
de
...(13.21)
de
where Kis the form factor of the input voltage. For half-wave rectifier, form factor is given as

K, = s= = 2 =157
av max/T
So ripple factor, y = .57 -I = 1.21
 . Transformer Utilisation Factor. Determination of transformer rating becomes necessary while
designing a power supply. For this transformer utilisation factor (TUF), which is defined as the ratio
of power delivered to the load and ac rating of the transformer secondary, should be known.

So TUF = Pac RL max/mRKL. 2/2. nas RL 2 Vs max .13.22)

ac (rated) VSms rms VSmaxmax
2 2
But Vs max
=
Imar (Rp + R)
Imax RL = 0.286 RL
So TUF = 22
Tmax(Rp +RL) RL +Rp 13.23)
Neglecting forward resistance Rp of the diode we have TUF =0.286.
12. Regulation. The variation of dc output voltage as a function of dc load current is called
regulation. Percentage regulation is given as

% regulation = NLVL 100

VFL
For an ideal power supply, output voltage should be independent of load current and the percent
age regulation should be equal to zero.

For half-wave rectifier, from Eq. (13.8)

Va VSmax RL
Re+RL)
n (Rp +RL)
Vsmax RF
RF +RL VsmaxIaR
TT
.(13.24)
From above equation it seems that the half-wave rectifier func- RF
Vsmax volts in series
tions as if it were a constant voltage source of Vvolts series
wwww dc

VSmes
with an internal resistance being equal to Rp. Thus Vd equals VSmax c

T
at no load and dc output voltage decreases linearly with the increase
in output dc current le Clearly, the effective internal resistance of the SOURCE- JLOAD
power supply is Rp. In practice, the resistance Rs of the transformer
Fig. 13.3 Thevenin's Model
secondary is in series with the diode, and in Eq. (13.24) Rs is to be
For a Half-Wave Rectifier
added in Rp Thevenin's model for a half-wave rectifier is given in
Fig. 13.3.
Efect of Diode Cutin Voltage on Rectifier Output. We do not get a perfect half-wave voltage
across the load resistor. Because of the barrier potential (or cutin voltage) of diode, the diode does not
turn on until the ac source voltage attains approximately 0.7 V in case of silicon diode. When the peak
source voltage is much greater than barrier potential (V of diode, the load voltage will resemble a
half-wave signal. If the peak source voltage is not much greater than diode barrier potential,
Peak value of voltage across load resistor R, K

out (max) = VSmax Vk ..(13.25) *o E +

Vs AL Vs-Vk
VS max Vk
DC output voltage, Vde ..(13.26)
-O

DC output current,
VdeSmaxk .(13.27) Fig. 13.4
RL TRL
 Condition For Maximum DC Output Power in a Half-Wave Rectifier. DC output power in a half.
wave single phase rectifier is given by

2 12
max Vsmax RL VSmax
Pae RL RL
T (R+RF)°
max RL+RF
Differentiating both sides of above equation w.r.t. R, we have

dPc V$max Ri+R +2R;RF)-R; (2RL +2R ) VSmax (R R~) -

dRL (R+R +2R R m (R+R? +2R Rp

dPc= 0
Output will be maximum if C
dRL
or R -R = 0
or R =
RF i.e., when load resistance equals diode resistance.
The advantages and disadvantages of a half-wave rectifier are given below.
Advantages. Simple circuit and low cost.
Disadvantages. 1. The output current in the load contains, in addition to dc
component, ac compo-
nents of basic frequency
equal to that of the input voltage frequency. Ripple factor is high
and an elaborate filtering is, therefore,
required to give steady dc output.
2. The power output and, therefore, rectification
that power is delivered only half the time.
efficiency is quite low. This is due to the fact
3. Transformer utilization factor is low.
4. DC saturation of transformer core
resulting in magnetising current and hysteresis losses and
generation of harmonics.
The type of supply available from a half-wave rectifier is
This type of supply can be
not satisfactory for general power supply.
satisfactory for some particular purposes such as battery charging.
 13.3. FULL-WAVE RECTIFIERS
. holf-wave rectifiers only one halt cycles of the input are utilized but in full-wave rectifiers both half
In ha
cycles of
of the
the input are utilized. Alternate half cycles are inverted to give unidirectional load current.
input are
cycles
aTe two types of full-wave rectifier circuits namely 1. centre-tap rectifier and 2. bridge rectifier.
13.3.1. Centre-Tap Full-Wave Rectifier
ln uuch a rectifier, the ac input is applied through a transformer, the anodes of the two
diodes D, and D,
having similar characteristics) are connected to the opposite ends of the centre-tapped secondary winding
and two cathodes are connected to each other and are connected also through the load resistance Rz and
back to the centre of the transformer, as shown in Fig. 13.5.

Vymlm
Vs1 max
2

V2 max 0r 2m
-Vs1 max Vst
Vs2 max
s2 V
YLmax max

3T
=. D2

-Vs2 max RECTIFIED OUTPUT VOLTAGEICURRENT

INPUT VOLTAGE WAVEFORMS WAVEFORMS

Fig. 13.5 Centre-Tap Full-Wave Rectifier

When the top of the transformer secondary winding is positive, say during the first half cycle of the
Supply, the anode of diode D, is positive w.r.t. cathode, and anode of diode D, is negative w.r.t. cathode.
Thus only diode D, conducts, being forward biased and current flows from cathode to anode of diode D.
through load resistance R, and top half the transformer secondary making cathode end of load resistance
KL POSitive. During the second half cycle of the input voltage the polarity is reversed, making the bottom
O e secondary winding positive w.r.t. centre tap and thus diode D, is forward biased and diode LD, Is
reverse biased. Consequently during this half cycle of the input only the diode D, conducts and current
Tows through the load resistance R, and bottom of the transformer secondary making the cathode end of
tne load resistance R, positive. Thus the direction of flow of current through the load resistance R remains
same during both halves of the input supply voltage. Thus the circuit shown in Fig. 13.5 acts as
a full-wave rectifier.

Peak Inverse Voltage. As already mentioned before, peak inverse voltage (PIV) is the maximum
v o l t a g e across a diode when it is reverse blased. Duringfirst halr cycle or the supply i.e., when
Lne top of the transformer secondary winding is positive, diode D, conducts and offers almost zero
stance. So whole of the voltage Vs may of the upper half winding is developed across the load resistance
Now voltage across the non-conducting diode D, is the sum of voltage across the lower half of the
transfor
SIOTmer secondary and the voltage across the load resistance R
Thus PIV of diode, D, =
Vs max+ Vs max ZVs max
Similarly PlV of diode D, = 2 max ..(13.28)
 N

sis

- i Or UPL 2 or UL2
Or UL1

o000000000
O0000O00

www-
 0 and i, max Sin for second
and i = cor
half cycle ..(13.32)
The total current flowing through the load resistance R;, being the sum of currents i, and i, is given as
i =i + iz =
max sin or for the whole cycle ..(13.33)
ore eak value of current flowing through the load resistance R is given as

max
Vsmax ..(13.34) in case of centre-tap rectifier
R +RL

and max
Vs max .(13.35) in case of bridge rectifier
2R +RL
2. Output Current. Since the current is the same through the load resistance R, in the two halves
of the ac cycle, magnitude ot direct current de which is equal to the average value of alternating
uTrent, can be obtained by integrating the current i between 0 and n or current i between nt and 21.

So la d ) - 21,T
max sin or d(or) = max .(13.36)
T

3, DC Output Voltage. Average or dc value of voltage across the load is given as

.(13.37)
V R
4. RMS Value of Current. RMS or effective value of current flowing through the load resistance R; is
given as

d ( o r ) =1 sin or dan) = ás
0

or
..(13.38)

RMS value of voltage across the load is given as

5. RMS Value of Output Voltage.
max R ..(13.39)
Vi rms R
6. Form Factor and Peak Factor.

RMS Smax//2 ..(13.40)

K,
Form factor, Ky = value =

Average value Ide 2 max/

Peak factor,
Peak value
max =
.(13.41)
Kp =

RMS value max2

7. Output Frequency. With a half-wave rectifier, the output frequency cquals the input frequency.
is double the input frequency. A full-wave output has twice
But the
frequency of the full-wave signal so that
as the sine-wave The full-wave rectifier inverts each negative half eycle,
input has.
many cycles as
rectifier
to double the frequency. Thus, for full-wave
we get the number of positive half cycles. The effect is
...(13.42)
Jout 2fin
8. Rectification Efficiency. Power delivered to load,

.(13.43)
P 1 R -( R=ax R
..(13.44)
AC input power, Pac = Is (R + Rp)= max (R, + R)
 0.812
12RL .1345)
Rectification efficiency, n Pac
max (RL+ Rp) RL
as
rectification efficiency is given
In case of bridge rectifier, (13.46)
0.812
2 RE
1RL the rectified output voltage
of a full-wave rectifier is given as

factor of
9. Ripple Factor. Form

K,=m= nan
2 Imax /7T
=1.11
Ripple factor is given as

.(13.47)
Y R-1
=
y(u.113 - =0,482
10. Regulation. From Eq. (13.37).
2Vsmax R_2Vs max LRp (13.48)
2Vs max RL
T(Rp+R) R +RL LR, (1348
In case of a bridge rectifier,
2Vs max - 21R .(13.49)
Vac
full-wave recti-
11. Transformer Utilization Factor For Centre-Tap Transformer. In a centre-tap
the two halves of the
fier, there is no problem due to saturation of core because the dc currents in
transformer secondary flow in opposite directions. The average transformer utilisation factor is found
by considering the primary and secondary windings.
Transformer utilisation factor of primary
2
(21 max RL
VA
Pace 12RL Tt

rating of primary VS ms rms Vsmax

2
41R/ RL 0.812
(R +R;) T2 RF
R
2 +R)x 1+
RL
Centre-tap transformer can be thought of as equivalent to two half-wave rectifiers feeding to a
common load. Hence, TUF of two half secondaries can be written as

TUF(Full secondary) 2 XTUJF(Half-wave) 2

TUFFull secondary)= x0.286 =0.572
The average transformer utilisation
factoor,
(TUF= TUFPrimary TUFsecondary
+

2
0.812+0.572 = 0.692
2
12. Transformer
Utilisation Factor For Bridge
secondary windings are sinusoidal. Due Rectifier.
The current flow
primary and
to this TUF of both the through both of
ary are 0.812 and the overall TUF is also 0.812. Since in case of primary and second-
bridge rectifier TUF is 0.812 whereas
 transformer is 0.692 i.e., TUF of bridge rectifier is larger than that of centre-tap
TIE
the T UF for centre-tap
in the bridge circuit.
er. for
rectifier, the same dc output power, a smaller transformer can be used
for th
of Diode Cutin Voltage on Rectifier Output and PIV of Diodes
13.3.4. Effect
Centre-Tap Rectifier. Peak value of voltage across load resistor R,.
1.
out (max)= VmaxVx .(13.50)
as in case of half-wave rectifier

DC output voltage, Vde = <(Vsmmax

Vs wout+
w
VK) ..(13.51)

DC output current,I = Yde-2 SmaxVx) .(13.52)

RL RL
-0

Peak inverse voltage (PIV) of diode Fig. 13.7

+voltage developed across load resistor R
max
max+ out (max) max+(max-Vx)= 2Vmax-Vg .(13.53)
2. Bridge Rectifier. Voltage developed across load resistor R;,
out (max) =Vs :nax2Vk .(13.54)

DC output voltage, Vde -

(VSmax-2Vx) ..(13.55)

DC output current, I = d e 2(VSmax-2Vx) ..(13.56)

RL RL

Peak inverse voltage (PIV) of diode Vs(VSmax + voltage developed across load resistor RL)

VSmax +(Vsmax =Vs maxi VK .(13.57)

13.3.7. Comparison Between Half-Wave, Centre-Tap and Bridge Rectifiers
TABLE 13.1.

Half-Wave Full-Wave Rectifiers

S.No. Particulars
Rectifiers Centre-Tap Bridge
Number of diodes required 1 2 4
1.
Transformer requirement not essential essential by centre tap not essential
2
3. Average value of current, ldc Imax/T 2max/T 2 Imax/t

max/2 max/V2 max/2

4. RMS value of current, Irms
5. Peak inverse voltage (PIV) S max
2 Vs max s ma
Vs max Vs max Vs max
6. Peak load current, Imax
RL + Rp R +Rp R +2 Rp
7. DC output voltage, Vdc ax R max R.
8. Rectification efficiency (max) 40.6% 81.2% 81.2%
9. Ripple factor 1.21 0.482 0.482
10. Fundamental frequency of ripple Supply frequency. f 2 2f
11. Voltage regulation good better good
12. Transformer utilisation factor 0.286 0.692 0.812
13. Form factor 1.57 1.11 1.11

14. Peak factor 2 2