ENGINEERING

CONSIDERATIONS
for
MICROWAVE
COMMUNICATIONS
SYSTEMS

GTE Lenkurt Incorporated

1105 County Road
San Carlos, California
PREFACE

This book is a lineal descendant of an earlier Lenkurt publication, "Microwave Path Engineering
Considerations 6000-8000 MC", which was originally published in 1960 and re-issued in a slightly
revised edition in 1961. The purpose of that publication was to assemble in one volume, in a readily
usable and practical form, the basic information, principles, techniques and practices needed by an
engineer engaged in the planning and engineering of line-of-sight paths for microwave communications
systems.

The present volume retains essentially the same purpose, in an expanded, enlarged, and
modernized version, reflecting the substantial changes which have taken place in the past decade. A
much wider range of frequencies is covered, and new and extensive material is included on
propagation, diversity, and reliability calculations. Also much expanded is the material on noise
performance and noise calculation methods, and new material has been added on towers, transmission
lines, and waveguides.

A preliminary edition of the present book was prepared in 1969 and a limited distribution made,
with a view to obtaining comments and suggestions from the industry. Many valuable suggestions were
received,· most of which have been incorporated into the present edition to make it, we believe, a
much improved work. The efforts of those who were kind enough to review the preliminary edition
and send us their comments are gratefully acknowledged.

Although considerable effort has been made to eliminate errors, it is likely that some have
survived, and we would appreciate having any of these called to our attention.

Robert F. White
Senior Staff Engineer
Systems Engineering Department

Lenkurt Electric Co., Inc.

San Carlos, California
June, 1970

This third printing has been changed to include changes to formulas in the text which were
outlined in the second printing on page 119 under "An Important Post Script about Propa-
gation Calculations." That information is also Included for reference on page 119 of this
printing. ·
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION TITLE PAGE
I INTRODUCTION

II MICROWAVE FREQUENCY BANDS 2

Ill ROUTE AND SITE SELECTION 5
A. Order of Procedure 5

B. Sites 5

The Requirements 5

Intermediate Repeater Sites 5

Site Considerations . . . 5

C. Microwave Paths - General Appreciation Of Path Influences 6

Description of Microwave Beam 6

Influence of Terrain and Obstructions . . . . . 6

Influence of Weather . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Influence of Rain and Fog at Higher Frequencies 8
Influence of Objects in Azimuth . 8
Atmospheric Absorption . . . . . . . . . . 8

D. Sources of Path Data 8

Maps 8

2. Aerial Photography 11

E. Path Promes 11

1. Curvature 11

Scales 11

3. Equivalent Earth Profiles

4. Reflection Point Calculations 17

5. Preliminary Map Survey 18

Use of Maps . . . . . 18
Limitations . . . . . 18
Cases of Incomplete Mapping 18
Interference and Coordination-Preliminary Considerations 21
Frequency Band Division 21
Intra-System Interference 21
External Interference 21

6. The Field Survey 22

SECTION TITLE PAGE

Path Profdes (Cont.

Instrumentation 22
Things to be Avoided 24
Methods of Operation ·. 24
Records and Reports 26
Final Profiles 26
Path Coordinates, Azimuths and Distances 26

F. Path Tests 26

Brief Description of the Tests 27

Information they Provide 27
Effects of K Variations 27
Cost Considerations . 27

IV OVERALL SYSTEM DESIGN 28

A. Purpose of Section 28

1. Final Objective for a System 28

2. Order of Presentation 28

B. Interference and Frequency Coordination 28

How Interference Occurs 28

Interference Mechanisms 29
Effect on the System 29

2. General Classifications 29

Self Interference . 29
External Interference 29

3. Effect of Interference on Different Types of Signals 30

Voice, Data, Television 30

Tone Versus Pulse Interference 31

4. Calculations for Interference Effect 31

5. Satellite System Interference 31

c. Propagation 33

Variations in Signal Level due to Fading 33

Comparison with Carrier Systems 33

ii
SECTION TITLE PAGE

C. Propagation (Cont.

2. Ground, Sky and Space Waves 33

General Effects of Frequency 33

3. General Nature of Microwave Propagation 34

Comparison with Light Waves 34

4. Free Space Attenuation 34

Definition . . . . . 34
Nature of Losses in Free Space 34
Free Space Formula . . . . 34

5. Terrain Effects 35
Blocking, Cancellation of Out of Phase Signals 35
Nature of Obstruction Losses . . . 35
Development of Fresnel Zone Radii 38

6. Atmospheric Effects 4.1

The Refractive Index . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Illustrations of Refraction as Related to the M Profile 42
K Factors 43
Weather Fronts 44
Rain Attenuation 44
Fog . . . . . . 46
Attenuation by Atmospheric Gases 50

7. Clearance Criteria s
Normal Non-Reflective Paths 51
Reflective Terrain 52
Open, Rolling Terrain 52

8. Delay Distortion 53

9. Fading 53

10. Propagation Reliability and Diversity Considerations SS

Diversity Arrangements . . . . 56
Reflective Path Diversity Spacings 58

1. Methods of Calculating the Probability of Outages due to Propagation 59

Non-Diversity Annual Outages 59

Frequency Diversity Improvement Factor 60
Cross Band Diversity Improvement Factor 60

iii
SECTION TITLE PAGE

C. Propagation (Cont.:

Space Diversity Improvement Factor 61

Hybrid Diversity Improvement Factor 61
Correlation Coefficients 61
Multiline Systems 62
Non-Selective Fading 65
Other Treatments 65

D. Noise Performance 65

Total Noise 66
Thermal Noise . 66
Intermodulation Noise 66
Echo Distortion Noise . 66
Atmospheric and Man-Made Noise 66
Multiplex System Noise . . . . 66

2. Noise Units 66
3. Determination of System Noise 67
Receiver Thermal Noise 68
Practical Threshold . . 70
Fade Margin . . . . 71
System Loading and its Effect on Noise 71
Voice Loading . . . 73
"Military" Loading . 73
Composite Loading . 73
Summing dB Powers 74
Intermodulation Noise 74
Per Hop Total Noise 78

4. System Noise Objectives 78

CCIR/CCITT International Circuits 79

U.S.A. Public Telephone Networks 79
Industrial Systems . . . . . . 80
"Military" Systems . ·. . . . . 80
Television Transmission Systems 81

5. Noise Allowable for Small Percentages of Time 81

CCIR/CCITT . . . . . . . . 81
U.S.A. Public Telephone Networks 82
Industrial Systems . . 82
"Military" Systems . . 82
Television Transmission 82

iv
SECTION TITLE PAGE

v. EQUIPMENT 83

A. Radio Equipment 83

B. RF Combiners 83

c. Towers 84

D. Waveguide and Transmission Lines 88

1. Rectangular Guide 89

2. Circular Guide 89

3. Elliptical Guide 89

E. Antenna Systems 90

1. Direct Radiating Antennas 90

Parabolic Antennas . . 90
High-Performance or Shrouded Antennas 91
Cross-Band Parabolic Antennas 91
Horn Reflector Antennas 91

Periscope Antenna Systems 92

F Radom es 99

G. Passive Repeaters 99

H. Wire Line Entrance Links 106

VI. CALCULATIONS FOR A MICROWAVE SYSTEMS 107

A. Path Data Sheets 107

B. System Reliability Estimates 10

1. Reliability with Respect to Multipath Fading 110

2. Reliability with Respect to Non-Selective Fading

3. Equipment Reliability Considerations

Equipment Availability Calculations 14

Availability as a Parameter 15
What Alternatives? . 16

4. Power Reliability Considerations

v
SECTION TITLE PAGE

C. Noise Performance Calculations 117

Microwave Noise 117

North American Method 17

CCIR Method . . . . 17

2. Echo Distortion Noise

3. Multiplex Noise

4. Total Noise Estimates 18

North American Method 118

CCIR Method . . . . 118

APPENDIX I USEFUL FORMULAS AND EQUATIONS A

APPENDIX II USEFUL FORMULAS AND EQUATIONS IN METRIC FORM Bl

APPENDIX III USEFUL TABLES AND FIGURES c:

vi
LIST OF TABLES

NUMBER TITLE PAGE

Microwave bands available to communications common carriers in

the U.S.A. under Part 21 of the FCC Rules . . . . . . . . .

A2 Microwave bands available for private and local government micro-

wave systems within the U.S.A. under various Parts of FCC Rules.
(Not all bands are available to all types of users.) . . . . . . 2

A3 Microwave bands availi:tble for TV Auxiliary Services within U.S.A.

under Part 74 of FCC Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A4 Microwave bands available for Federal Government Services within

the U.S.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

AS Microwave bands per CCIR Recommendations 3

A6 Microwave bands in Canada per Department of Communications System Plan 4

Bl Multiplying factors which can be used to convert Fresnel Zone Radii

calculated for 6.17 5 GHz to other bands . . . . . . . . . . . 40

B2 Multiplying factor for determining F n when F is known 41

c Excess attenuation due to atmospheric absorption 5

D Relationship between system reliability and outage time 56

E Noise unit comparison chart 69

F Standard CCIR 20 log} o6.f/fch factors for top slot 71

G Summation or subtraction of non-coherent powers 75

H Typical U.S.A. noise objectives 80

I Antenna gains for estimating purposes 92

vii
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

1 Diffraction vs. Refraction

2 Blocking and reflecting effects in the horizontal plane 9

3 Earth curvature for various values of K 13

Equivalent earth profile curves 14

5 Path profile example (flat earth) 15

6. Path profile example (curved earth) 16

7A-B Point of reflection on over-water microwave path 19-20

8 Overreach interference criteria 22

9 Adjacent section and junction or spur interference 22
10 The radar interference case 23
11 Interference coordination of paralleling systems . 23
12 A method of screening microwave antennas when required on a radar site 31

13 Free space attenuation between Isotropic antennas 36

14 Behaviour of attenuation vs path clearance 37

15 First Fresnel Zone radius (6. 75 GHz) 39

16 Typical M profiles 45

17 Rain attenuation vs rainfall rate 47

18 Attenuation due to precipitation 48

19 Contours of constant path length for fixed outage time 49

20 Expected outage time iIJ hours per year vs path length in miles for
various areas of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

21 Outage probability vs fade margin, for 6. 7 GHz paths of various lengths 63

22 Outage probability vs path length, for a 6.7 GHz path with 40 dB

fade margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

23A Receiver thermal noise 72

Typical receiver noise curve 76

viii
FIGURE TITLE PAGE

24 Echo distortion noise 77

Approximate area required for guyed tower 85

25B Approximate area required for 3-leg shelf supported tower 86

2SC Approximate area required for 4-leg self supported tower 86

26 EIA wind loading zones in the U.S.A. 87

27A~D Periscope gain curves; 6'x8', 8'x 12', I O'x 15' and I 2'x 17' reflector 94-97

28A Passive repeater gain chart IOI

Antenna-reflector efficiency curves 102

Passive repeater gain correction when passive in near field 103

Double passive repeater efficiency curves 104

29 Microwave path data calculation sheet example 108

ix
 INTRODUCTION

This book is intended to assemble in one any microwave equipment designed for operation
volume, in a readily usable and practical form, a in the above bands, provided due account is taken
compendium of the best available information on of differences in RF components, transmission
the planning and engineering of line-of-sight micro- lines, antennas, and propagation characteristics.
wave paths for communications systems. The em-
phasis is on techniques and practices, but a consid-
erable amount of theoretical discussion is included The use of frequency modulated microwave
as an aid in understanding the various phenomena radio systems is widely recognized as a flexible,
which are important in microwave transmission. reliable and economical means of providing point-
to-point communications facilities. These radio
Though the book will have its major value as a systems, when used with appropriate multiplex
handbook for communications engineers engaged in equipment, can carry from a few circuits up to a
microwave path planning, it is sufficiently general large number of voice, telegraph and data circuits.
to be used by management people and by engineers They can also be arranged to carry additional
in other fields, as an aid in understanding the wide-band circuits for high-speed data, facsimile, or
characteristics of microwave communications sys- high-quality audio channels. Television · is also
tems. carried by microwave radio, but, because of its
wide baseband requirements, each video signal is
Many formulas, charts, and figures are scat- usually carried on a separate radio channel.
tered throughout the work. Lists of the charts and
the figures are included in the Table of Contents, Comparative cost studies usually prove a
and as an aid in day-to-day usage, selected formu- microwave system to be the most economical
las, charts, and figures have also been duplicated in means for providing communication circuits where
appendices at the end of the book. there are no existing cable or wire lines to be
expanded. Where there are severe terrain or weather
Throughout the text and in Appendices I and conditions to be overcome, the cost advantage
III, all material involving units of length is develop- becomes several-fold. For temporary facilities, and
ed on the basis of feet and miles, the units in other applications where installation time is
common use throughout North America. In order severely limited, the advantages of radio are ob-
to make the book more useful to those who work vious.
in metric units, Appendix II provides metric ver-
sions of those formulas and equations which
involve units of length. Also included in this In applications where expandability is import-
Appendix are some suggested ways in which certain ant, a microwave system can be installed initially
of the charts and figures can be used with meters with only a few carrier circuits. Then, as traffic
and kilometers rather than feet and miles. increases, the capacity can be expanded by the
addition of more channelizing equipment, or by
The book covers FM microwave systems paralleling radio equipment. Several radio channels
which operate in one of a number of frequency can be arranged to use the originally installed
bands between approximately 2 GHz and 16 GHz. antennas, waveguides, supporting structures, build-
The discussion is general so that it can be applied to ings and standby protection facilities.
II. MICROWAVE FREQUENCY BANDS

Most, if not all, microwave systems will be licensing body is the Department of Communica-
subject to regulation by the government of the tions. In many countries it \s the Department of
country in which the system is to be located. In Posts and Telegraphs, or some similar entity. Most
general, each country allocates specific bands of countries, other than the United States, follow the
frequencies for specific services or for specific frequency allocations recommended by the Inter-
users. Within the United States the Federal Com- national Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR).
munications Commission (FCC) is the controlling
authority for all systems except those operated by Within the broad microwave portion of the
agenc~ of the Federal Government, the latter radio frequency spectrum, the fixed allocations in
usually being placed in frequency bands separate effect at the time of preparation of this manual
from those controlled by FCC. In Canada, the (1970) are given in the following tables:

Table Al Microwave bands available to communications common carrier in the U.S.A.

under Part 21 of the FCC Rules
CENTER ATT'N IN COMMENTS OR
BAND RANGE FREQ dB AT EMISSION
NAME GHz GHz 1.0 MILE LIMITATION

2 GHz 2.11 - 2.13 & 2.145 103.2 3500F9 ttt

2.16 - 2.18
4GHz 3.70 - 4.20 3.950 108.5 . 20,000F9 t
6GHz 5.926 - 6.425 6.175 112.4 30,000F9 tt
11 GHz 10.7 - 11 .7 11.20 117.6 50,000F9

t Shared with Satellite-to-Earth

ttt 2. 1 t to 2. 12 shared with space telecommand
tt Shared with Earth-to-Satellite transmit

Table A2. Microwave bands available for private and local government microwave systems
within the U.S.A. under various Parts of FCC Rules. (Not all bands are available
to all types of users.)
CENTER ATT'N IN COMMENTS OR
BAND RANGE FREQ dB AT EMISSION
NAME GHz GHz 1.0 MILE LIMITATION

1.85 - 1.99 1.920 102.3 8,000F9

2.13-2.15& 2.166 103.3 800F9
2GHz
2.18 - 2.20
2.45 - 2.50 2.475 104.5 Shared
6 GHz 6.576 - 6.875 6.725 113. t 10,000F9
-
12 GHz 12.2 - 12.7 12.450 118.5 20,000F9

Table A3. Microwave bands available for TV Auxiliary Services within U.S.A. under Part 74
of FCC Rules.
CENTER ATT'N IN COMMENTS OR
BAND RANGE FREQ dB AT EMISSION
NAME GHz GHz 1.0 MILE LIMITATION
2 GHz 1.99-2.11 2.050 102.8 STL, etc.
7 GHz 6.875 - 7.126 7.000 113.5 STL, e1c.
12.7 - 13.25 12.975 118.9 STL, etc.
12 GHz
·12.7 - 12.96 12.825 118.8 CARS t

t Comm. Antenna Relay Service

2
 Table A4. Microwave bands available for Federal
Government Services within U.S.A.
CENTER ATT'N IN
BAND RANGE
FREQ dB AT
NAME GHz
GHz 1.0MILE
1.71 - 1.85 1.780 101.6
2GHz
2.20 - 2.29 2.245 103.6
4 GHz 4.40- 5.00 4.700 110.0
7-8 GHz 7.125 - 8.40 t 7.750 114.4 -
14 GHz 14.40 - 15.25 14.825 120.0
t 7.25 - 7.30 GHz reserved for Satellite-to-Earth
7.975 - 8.025 GHz reserved for Earth·to·Satellite

Table AS. Microwave bands per CCIR Recommendations. Geneva 1974

RANGE CENTER ATT'N IN CAPACITY
REC.
FREQ dB AT
NO. GHz CHANNELS
GHz 1.0 MILE
1.7 - 1.9 1.808 101.7

283·2 1.9 - 2.1 2.000 102.6 60& 120

2.1 - 2.3 2.203 103.5
1.7-2.1 1.903 102.2
600 to 1800
382·2 1.9 - 2.3 2.101 103.0
3.8 - 4.2 t 4.0035 108.6
3.7 -4.2 •t 3.950 108.5
383-1 5.925 - 6.425 tt 6.175 , 12.4 1800 or equiv.

384-2 6.43 - 7.11 6.770 113.2 2700 or 1260

7.125 - 7.425 •• 7.275 113.8
7.250 - 7.550 ... 7.400 114.0
385 60. 120,300
7.425 - 7.725 7.575 114.2
7.550 - 7.850 7.700 114.3
8.200 - 8.500 8.350 115.0' 960

386·1 7.725 - 8.275 ... 8.000 114.7 1800

387·2 10.7 - 11.7 1, .200 117.6 960

t Shared with Satellite-10-Earth

.
tt Shared with Earth-to-Satellite
Alternate for U.S.A.
"* 7.250 - 7.300 GHz Reserved for Satellite-to-Earth
7.975 - 8.025 GHz Reserved for Earth·to·Satellite

3
 l
Table A6. Microwave bands in Canada per Department of Communications Plan

I PLAN
1110
RANG E
GHz
CAPACITY &> USE

I :t'-60 tt1annals M 1ntetl•avtd pl..,

303 1100 1 900
60- 3QO clwlnels on m1•n 1>loi11
304 • 1.900 - 2.300 GOO 1eoo """"".i. o• rv
"100 ' &48 - 2.6&. Jnstruction.11 TV 5..,...14e
- 302 . 3.550 4.200 600-2700 cnmool> or TV
5975-6.425 600 1800 c:honnil• or TV
6 ~ 25-7125 300-960 ch.nMl• ur TV
30! 600 2700 '"""""'
Studio TV llnkt. •IC..

1125 7 725 12-120 .i,.,,nei.

300-'!60 cn•rmal•
24 PCM d""'"•I•
30S
0f1'kvoy TV '" R il(fur on ce<1ni11 llF chann•1l1
Pnilvt R!llec!<n• IMY be u-1
Four ,,..~•<!N:V pllft

30G . 7 775 8275 600-1800 c:hannol~ or TV

- 8275 8.400 0 11a WIY TV °'
Rader
10 ss -10 ae Ex11Grlmomal PCM Chm111ltl•

357 10 70 - 11 70 300-960 d'fllnnel1 or TV

CCIR Panive tollecton m•v be u •d
R0<. Four lrequency plnn

"Sy&rrun design obloctlve lhould be 3 0 rA'lil<m o r batter

NOTE: Assignments are give n on the basis of use rathor than typo of user. Government
policy is thet no frequency bands will be designeted common carrier, etc.. although
in acbJal practice the common carrier would nonnally use t"- bands marked with
asterisk, to obtain pef"forrMnce desired.

L
4
III. ROUTE AND SITE SELECTION

A. Order of Procedure a terminal must be the starting point on site

selection.
As a starting point, it is assumed that prelimi-
nary facility planning (including operational re-
quirements, traffic studies, expansion potential,
reliability requirements and cost studies) has been The choice of intermediate repeater sites is
completed to such a degree that the points to be greatly influenced by the nature of the terrain
served have been fixed, and the required system between sites. In preliminary planning it may be
capacity has been determined. assumed that, in relatively flat areas, the path
lengths will average out between 25 and 35 miles
Preliminary studies for site location can for the frequency bands from 2 GHz through 8
usually be made from maps and aerial photographs GHz, with extremes in either direction depending
prepared by other agencies; however, the final site upon terrain. In the 11 GHz and higher bands, the
selections must be made from field surveys, and the pattern of rainfall has a large bearing on path
profiles and notes thereby derived. length. These factors will be covered in more detail
under subsection C. Microwave Paths.
B. Sites
In all cases the sites should be as level as
1. The Requirements possible. The need for leveling should be considered
as a part of the cost of preparing the site.
Terminal sites are more often than not loca-
tions of existing structures or facility terminals, but Since maintenance access is very important, an
the intermediate sites are located with considerable access road must be considered. In addition, the
emphasis on factors having to do with propagation availability of AC power of suitable voltage, and
over the intermediate paths, and possible interfer- the possibility that telephone facilities may be
ence from sources internal or external to the needed, enter into the site selection.
system. In some cases there may be problems in the
use of an existing building for a terminal radio site, The possibility of interference, internal or
even though common maintenance, facility layout external to the system, must be considered. Inter-
and economy tend to dictate such selection. If the nal interference may take the form of overreach,
building is of adequate height to mount antenna junction or adjacent section interference. External
fixtures on the roof without fear of path blockage interference may take the form of radar interfer-
by other buildings, this Wilf be -an-·1aeal terminal ence, interference from nearby radio systems of
point. The possibility of future building construc- similar fre~uency, or interference induced from
tio~ong the e_ath must, of c~urse; be take_!J_into unfiltered lower frequency radio systems.
consideratTon. The mounting of antenna fixtures on
the'roof~-or constructmg_a -fow on t,h_e roo(may Site Considerations
require inves~ into the architectural and
structtital---pra:n-s-- uf the ow~mtlne There are a number of site considerations
whether-the·stfuctttte is adequate,and the costof which must be investigated in the field survey, and
building modiflcattonsTo accomplish the purpose the accumulated data should be recorded for
must be cofi.slaerea.-U-n rare oecas1oris plans for subsequent use. Some of these are indicated in the
future floor additions must be considered. It may following paragraphs.
be desirable to add the steel for one or more floors
for the future addition, and then ~a 1. A full description of each site by geographical
structure on top. This plan must include main.te- coordinates, political subdivision, access i;oads
.nance access toJ!le- antennas and waveguide. Such a and physical objects with which it can be
plan should be worked out having in mind the identified. Geographical coordinates should be
views of city officials who may require building computed to the nearest second of l~
facing for the vacant floors for appearance reasons. and longitude for the exact location recom-
memtecrf'Or the tower. Should this location be
Where additional height is required and build- changed in later engineering work, the coor-
ing structure is such as to reject all of the above dinates should be corrected accordingly.
considerations, a separate tower on the building lot Note: This' degree of accuracy is required
or adjacent to it may be the solution. In any event, primarily because it is specified in FCC Rules.

5
2. Any unusual weather conditions to be expec- representing the longitudinal center of the beam or
ted in the area, including amount of snow and main lobe, particularly when discussing line-of-sight
ice accumulation, maximum expected wind clearances. The microwave beam behaves much like
velocity and range of temperatures. a light. beam insofar as atmospheric influences are
concerned, and is subject to certain other external
3. A description of the physical characteristics of influences in a manner described in the following
the site, indicating the amount of leveling discussion.
required, removal of rocks, trees or other
structures, etc. Influence of Terrain and Obstructions

4. The relationship of the site to any commer- The microwave beam is influenced by the
cial, military or private airport within several intermediate terrain between stations and by ob-
miles. It is very important to determine the stacles. It tends to follow a straight line in azimuth
relationship of the site to the orientation of unless intercepted by structures in or near the path.
runways where planes may be taking off or In traveling through the atmosphere it usually
landing. This information is needed to deter- follows a slightly curved path in the vertical plane,
mine compliance with government regulations i.e. it is refracted vertically due to the variation
on potential obstructions to air traffic. with height in the dielectric constant of the atmos-
phere; generally slightly downward, so that the
5. The mean sea level elevation of the site at the radio horizon is effectively extended. The amount
recommended tower location, and the effect of this refraction varies with time due to changes in
on that elevation of any necessary leveling. temperature, pressure and relative humidity, which
control the dielectric constant. This is illustrated in
6. A full description or recommendation for an the lower portion of Figure 1.
access road from the nearest improved road to
the proposed building location. At the point of grazing over an obstacle the
beam is diffracted. There is a very small shadow
There is a possibility that building code area where some energy is redirected in a narrow
restrictions may be involved. Such sites should and rapidly diminishing wedge toward total shad-
be avoided if practicable. ow. The angle enclosed by the wedge of diminish-
ing energy behind the diffracting object, from full
8. The nearest location where commerci~­ signal to full shadow, is extremely small. This
tric power of suitable secondary of- distribu- phenomenon is illustrated in the upper portion of
tion voltage may be obtained, and the name Figure 1. T~_p_rincipal point to be stressed here, is
and office location of the power company. In that when the centerline of the beam just grazes an
countries or locations where public power is obsjacle, there is a loss of energy reaching the far
furnished, similar information is required, but antenna. The loss may be from <@ to twenty
the procedures for contact may be somewhat decibels, depending on the type of surface over
different. which the diffraction occurs. It has been shown
experimentally that a knife-edge diffraction ob-
9. If telephone communication is desired, the stacle will produce a loss of six decibels at grazing.
nearest telephone facility should be indicated A smooth surface, such as flat terrain or water,
together with the name of the company and which actually follows the earths contour, will
the type of service available. produce the maximum loss at grazing. Most ob-
stacles normally found in the path will produce a
10. Any other facts that can be determined at the loss somewhere between the above limits. Trees
time of the survey which might bear on the tend to produce a loss close to six decibels. In order
proposed construction. to minimize diffraction losses, line-of-sight micro-
wave paths are planned to have better than grazing
C. Microwave Paths - General Appreciation clearance even under the most adverse atmospheric
of Path Influences conditions.

1. Description of Microwave Beam Most physical objects in the line-of-sight will

tend to block the beam, causing loss of signal at the
For simplicity, the following discussion will ~ Deciduous trees which may cause rela-
treat the microwave beam. in general as the line tively less loss in winter, can totally block the path

6
 RIJdaQ ~f!Om
0 P,eo~Luu
~~~-~..--~-,.-
~~~~w-=A=r,..-o J
fi Kn1le Ea~ C..
1en11~ Ea•r

fladlo £ldd•n
=
i O f1«e Soaal Lon

- - - S ! 'no11tt1 sr1h .:===z:; i

~
Snnw1n S't1hele Cone

Sl1llduw t> rea

'-'
"~ ~o ~~~~~~~~~~~~~-
n • io
Cf~ '" ftdlllCI Zona;

Dll'FH,\CTION OVER AN OBJEc;T

I l!:l"f<' 1 I hi lrJ < 11011 1 ltdracl11'"

in summer when the leaves are out. In all cases, The Fresnel zones are a series of concentrfc
Lrees should be considered as blocking when in the ellipsoids surrounding the patb-Th~t.besnel
path line, unless the beam has adequate clearance zone1Slhe surfa_Qe containing every poi n:t..f-hic)j
ovor Lhc trees. the sum of the distances from that point to the two
ends of the path is exactly one-half · wayeleng\h
'l'ho beam can be reflected from relatively longer th.an the d.ir>'.ct..Jmd·to.cnd path. '11h e nth
smooth terrain and wut.cr surfaces, just as a light Fresnel zone is detined in·the same mrumer. except
lieam is reflected by a n1irror. Since the wavelength that the dil!crence i.5 n haJf.wavclcng Lh•.
is very much longer t.han llghL waves, Lhe criterion
of smoothness is quite different. The criterion of Since the cross-scclion of the l?rdnel 7.0JJr.s at
smoot.bness is also quite different for very small any poinl along the path is a series of <;oncenttic
angles of incidence than it I• for large an¢eo. This circles completely surrounding !;he path, 1t is
can be illustrated for 17isual light in the ca.so of an important to not.e Lhal cle11ra111)e requitemenl.S,
asphalt highway. When viewed direcUy, the surlnc.e exprc!ISad In Fresnel zories, apply to the sides and
look~ slightly rough and does not reflecl light we ll; above as well as below the path. 1ronnullll> and
however, when viewed from a d1Stancc at a very graphs for calculnLirig Fresnel zone .radii are givt!n ln
small angle, it looks like a mirror or wet surface. a laLCr sec~ton,

Trlfluence. of Weather
An important concept In analyzing microwave
propagation ef!ects, particularly lhose of diffrac· Al~hough a microwave beam is conventi1>nally
lion, refraction, reflection, and the effecls of shown a.• a line, t,~1e actual method or propagation
terrain and obstructions, is that of the Fresnel is as a wave front, nnd the lmporil\nt portion o r the
zone. "'l'he first Fresnel zone ntlius is a kind of wave.frpnt involves a sizeable transvC!llC nre11.
"rubber" unit, which is used Lo measure certain
dlStances (path clear.mces ln particular) ln terrns of ln order to en&lllC frnn space propaglition ll ls
their ef{ecl at the frequency in question, rather esscntlnt thRt all potential obstrucLions along a path
than in terms of feet. The 2nd and higher order are removed from the beam cent.erlin.c by at least
Fresnel zones are also very important under cert<iin 0.6' FI' where FI is lhe radius or the 1st Fresnel
conditions, such as highly reflective path&. zontl" at the point of the obstructions.

7
 For this reason, it is necessary· to provide path path. While the microwave energy is concentrated
clearance over intermediate objects which is some- in a fairly narrow beam, it tends to spread gradually
what greater than line-of-sight. Because refractive as it is propagated through the atmosphere. There
bending varies in cycles daily and changes errat- are also minor lobes of the antenna which, although
ically at times, the clearance over the intermediate having much less power than the main lobe, are
terrain must be adjusted to mini,mize the losses at transmitted in different directions. The corridor of
the extreme bending conditions. Normally, as free transmission required will run up to 230 feet at
mentioned previously, the beam is bent downward the center of a 40 miles path at 4 GHz for example.
by ~tmospheric refraction so that the radio horizon However, the influence of objects in azimuth can
is effectively extended. Nevertheless, at times the run well beyond this indication. Figure 2 illustrates
atmospheric conditions may be such that the beam the case of objects in azimuth. The potential
is bent upward, effectively reducing the clearance problem with off-path objects is reflections, and
ovf!r .terrain in the path. These phenomena and these usually tum out to be from buildings. Energy
Fresnel zones will be discussed more fully in a later traveling the longer reflection path lags behind the
section. main beam. The most serious· case is one of
multiple reflections which might occur, for ex-
Influence of Rain and Fog ample, when a beam is transmitted down a street
at Higher Frequencies - - with tall buildings on both sides. In this case the
delay is likely to be so great as to cause delay
At microwave frequencies up to the 6 and 8 distortion in the baseband. A small round object is
GHz bands, rain attenuation as such is not con- generally incapable of reflecting sufficient energy in
sidered sufficient to warrant special consideration one direction to cause trouble, as the reflection
in the design of the paths, except in very extreme beam is diverse. However, a very large round object
situations. Under saturation rain conditions, a 30 has been known to cause trouble. Such an object
mile path might suffer only a few dB attenuation at would be a large gas container or oil storage tank,
6 GHz. Uniform fog conditions can be considered running up to 150 feet and more in diameter.
in much the same light. However fog conditions
often result from atmospheric conditions such as
temperature inversion, or very still air, accom-
panied by stratification; the former tends to negate Atmospheric absorption due to oxygen and
clearances, and the latter causes severe refractive or water vapor also exists. The magnitude of the effect
reflective conditions, with unpredictable results. In is quite small at the lower frequencies (2-8 GHz),
areas where these conditions prevail, shorter paths and is usually neglected. Even in the higher bands
and adequate cle¥ances are recommended. the effect is relatively small, but not entirely
negligible. Since the amount of attenuation from
At microwave frequencies of 11 and 12 GHz this phenomenon is directly proportional to path
or above, rain attenuation can be very serious. The length, it is usually significant only on longer paths.
amount of attenuation depends upon the rate of A table of absorption attenuation as a function of
rainfall, the size of the drops and the length of path length and frequency band is given in section
exposure. Accordingly, in areas of heavy rainfall IV.C.
where extremely high reliability is. required, short
microwave paths are recommended. It should be D. Sources of Path Data
noted that the rate of rainfall to be considered is
not the annual total rainfall, but the instantaneous 1. Maps
intensity at the time of occurrence. Thus, the west
coast areas of Oregon and Washington in the United Maps are the principal sources of basic data,
States, despite having frequent rain, are considered both for office study which usually precedes the
not likely to experience serious rain attenuation at field survey, and for the field survey itself. There
11 GHz for paths up to 30 miles, because the actual are a number of types of maps which will be
rate of rainfall at a given time is very low. For other discussed herein. Experience has shown that maps
coastal areas the reverse is often true. covering a rather large area in the general territory
to be surveyed, represent good work and record
Influence_2f Objects in Azimuth
sheets which, when posted as the map survey
The influence of objects in azimuth is not progresses, illustrate the progress, general locatiqns,
confined entirely to those which are directly in the angles and place names. A good map of this type is

8
 Reflecting
Object
Partially
Block ing
Object
I I

~- ~--:::
Trans.
Antenna
-- =:Cl
--- :::::::::::::~--~
c:::::: ........
- ,..... Rec.
Antenna

LJ
Reflecting
Object

Figure 2. Blocking and Reflecting Effects in the Horizontal Plane

the Aeronautical Chart, which is published for most The Aeronautical Charts cover large areas of a
countries where commercial and private arr naviga- state, and often several states on one chart. For a
tion are the rule. In the United States they are large part of the United States, they typically show
published by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. elevation.s in contours of 600 or 1000 feet, and
In addition to showing large areas they show some therefore are not useful in actual plotting of
topography in very laxge contours, and the arr profiles_ They show airports, airways, major aetlal
navigation routes. They may be ordered with the obstructions and large topographical features such
flight chart overlay which shows the establi&hed as lakes and mountain ranges. U the terminal
commercial airways. The Coast and Geodetic Sur- locations are plotted on the appropriate aero-
vey publishes and distributes aeronautical charts o f nautical cbart(s), and the intermediate chart& (if
the United States, its Tenitories and P06SeSS.ions. any) are spliced in, an overall view of the possible
Charts of Ioreign areas are published by the USAF route is obtained. Generalizations can be made
Aeronautical Chart and lnformation Cent.er concerning features to be avoided and possible
{ACIC), and are sold to civil users by the Coast and areas or search. As the map survey proceeds, the
Geodetic Survey. A catalog of aeronautical charts is preferred and alternate sites arrived at by profiling
available from one of the following field offices, from other maps (discussed below) can be plotted
which will also supply the aeronautical charts using the precise latitude and longitude of each.
desired on a specific order. The catalog will be The composite chart then becomes a good overall
supplied free of charge. The ~ are sold at the worksheet and provides a quick check for the
prices listed in the catalog. Exact payment must possibility of overreach or other Interference (dis-
accompany the order- cussed in a later section)-

Chief, New York Field Office

Coast and Geodetic Survey The basic maps from which office profiles can
Room 1407 Federal Office Building be made are the topographic maps such a.s those
90 Church Street, New Yock, N.Y. 10007 published by the U.S. Geological Survey. The&(! are
to be found in quadrangles of di!ferent aiies
Mid-Continent Field Director depending upon the date o! the survey and the area
Coast and Geodetic Survey surveyed. They also show different elevation
Room 1436 Federal Building contour intervals in different areas, depending on
601 East 12th Street the area, date of survey and size of quadrangle.
Kansas City, Mo. 64106 These contour intervals generally range from 2.5 to
100 feet. Topographic maps in the United States
West Coast F ield Director based on surveys made prior to 1920 have been
Coast and Geodetic Survey found to contain spme errors both in elevations and
Room 121 Courthouse locations of topographic details. In the absence of
556 Battery Street later surveys however, they can be used ns a rough
San Francisco, Ca. 94111 guide unt.il spec.i fic field checks are made.
 The Geological Survey has, for a number of The U.S.G.S. also maintains sales counters in
years, been making surveys which will eventually Washington, D.C.; Denver, Colorado; Salt Lake
cover all of the United States and Puerto Rico. The City, Utah; Sacramento, San Francisco, Menlo Park
published maps covering the more recent surveys and Los Angeles, California; and Anchorage,
generally fall into one of the following sizes and Juneau and Palmer, Alaska, where the maps can be
scales: purchased in pers_on. The particular street addresses
are subject to change from time to time, but can
7-1/2 Minutes of latitude and longitude; Scale usually be found in the local telephone directory.
1:24,000 (1 inch = 2000 ft) or 1:31,680 (1 There are also private agents who sell quadrangle
inch= 1/2 mile). maps at their own prices. Their names and addres-
ses are listed in the state index circulars.
15 Minutes of latitude and longitude; Scale
1:62,500 (1 inch= approx. 1 mile). Accurate topographic maps are available for
many areas of Canada. All of Canada is covered by
30 Minutes of latitude and longitude; Scale maps published on the scales of 1:506,880 (1 inch
1:125,000 (1 inch= approx. 2 miles). = 8 miles) and 1:1,000,000 (1inch=15.783 miles).
Coverage on other large scales is not complete.
1 Degree of latitude and 2 degrees of longi- Many areas are covered by maps published on the
tude; Scale 1:250,000 (1 inch = approx. 4 scales of 1:50,000 (1 inch= 0.79 miles), 1:63,360
miles). (1 inch= 1mile),1:126,720 (1 inch= 2 miles) and
1:253,440 (1 inch = 4 miles). The indices of these
There is for each state and for Puerto Rico an maps and the maps themselves may be purchased
index circular showing all U.S.G.S. topographic directly from:
maps distributed. They show the quadrangle loca-
tion, name, survey date and publisher (if other than Department of Energy, Mines and Resources
U.S.G.S.). There are also listed special maps and Surveys and Mapping Branch
sheets with prices, map agents and Federal distribu- 615 Booth Street
tion centers, addresses of mapreference libraries, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
and detailed instructions for ordering topographic
maps.
They may also be purchased at local statio·
The index circulars are accompanied by a ners, but this is not a reliable source.
folder describing the topographic maps. They are
furnished free on request and may be obtained Additional maps may be obtained from the
from one of the following offices: Department of Mines, Lands and Forests, or De-
partment of Natural Resources of the Provincial
For maps East of the Mississippi and Hawaii Governments in the appropriate provincial capitals.
Aeronautical charts for Canada on scales of 8
U.S. Geological Survey - Map Information miles to the inch and 16 miles to the inch, and air
1200 South Eads Street photos may also be obtained from the Department
Arlington, Virginia 22202 of Energy, Mines and Resources, surveys and
mapping branch.
For maps West of the Mississippi River, all of
Louisiana and Alaska Additional maps which may be useful are U.S.
Forestry Service maps, and strip maps of railroads,
U.S. Geological Survey Map Information pipe lines, power companies and telephone com-
Room 15426 Federal Building panies.
1961 Stout Street
Denver, Colorado 80225 County highway maps published by the state
highway departments in the United States have
For Alaska they may also be obtained from been found to be useful in making the field surveys.
They usually show man-made structures and are
U.S. Geological Survey -Map Information often more up-to-date on road information, than
Room 108 Skyline Building are many topographic maps. In addition, they
508 Second Avenue frequently show some of ~he bench marks and
Anchorage, Alaska 99501 occasionally secondary level points. These must be

10
considered cautiously, as grades,culverts and poles wave beam having a curvature of KR. The second
on which they may be located are subject to method .of plotting is preferred, because it (1)
change. permits investigation (and illustration) of the condi-
tions for several values of K to be made on one
Comparable topographic mapping in other chart, (2) eliminates the need for special earth
countries of the world is usually available. curvature graph paper, and (3) facilitates the task
of plotting the profile. It is convenient to plot the
2. Aerial Photography profiles on regular 10 by 10 divisions to the inch,
reproducible graph paper of the 11 by 1 7 inch or B
Aerial photography is of ten useful in rough size.
terrain because it can show more of the details of a
prominent terrain feature than a topographic map, 2. Scales
and also shows trees and other obstructions. An
index map showing all Government and military A horizontal scale of two miles to the inch has
aerial photography in a given area can be obtained been found to be very convenient. It permits paths
by writing the Superintendent Of Documents, of up to 30 miles in length to be plotted on one
Washington D.C. 20402. sheet. For longer paths it is not difficult to trim
and splice two sheets together with small pieces of
Aerial photography is also used in the pro- transparent tape on the reverse side. (It is suggested
cess of preparing path profiles by the technique that pieces of tape not over 1.5 inches long to be
known as photogrammetry. used so that tape shrinkage will not ruin the charts.
This precaution should also be made when splicing
E. Path Profiles maps together).

After tentative antenna sites have been selec- More than one vertical scale will be necessary
ted, and the relative elevation of the terrain (and to cover all types of terrain. A basic elevation scale
obstacles) between the sites has been determined, a of 100 feet to the inch has been found to be quite
profile chart can be prepared. In some cases a convenient for all cases where the changes in
complete profile will be necessary; in other cases elevation along the path do not exceed 600 or 800
only the end sites and certain hills or ridges need to feet. For paths in hilly country, a more compressed
be plotted. scale of 200 feet to the inch is convenient, and for
mountainous country, it may be necessary to use a
1. Curvature vertical scale of 500, or 1000 feet to the inch. It
should be noted that if the distance scale is
The relative curvature of the earth and the doubled, the height scale should be quadrupled to
microwave beam is an important factor when preserve the proper relationship.
plotting a profile chart. Although the surface of the
earth is curved, a beam of microwave energy tends 3. Equivalent Earth Profiles
to travel in a straight line. However, the beam is
normally bent downward a slight amount by A path profile plotted on rectangular graph
atmospheric refraction. The amount of bending paper with no earth curvature (as suggested above),
varies with atmospheric conditions. The degree and and with the microwave beam drawn as a straight
direction of bending can be conveniently defined line between the antennas represents conditions
by an equivalent earth radius factor, K. This factor, when the beam has a curvature identical to fuat of
K, multiplied by the actual earth radius, R, is the the earth (i.e. there is no relative change in
radius of a fictitious earth curve. The curve is curvature between the beam and the earth) and the
equivalent to the relative curvature of the micro- equivalent earth radius, K, is equal to infini1!y. This
wave beam with respect to the curvature of the. is one of the extreme conditions that must be
earth, that is, it is equal to the curvature of the investigated when making a study of the effect of
actual earth minus the curvatlire of the actual beam abnormal atmospheric conditions on microwave
of microwave energy. Any change in the amount of propagation over a particular path. In order to
beam bending caused by atmospheric conditions complete a propagation study, it is necessary to
can then be expressed as a change in K. This show the path of the beam (relative to the earth)
relative curvature can be shown graphically; either for other expected values of K. In all cases, it is of
as a curved earth with radius KR and a straight line interest to study the path under normal atmos-
microwave beam, or as a flat earth with a micro- pheric conditions when K is equal to 4/3.

11
 The curvature for various values of K can be normally investigated. These curves, plotted to a
calculated from the following relationship: convenient scale, are shown in the full size version
of Figure 4 inserted loose in the back of the book.
This figure can be used to make templates of plastic
(1) or cardboard, or it can be used as an underlay to
profiles that have. been plotted on graph paper.
When the final antenna heights have been selected,
where h = the change in vertical distance from a the path of the beam can be traced directly from
hori~ontal
reference line, in feet the curves, as shown in Figure 5. Besides making
sure that the correct scales are used, one other
d1 the distance from a point to one end of precaution is necessary when using the curves in
the path, in miles this manner; it is necessary to keep the horizontal
lines of the profile chart parallel with the horizon-
the distance from the same point to the tal lines on the curves. This will automatically
other end of the path, in miles insure that the correct portion of the curve is being
used. (The reduced version of Figure 4 on page 14
K the equivalent earth radius factor is illustrative only).

For the K conditions of primary interest in Where extremely large differences in elevation
path analysis, Equation (1) takes the following exist along the path, it may be more convenient to
forms: plot the profile with respect toa curved earth with
radius KR and to use a straight line to represent the
microwave beam. The curves of Figure 4 can be
(1-A) used to establish a curved base-line, by inverting the
curves and tracing the curved line for the desired
value of Kon 10 X 10 to the inch graph paper. The
·B) curved baseline is assigned an altitude which is the
nearest hundred foot interval below the lowest
altitude required for the profile. The path profile is
1-c: then plotted above the baseline. A straight line
drawn between the proposed antenna locations
then indicates the path of the microwave beam for
(1-0) the chosen value of K.

Contrary to a widely-held belief, it is not

The forms 1-B and 1-C are particularly simple, necessary with either approach to locate the center
useful, and easy to remember. Equation 1 and its point of the path at the apex of the curve to
derivative forms are basic to all microwave path "balance" it about the center.. If the curves are
engineering, and most transmission engineers im- accurately constructed, the same results will be
mediately commit them to memory. obtained whether the path is centered or offset;
this characteristic of the parabolic arc can be shown
Figure 3 provides a graphical means of calcula- mathematically as well as experimentally.
ting and plotting a section of a parabolic arc which
can be used as a base-line for a curved earth profile Another very useful method is to ·construct
plot, or (inverted) as a curved ray template to be the ·curved baseline by calculation; this method
used with a flat earth profile plot. The generating allows the use of any convenient scales and any
equation is that of a parabola with its origin at the value of K. It also allows the use of millimeter-ruled
apex of the curve. The parameter d represents paper if desired, giving somewhat greater resolu-
distance from center, along the x axis, in miles, tion. In this method the "earth bulge" at a number
while h gives distance along the y axis, in feet, as a of points along the path is calculated by equation
function of the distance from the center (origin) ( 1) and is plotted above the bottom line of the
and the K factor being used. profile paper. A smooth parabolic curve is then
drawn through the points to provide the curved
Equivalent earth profile curves have been baseline for the profile. A value of K = 4/3 is
calculated from the above formula for values of K usually chosen for such profiles, in which case the

12
 Uiil!." --.. .......
40 • .....
35 .... ......... ~- ...
. _... _..........
, .........
• ...... .
~

+
"' EARlH CURVATURE
• 30 •..••
tl . ' 1
r--<1--t d'-
~ I I h f{K
:;; 25E:EEi
z
r..,...~, -- ---
:z:
~ 20
~ ;mwmii! :litllmtt®1mu1ttlli:ll.........................
cc

!·-~~
w

Wilij 1 W·lll1I
. ~;.1\~~1;; ·~:HF~·' llJl!~i~~!~~1um~1t11
:t~ ID . . + ti
141' r.I 1 .J .. +i: r•
~ !I
t; 14+1;,.;; .. u::1; i-1 ti 1...,..,,- J J..ior._. ~-tr ·HHHH....J.J.-l--.Yr-,fH+i~ ...1-4-_./"--r+ ; 1 I I I . l f I 111 Pl lri+ttl+HHHhHrl-+ t •+-m++tHHilfftll..,t"lhf+·+-+•tt-tt
c 8

.rruli!lfil::,00°
30 &o 7D lDD 200 ~ 1000
OtPARlllRJ! fROM A l.CVH TANGENT IN Hen•~

figUI"\' J brth Cun•ature for Y:ufou~ V:illte\ ufl.,

 '

K-~l:::==.:::::;::=============-~=====-~..l::='=====...:=====-==========!:::.:::.:::.:::~~ --

L- Figure 4. Equivalent Earth Profile Curves.

(Example only; see Appendix for full·scale working template of Fig. 4)
-
d1d1
equation reduces to b • - -. For K • 2/3 the adequate clearance at the lowest value of K, yet
2 have the reOective ray blocked over the entire
equation is h = d 1 d1 , and the earth bulge at any
range of K. ln some cases this situation can be
point is just double that at K = 4/3, making it
relatively easy to consider the effects ot a change achieved by appropriate choices of antenna heights
so as to utilize terrain blocking, or to move the
from K = 4/3 to K = 2/3.
reDection point t:rom water to a rough surface.
Figure 5 shows an example of a path profile There is one other graphical analysis method,
on the flat earth basis. The curved beam paths are
preferred by some engineers, which eliminates the
traced with the aid of the curves of Figure 4 (note need for either curved baselines or curved ray
that Figure 5 bas been TI!duced in size; the original
paths. In this method the path terrain profile is
was on 10 X 10 to the inch graph paper). Figure 5 plotted, on any convenient scale, on a flat earth
illustrates a apace diversity arrangement with 40' basis in a fashion similar to that shown in Figure 5.
vertical separation ot the diversity antennas. Clear-
ance criteria f.or this path were at least 0 .3F1 The engineer then analyses the path to deter-
clearance at K = 2/3 for top-to-top antennas and at mine the potential obstructing points., and for each
least 0.6F 1 clearance at K = 1 for top-to-bottom of these points makes a calculation of the earth
antennas. curvature at the point, using Equation (1) and also
of the desired Fresnel zone clearance, using Equa-
Figure 6 shows an example of a profile plotted tion (4A) or Figure 15. The calculations must be
on a curved earth basis, using mllli,meter paper and made usiilg the particular set of criteria which are
a calculated curved balleline. This figure indicates a to be applied . For example, the clearance criterion
path with potential reflections from a water surface might be 0.6 F 1 at K • 1.0.
and also shows the analysis of the potential
blocking of the reflected ray under conditions of K The sum of the calculated earth curvature and
= 4/3, K = 2/3 and K • 00 • Figure 6 further the calculated desired Fresnel zone 'Clearance is
illustrates the tact that when antennas are at added to the elevation of the top of the obstruc-
di!ferent elevations with respect to the re.Oecting tion, and the point marked on the chart. The
surface, the reflection point moves along the path microwave beam, plotted as a straight line, must
as K varies. It is closest to the end with the lower clear this point. Similar calculations are made and
antenna al K = oo (flat earth) and moves toward similar points marked above each of the potential
the center of the path as K decreases. Such paths obstructing points along the path. Tower height.1
are customarily analyud by calculating the reOec· must be determined so that a straight line between
tion point tor K = ~. K ~ 4/3 and K • 2 / 3, and in· the antenna locations clean all of the marked
vestigating the blocking or screening of the reflec- points. Where more than one set of criteria are
ted ray at each value . The ideal situation is to have applied, as in the "heavy route" criteria described

14
 ._ •
I

:::.•
- ,;
~

.
•
•• f
•

600

,,
0 2 4 e 2 14 16 8 25 30
OISlANCE IN MILES

Figure S Palh Profile Example (Flat Earth)

 I -·-

l!JO

~~- ~......__~~~"'-"".C....~~-=·""==-~'~·~~ '""'--

2 3 ~ s 0 ll 10 11 I~ 13 1' ' I> lG 11 18 19 20 21 22 23 ?A 2S
OIST'INCt" It t,llL£S Pfll

figure 6. P:11h Pr11lil~ uuunpl~ I( urwd LlrthJ

on Page 51, separate calculations and separate By the use of these charts, an approximate value of
points must be marked for each set, over each n for each condition can be determined and the
obstruction, and again all points must be cleared by corresponding values of d 1 calculated. These values,
the line between antennas. together with the calculated value for K = oo can
then be used to plot the reflection point range on
A skilled transmission engineer can usually the path profile, as shown in the example of Figure
reduce the number of points for which calculations 6.
need to be made to a relative few. For example, in
the path of Figure 5 it is obvious that only five Reflective path analysis can be carried out
points are potential obstructions. equally well and in somewhat simpler fashion using
the flat earth, curved beam approach as depicted in
Though this method at first glance appears to Figure 5. With flat earth profiles, the reflection
be tedious, in practice it can be done very quickly points for the three significant values of K are
and easily for most paths. It has the great advantage calculated and marked along the bottom line of the
that any kind of rectilinear graph paper can J:>e profile. The appropriat-e curved beam template for
used, and that the most convenient scales can be each of these values is then used to trace the beam
chosen for each axis individually, since there is no path and determine whether the paths from an-
interacting effect between the two scales. This tenna to reflective point are clear or obstructed.
method also provides a very useful means of
double-checking, at critical points, the clearances as The nomograph solution provides accuracy
determined by any of the other methods. adequate for most work. Where greater accuracy is
desired, the following relationships are useful :
4. Reflection Point Calculations

When K = oo (flat earth condition) there is a For K = 2/3

very simple r elationship between the antenna
heights and the distances from the respective ends
to the reflection point (in miles). The relationship After determining the approximate values of d 1
is: and di by means of Figure 7 A, substitute them in
the above equation, together with h 1 and h 2 • If the
h1 d1 d1 reflection point location is correct, the two sides
=d, + d2 '? o will be equal. If they are not equal, increase d 1 by a
small amount and decrease d 2 by the same amount.
If this change causes the inequality to increase,
where h 1 is the elevation of the lower antenna and reverse the procedure. Continue by iteration until a
h 2 the elevation of the higher antenna in feet above value is reached for which the two sides are equal
the reflecting surface, d 1 the distance in miles from or very closely so.
the h 1 end to the reflecting point, and d 1 + d 2 = D
the path length in miles. This leads to the following
expression: For K = 4/3 -.- -~=-.-

For K = 00

Use Figure 7B to determine the approxi{llate

U.t values of d 1 and di then proceed as described
d 1 = nD, where n = hi + hi (2A)
above to determine a more exact value.

The small shaded area in the lower leftihand

For values of K other than infinity, and for
corner of each chart represents conditions for
unequal antenna elevations, the geometric · relation
which the path would be below grazing .and a true
involves cubic equations who5e solution is some-
reflection point would not exist.
what cumbersome. However, graphical solutions
have been worked out and are found in the The parameters X and Y from Figure 7 can
literature in several different forms. A nomographic also be used to de.termine the value of K for which
solution for the condition K = 2/3 is given in Figure the path would be at grazing clearance. For this
7 A, and a similar solution for K = 4/3 in Figure 7B. condition the relation is given by the expression:

17
 K= 1 maximum, minimum and possible average length of
1.5 (X + Y + 2 VXY) path to be considered. This will depend to a
considerable extent on the frequency band to be
used, type of service to be assigned to the system
They can also be used to determine the location of
the reflection point for the grazing condition from and the topography. Having made these determina-
the expression: tions, it is suggested arcs be drawn representing
thes¢ values from the first terminal, and the areas
between the arcs be searched for possible first sites.
n= 1 The search at this point will include the topo-
1 + VY/X graphic maps and any other maps or photography
which can be searched for additional information.
The range of 0 to 3.0 for the Y parameter and Having selected one or more possible sites for the
0• to 2.0 for the X parameter on Figures 7 A and 7B
first repeater point, preliminary profiles should be
drawn. These will furnish a check of the practica-
will cover most situations where location of the
bility of using the sites selected.
reflection point is needed. For example, on a path
of 30 miles, a value of 3.0 for Y would correspond
to a height of 2700 feet above the reflecting surface Limitations
for h 2 , and a value of 2.0 for X to a height of 1800
feet above the surface for h 1 • The ideal situation obtains when all of the
topographic maps for a given path can be assembled
In some special situations it may be necessary on the same scale and spliced together accurately so
to calculate reflection points for paths where one that a straight line can be drawn · between the
or both of these values are exceeded. Since the plotted adjacent sites. An accurate scale in miles is
charts are rectilinear and all of the lines are straight, then marked on the line and, following the line
it is relatively simple to extrapolate beyond the over the contours, it is then possible to tabulate the
chart to determine an appropriate value for n. The elevations with their appropriate mileages. It is
iterative process described above can be used to essential that the tabulated elevations and mileages
improve the accuracy, if desired. be sufficient to fully describe the profile when
plotted. Where the line crosses a hilltop, it is
5. Preliminary Map Survey reasonable to assume in the preliminary map study
that the ultimate height, unless specifically marked,
The preliminary map survey has for its objec- is half the contour interval higher than the nearest
tive the planning of one or more routes which lower contour line.
might appear to be possible between the terminal
points given, based on available data, and the
plotting of profiles which are necessarily prelimi-
nary, for all of the indicated paths and alternates
determined from the study. Where some maps in a given path are to a
different scale than others, a useful technique is to
splice pl~n white paper to each map where the
scale changes and prc>ject, by geographic coordi-
The prospects of arriving at the best possible nates, a known point or the next adjacent site so
route and sites are enhanced by the study of the that the proper line can be drawn on the available
greatest numbers of alternate possibilities. It is map. The tabulated data should then be plotted on
recommended that all available information bearing the type of profile desired. For the paths with
on the proposed route be first assembled. Large incomplete topographic survey, it is desirable to
scale maps, such as the aeronautical charts, are plot the profile showing that portion of the
suggested for the beginning of the study, and for elevations which is available. If the path appears to
keeping track of its progress and the site locations. be a good one in the field survey, the profile may
be completed from field data. The tentative regular
It is recommended that the terminal locations and alternate sites should also be plotted by
be first plotted on the aeronautical charts, if these geographic coordinates on the large scale map, to
are available, or on a large scale map. At this point show their relative position, and to assist in the
it is advisable to make a determination of the interference and frequency coordination study.

18.
 "1 l

0.8
-.fr
l tj'
0.6 ll
''

Figure 7 A. Point of Reflection On Over-Water Microwave Path

19
2 il

..
I, l I _.•

06

1---- o--~
, J hr< ''2 hi on IOllt. d'"" !l'tl111

!#!
4
eg,y:JtE lC
11 1
'1)1 & y • "~
Ho..d 'I from ch11•1 lo• Pot 11 X, V ]n1011>01&ung
1f ''~e5SM'f
Cillc;ul,1tt a,• 11 0 6< d2 0 "<I I

D
mum..#.tr l~ I0 I2
t
~ ~
•
IG 18
t
2.D

Figurr m rornr or lteOectl1111 On Q,w-Water ~lkruwrivc P:tcb

20
 Interference and Coordination path should preferably be blocked by at least 1000
Preliminary Considerations - feet when the overreach path is plotted on flat
earth profile. Cases of less blocking should be
One very important consideration in engineer- analyzed individually.
ing microwave systems is the avoidance of interfer-
ence. Such interference may occur within the Spur or junction interference, and adjacent
system itself, or from external sources. Both of section interference for systems using the so-called
these possibilities can be eliminated or minimized two-frequency plan, are illustrated in Figure 9. In
by good site selection when selecting the route, and all of these cases, far-end crosstalk is of concern
by consideration of proper antennas and operating because it is quantitatively dependent upon the
frequencies. discrimination of the antennas at the junction, both
transmitting and receiving. Near-end crosstalk at
the junction may become important when there are
several channels on the main route, as frequency
translations can result in interference to an adjacent
Operation of a microwave communications receiver. The mechanisms of this type of interfer-
system will generally be within one of the several ence are rather complex and need not be delineated
frequency bands allocated for such services, as at this point. The criterion in both near-end and
listed in Section II. For two-way operation, as is far-end crosstalk is the signal-to-interference ratio,
generally required in such systems, each band is which is a function of antenna discrimination. For
divided in half, with the lower frequency half example, a periscope antenna arrangement would
identified as "low band" and the other half as not be used at a junction or on main routes using
"high band". At any given station all transmitters the two-frequency plan because it typically has a
are normally on frequencies in one band and all relatively low front-to-back ratio, and may have
receivers in the other. Each path has a "Transmit some odd side lobes. On routes with only one radio
High" station at one end and a "Transmit Low" channel, or two channels in frequency diversity
station at the other end. This arrangement mini- arrangement with maximum inter-channel freq-
mizes near-end crosstalk. In some bands a different uency spacing, periscopes may often be used with
arrangement is used. high towers for economic reasons.

It should be noted that radars can radiate External Interference

substantial amounts of power in many of the
commonly used frequency bands, even though the External interference cases were discussed
fundamental radar frequency is much lower. Sup- superficially in (1) above, but require further
pression filters are available for the radars in most clarification as to methods of approach and specific
countries, but the burden of making certain they values. Radars typically radiate pulse energy, often
are installed may fall on the communications user. in a 360 degree arc and at a very high energy level.
Quite often the second or third harmonic, if
unfiltered, can have an effective radiated pulse
power in the order of +60 dBm (1 KW). As pointed
Interference within the system may be classi- out above, it is possible to determine whether
fied as overreach, adjacent section and spur inter- harmonic filters are installed, and if not, such filters
ference. Overreach interference is illustrated in can usually be obtained. Experience in the United
Figure 8, in which only the frequencies in one States indicates that the agency operating the radar
direction of transmission are represented. The will usually install the filter if the necessity is
situation in the opposite direction is identical. The established. There is another precaution recom-
problem is to avoid having frequency F 1 , transmit- mended in the case of radar, in that, regardless of
ted from A, received at D at a substantial level, frequency radiated, the input circuit of the micro-
when there is a fade condition for the F 1 signal wave system should not see large amounts of peak
received from C. The parameters which may be pulse power. Input preselection filters for the
used to avoid this interference are; (a) a longer microwave system vary in the amount of discrimi-
overreach path as compared to the direct C-D nation outside the pass band, but it is usually very
path, (b} antenna discrimination against the over- high. Nevertheless .it is possible to paralyze the
reach path, and (c) earth blocking in the overreach input converter in extreme cases. Therefore it is
path. If the latter must be relied on, the .overreach recommended that the path from the radar to all

21
 microwave receivers within 50 miles be profiled at
K = 00 and, if possible, substantial earth blocking be
arranged. In the unblocked case, it is recommended
the path between radar and microwave receiver be
Profile Of Overreach Path in excess of ten miles, and the receiving antenna
K= oo discrimination be at least 30 dB . Figure 10 illus-
Recommendations trates the radar case.
Where antenna discrimination= 0
h= 1poo teet In the case of paralleling or intersecting
microwave systems the transmitter output power of
B D the two systems is usually somewhat comparable,
--:/
---~
but where differences exist they must be t.aken into
account. Additional criteria for interference coor-
Plot of Paths A to D c dination involve the parameters of distance, an-
Recommendations
tenna discrimination, receiver sensitivity and selec-
tivity . Interference considerations are two-way in
Distance Discrim. = 20 Log ~~g# = _ _ dB this case, as the new system must not interfere with
Antenna Discrim. c;i-(. = _ _ dB the existing system. The paralleling system problem
_ _ dB
is illustrated. in Figure 11. Profiles made for
Antenna Oiscrim. --8' possible earth blocking should be prepared for K =
Total• .dB
•Total 50 dB or better
. d"1rect1on
. 20 Log A·O 6. The Field Survey
#F or opposite A-B

The field survey is much more than the phrase

Figure 8. Overreach Interference Criteria implies. Actual altimeter measurements, judgment.5
of the actual terrain along each path and data
__ , concerning obstructions are recorded. The exis-

-
tence of paralleling or intersecting foreign systems
and interference possibilities is indicated, and the
c-- F, - ) 8 c~
'-
A I
--
F1---::--) ;I
'-F1
C'
various data concerning regular and alternate sites
are obtained. The preliminary profiles made from
('_~F2__L\ L F2-' '--F2 the map study become a tool for the field
'

Spur or
II )
{/l'\l rrl
\:\.- - , -

f
- _)- \:'
;/ .
Adjacent Section tnterfe;:_ence
investigation, and these are supplemented, correc-
ted., or actually replaced as a consequence of the
factual data obtained. In the absence of path tests,
junction _\ F 1 F2 / the information brought in from the field survey
interference ' · constitutes almost all of the factual data about the
route, from which judgments can be made which
will determine the service performance of the
system when installed.
CODE
Regular Transmission Path Instrumentation
Interference Path
The following instrumentation is recommen-
A, B, C, X Microwave Repeaters ded, although all items may not be needed in all
cases;
Not all interference paths are shown or identified.
Those shown are representative.
A good pair of binoculars, 7 x 35 or 8 x
50, with coated lens. (Larger diameter
magnification does not ordinarily im-
prove the results).
Figure 9. Adjacent Section and Junction or Spur
Interference Two precision altimeters of the proper
range for the terrain to be measured.

22
 F.

Computation for Unfiltered Radar Requirements

E.R .P.P. of 2nd or 3rd Harmonic +60 Harmonic Energy in Band - Message JO dB
Goin Of Receiving Antenna _G_ Tel~ ision 45dB
6o+G r'undamental·T en Miles+ 30 dB
Path Los• Rad. 96.6 + 20 Log F •20 Log D p AntMna Discrimination
Antenna Oiscrhnlnator at o< Degroos 0 NOTE
Filter & Waveguide Losses L For on·site microwave tenninals at
Rodar Hormonic Input (60+G·P·D·L) R
Computed Microwave Signal Input _s__ radar locations, or locations less
th<tn ten.miles from a high powered
Slgnal·to-lnterference Ratio (S- R) Sii dB azimuth operated radar. obstruction
blocking is desirable.

figure I 0. The Radar lnterfesence Case

(-
(
F1
)c F1
) f. F1
~
F2
--:) (- f2 )( F2
) r1 I
PARALLELING ROUTE -)(;"r fi

- FI
F7 FI ~
~s
f'•uleruu1v l)Q
-" I' 2

~t
Fl
f I ..,.
- Fz
DESIGN ROUTE
F2
J\ r
~
...) r-
\: F2
--Re{IUl.tr P.o1ths
- - fn1t!ffl'f'e11ce P•tt"JS (Nol 4111 tu• t'W\",fl1

Sil ~•liO 20 Log~·~_!~• Sun• al A111onna Oi'ICthn111.iU1.1M•

r, f1
•

R11guhrr P~th
S'l IUho R..:untm11n1t.114n 66 dB tor Co·ctmnnet

~
Cro5' palat1l:tt1an ..mt*'1.J9(,j st o!lnetllll CIP:W io 00 it. lffD aruJ rnav oe r•~Jitlv• 11\ l!O•flt
com~na11on"-

I t£ure 11 l111crrm-enc<' Coordln~ 1ion of Pnmllehny. Sr~ tem~

23
 Both may be of the portable type, or one be considered. A very low antenna in
may be of the portable type and one the combination with some intermediate ter-
recording type. Care should be exercised rain blocking may be possible. Where the
in considering these instruments. Each antenna is actually on the flat terrain, a
precision altimeter should be accom- very low antenna can be selective,
panied by its own correction chart and particularly ip the lower frequency
an accurate thermometer. Suitable instru- bands. Refer to the discussion under
ments may be obtained from one of the PROPAGATION for further details.
~allowing:
Sites on high mountain ridges with low,
American Paulin System flat terrain between. In high density
1524 Flower Street systems, serious delay distortion may
Los Angeles, Calif. 90015 result. If it cannot be avoided by reselec-
tion or terrain blocking, it may be
Wallace & Tieman Inc. necessary to locate one site on the
25 Main Street intermediate low flats.
Belleville, N.J. 07109
Sites near high power radari
A good hand level, and a pocket compass.
Crossing of foreign system routes of
A good theodolite is useful in some similar frequencies at small angles or with
instances to determine that an elevation near repeater stations.
measurement is on path. Visibility of
both adjacent sites is necessary for suc- Obstructions near the line-of-sight which
cess in such determination. may reflect energy from the transmitters
into the receiving antennas. Paths along a
Two-way portable radio (VHF) capable city street between buildings are very
of shadow area reception at 30 miles. bad.

In rugged coilntry, a precision mirror of Much can be done in the field search to
6 inch to one foot dimension is a good eliminate propagation hazards which · may affect
item for "flashing'' paths. Special signal- service.
ing mirrors as developed for military use
are particularly good.

U.S.G.S. book or books showing estab- For running the profiles in the field (Altimeter
lished bench marks in area. surveys), it is desirable to have maps with accurate
road information and having a .scale of about 1/2
County highway maps (in U.S.A.) for the inch to the mile. In the U.S.A. the county highway
area. Scale 1/2 inch = 1 mile. maps serve this purpose very well. The maps for a
particular radio path should be spliced together
Pertinent topographic maps, marked for accurately, the radio sites specifically located and a
the preliminary profiles. · straight line drawn between the sites. This line is
then scaled in miles. Consider when doing so that
the maps are sometime stretched in printing. This
can be checked by using a scale across a number of
There are several situations which should be road intersections to see if the mile points come up
avoided if practicable, particularly in the case of accurately. The elevations shown at road intersec-
high density systems with multiple RF channels. tions should not be taken as accurate unless they
These are as follows: agree with established U.S.G.S. bench marks which
have not been moved. The maps should be posted
Over-water paths and paths over low, flat with the location and elevation of established
terrain. Where they cannot be avoided, U.S.G.S. bench marks. They are then ready to be
the high-low technique to place the used as a guide in securing information for the
reflection point over rough terrain should profile.

24
 The most accurate altimeter method of run- photography over the path by stereopticon tech-
ning levels for the profile is known as the two- niques. The relative elevations are then determined
altimeter method. The process involves placing by stereopticon procedures. The accuracy is good,
both altimeters at the nearest bench mark and but the cost is relatively higher than the altimeter
calibrating them exactly alike. The altimeters are survey method. In a case involving a fairly large
based on the aneroid principle, so their readings number of profiles, and where new forces might be
will vary, even when on a fixed bench mark. The required to handle the altimeter survey, this
work should be done during stable weather condi- method might be investigated. It should be borne in
tions, and in the period from at least one hour after mind however, that the field altimeter party brings
sunrise to one hour before sunset. One altimeter in a great deal more information than elevation
remains at the bench mark throughout the measur- data, and such information is necessary in any
ing period. If this is a manually read instrument, event. A third method of profiling involves flying
readings of temperature and the altimeter should be over the path with equipment which measures
taken each five minutes until the roving altimeter clearance (plane above terrain) using the radar
returns. The readings of the two instruments should principle. This is also relatively expensive and has
then be compared. If the readings differ by as much certain limitations.
as five feet after temperature stabilization, the
survey should be repeated after recalibration of the In mountainous country where all of the
instruments. The difference may be due to the intermediate terrain in a path is rough and tim-
higher temperature in the car in which the roving bered, a profile is of little value if adequate
altimeter is carried. clearance can be determined by other means. This
can often be done by "flashing" the path. It
If one recording instrument is used, it can be involves two parties, preferably equipped with
placed at the bench mark and thereby save man- two-way VF radio for communication. Lacking the
power. The principle of operation is the same as radio, it is often possible to coordinate by time.
with two manually read instruments. The party carrying the mirror should pr,eferably be
at the site opposite the direction from which the
The roving altimeter is used to measure the sun is shining, or two mirrors may be used; one at
elevations along the path. A record is made of the each site. The mirror is to reflect a beam of light
mileage at the measuring point, the temperature, toward the far site. The aim must be very good.
the time, the trees and other obstructions, and any The stability of the mirror when held on the beam
terrain features of interest in preparing the profile. by hand will be such that the flashing effect is
The roving altimeter should be used on the portions automatic. To be effective, it is necessary for the
of the path which are reasonably close to the bench flashing party to establish the exact direction to the
mark. As many bench marks should be used as are opposite site, and to concentrate the flash along
necessary to accurately survey all of the path on that line. One way of doing this is to drive stakes to
this basis. The final measurement at the bench mark the exact line and then, using the mirror,
mark on each measuring trip provides a reasonable focus the sun's rays along the line of stakes,
check on the data. The crew then moves to the gradually raising the beam until it is level with the
next bench mark and proceeds in the same way. If distant horizon. This process should be repeated at
there is only one bench mark near a path, it is frequent intervals until the far party is known to
desirable to create secondary bench marks, using have seen and identified the flashes. At the far site
the same method as for measuring on the path. the flashes will appear very large. A transit set up at
the far site can be very useful, both for obsetving
Corrections are made for temperature and the flashes and obtaining accurate path bearings.
approximate relative humidity, using the instruc- The terrain clearance can be roughly established
tions in the handbooks furnished with the instru- visually, but not precisely. Any known ridges which
ments. The computed elevations for the points appear close to the line-of-sight should be checked
measured are then determined. There should be for elevation at the critical point and adequate
enough points measured to ·fully describe the clearance established by computation.
profile of the path, which is then prepared based on
the method selected for the office profiles. In checking path clearance by mirror flashing,
or by any optical or visual methods, account should
Another method which has been used to be taken of the fad that light rays have a slightly
obtain information for the profile involves aerial different curvature than do radio rays. A nominal

25
value of K = 7 /6 is usually taken as the "standard" Path azimuths should be determined to the
for light. Figure 4 includes a curve for this value of nearest tenth of a degree of arc and path distances
K which can be used for evaluating clearances to the nearest tenth of a kilometer. In order to
determined by optical methods. achieve. the required accuracies it is necessary to
calculate the azimuths and the path distance from
In most rugged terrain, and particularly in the coordinates of latitude and longitude at the two
high mountain areas, the almost continuous and ends of the path. Because of the convergence of
shifting wind currents tend to produce a thorough- meridians, the azimuth at the two ends of the path
ly inixed atmosphere which does not support will in general not be precisely 180° apart.
atmospheric multipath fading of great depth. In
some cases it is possible to achieve high reliability Two methods of calculation are in common
witpout diversity, or to use somewhat longer radio use. The most common one is to use a computer to
paths than in lower terrain, without endangering calculate azimuths and distances by solving the
the fade margins for which the equipment was great circle spherical triangle comprised of the two
designed. However it should be noted that excep- end points and the north pole. The second, known
tions exist, and that in some cases and some as the "inverse position method", is adapted from a
mountain areas atmospheric effects can cause deep calculation method described in "Special Publica-
atmospheric fading. tion No. 8 - Formulas and Tables for the Compu-
tation of Geodetic Position'', published by the
Coast and Geodetic Survey. This method includes
the use of tables which take into account the
Information to be reported about the sites was oblateness of the earth. Because of this, the inverse
covered in subsection "B. Sites" as data to be position method provides somewhat more accurate
recorded. For the paths and alternate paths, com- results than the great circle method, unless the
plete profiles carefully plotted with obstructions latter includes a correction for non-sphericity.
and estimated antenna height requirements, should
be prepared, together with all facts or determina- Although either method provides results
tions with reference to possible interference. In which are sufficiently accurate from a technical
addition, all pertinent supporting data, altimeter viewpoint, a recently inaugurated program by one
readings, maps and bench mark information should FCC bureau (the Common Carrier bureau) uses the
be furnished. inverse position method, and it is therefore desira-
ble that this method be used in calculations for
Final Profiles applications filed with that bureau. Included in the
Appendix to this publication is a memorandum
The final profiles provide the basis for the giving a method of making azimuth and distance
microwave system engineering, including the final calculations by the inverse position method, suit-
selection of paths, determination of final antenna able for hand calculations using a six-place loga-
elevations, selection of antenna sizes and configura- rithm table. The method detailed uses essentially
tions, and computation of the received signal the same format as that used in 'the FCC computer
strengths, fade margins and. the system noise to be program and should give identical results. The
expected. The final profiles should reflect the final memorand'um includes sufficient extracted data
decisions on route, sites and antenna elevations. from Special Publication No. 8 to be self-sufficient
and not require use of the latter.
Path Coordinates, Azimuths
and Distances - - - - F. Path Tests

After final selection of the precise locations On line-of-sight microwave systems, path tests,
for the tower or antennas, the latitude and longi- when used, are made primarily for the analysis of
tude of each location should be very carefully problems related to the reflective characteristics of
determined. For systems under FCC jurisdiction, the path and, secondarily, to determine or provide
the rules require that the coordinates of the a cross-check on the path clearance. They are most
antenna or final radiating element be determined to often made on routes with very heavy communica-
the nearest second. This requires very careful tions requirements or potential. Such routes typi-
scaling from the best available maps. cally use heavy horn reflector antennas which

26
require changes in tower design when antenna
elevations must be changed. To make such changes
after the route is placed in service would be costly. By properly planning the height-loss runs, and
Path testing prior to construction of the system by analysis of the results using a very accurate
helps to avoid such a possibility. A further consid- profile, it is possible to determine the following
eration affecting the decision whether or not path information about the path:
tests are justified, is that 'large capacity microwave The location of reflection points in the
systems utilizing multiple RF channels in parallel, path.
are considerably more susceptible to the effects of
reflections than are systems using only a single The value of K at the time of measure-
working channel. ment.
The reflection coefficient.
This type of test is a short term process, The antenna elevations where free space
normally performed during daytime periods when loss is just obtained.
atmospheric conditions are essentially normal and
stable. It should not be confused with the type of The best antenna elevations to minimize
path testing in which long term recordings are made ground reflection fading.
of the signal strength along a path. Such tests are
common in tropo-scatter or other beyond line-of- Path tests of this type require the utmost
sight systems, but are rarely used in line-of-sight precision in calibration of the equipment and in
work. Long term fading characteristics, range of K measuring the antenna heights.
variations to be encountered, and other things of
that nature will not be normally determined in this Effects of K Variations
line-of-sight type of path test.
Accurate results can be obtained only when
the value of K is stable. This can be expected over
most terrain only during fair weather and in the
daytime hours at least 1 to 2 hours after sunrise
In the most effective form, the tests involve and before sunset. Changes in K during the height-
transmitting an unmodulated RF carrier over the loss runs would be reflected in incorrect values for
path between adjacent sites and measuring the all of the desired results listed above.
received power at various combinations of antenna
elevations. The receive power measurements are Cost Considerations
then converted to path loss measurements, since
the transmitted power and antenna gains are Path tests involve costly equipment and con-
known. A test series made with both antennas siderable manpdwer. For this reason, where single
moved in the same direction at the same rate, or channel routes and light loading are involved,
with one antenna fixed and the other moving, is economics dictates reliance on the field accuracy of
called a "height-loss run". The results are plotted other methods. Accurate profiling and good judg-
with path loss as ordinate against antenna eleva- ment will go a long way toward establishing a good
tions as abscissa. working system.

27
 IV. OVERALL SYSTEM DESIGN

A. Purpose of Section priority for consideration of each topic. For ex-

ample, the first item listed below should be
Given the fundamental plans and study re- considered, and any problems resolved before
sults, and the profiles, data and other information proceeding to the next item, as any changes
obtained from the field investigation, the next resulting from it could otherwise cause considerable
order of procedure concerns the transmission engi- duplication of effort. The order of priority is as
neering plans, calculations and design specifica- follows:
tions. Some of this work, such as planning, is
actu~ly accomplished prior to the route selection Interference and frequency coordination.
work. After the field investigation is finished, the
final calculations concerning antennas, interference, Propagation.
system and channel noise, distortion and propaga-
tion reliability are made. If the final sites have not Noise and noise sources.
been selected from the field data at this point, this
must be done prior to much of the other work. Distortion
Also at this point it may be important that
information about the final choice of sites be made Equipment.
available to those responsible for obtaining the
necessary property, as failure to obtain one site The above order of priority, and in fact most
may affect some of the other selections. of the discussions in this section, are specifically
applicable to high density systems involving multi-
1. Final Objective for a System ple parallel RF channels over each path. Such
systems often grow to the point where all, or nearly
The final objective for any microwave system all, of the available ~!;hannels in a full band are in
is that it provide the best distortion-free and use over every path of the system. In such
interference-free service continuity for the type of situations the interference potential, both intra-
service to be assigned, and within the framework of system and with other systems occupying the same
the available economics. band, is very large.

Overall reliability or service continuity in- Microwave systems involving only one work-
volves not only equipment failure rates and power ing RF channel per path (or one working and one
failures, but also the propagation performance of protection channel) have the same kinds of prob-
the individual paths. This involves antenna sizes and lems, but in most cases they have a much wider
elevations, frequency or space separations in diver- range of practical solutions. The system designer
sity systems, path lengths and frequency- has a good deal more leeway in engineering such
attenuation relationships. It also includes fading systems, even when they require the same degree of
margins which, in addition to path parameters, are reliability and performance as the more comp-
affected by noise figure, transmitter power, and licated systems.
attenuation of waveguide and filter arrangements.
B. Interference and
Distortion may occur in the radio path, but Frequency Coordination
more often it occurs due to poor return loss of
amplifier components, waveguide filters and anten- 1. How Interference Occurs
nas. Also the characteristics of switching devices
and/or combiners are involved. Radio system interference causing degraded
transmission may be introduced through antennas,
System noise is affected by the same things waveguides, cabling, radiation or by spurious prod-
which, in addition to interference, can have an ucts produced in the radio equipment itself. Inter-
adverse affect on overall system performance. ference introduced into the cabling or in the
equipment can be prevented by good installation
2. Order of Presentation practices, including proper separation of high and
low level cabling, proper grounding practices,
The presentation within this section is shielding where necessary, and good equipment
designed to provide an orderly discussion which design and assembly. Interference introduced by
follows, insofar as practicable, the design-related coupling between waveguides in the same station is

28
usually produced by radiation from waveguide and periods, with serious effect on system noise. In
filter flanges which are not properly tightened, or almost all cases, noise in the baseband channels is
which have been damaged and cannot be mated ail.end product of the interrerence.
properly. There are cases on record where interfer-
ences of more than marginal character have existed 2. General Classifications
for long periods, but were undiscovered until a
particular critical service was assigned to the sys- General classifications have been given broadly
tem. as self interference and external interference. Each
of these broad categories can be broken down into
Because a radio system depends upon the a number of different types for discussion pur-
atmospheric medium for transmission, it is subject poses ..
to interference from systems using the same me-
dium. This includes not only other radio, radar and Self Interference
other devices, but also other parts of the same
system. The interferences are broadly classified as Self interference has been classified in terms
external interference and self-interference. These of overreach interference as illustrated in Figure 8,
were briefly discussed in Section III and illustrated adjacent section interference and junction interfer-
in Figures 8 and 11, which provide some measure- ence, with the latter two cases illustrated in Figure
ment criteria for those concerned with selecting the 9. Adjacent section interference also includes what
route. In this section it is the intent to discuss the is sometimes' called same section interference. The
subject more analytically, and thereby provide a only difference is the matter of whether the
somewhat more thorough understanding of the discrimination is principally the front-to-back ratio
mechanisms involved. It is expected that this will of the receiving antenna or the transmitting anten-
be of assistance in solving or judging marginal cases. na. These cases were previously discussed because
they involve the sites and radio paths.
Interference Mechanisms
There are also possible cases of self interfer-
The evaluation of interference can be complex ence within the stations themselves. One of these is
and difficult because of the nature of the systems the res!!l.t .of carrier leak ll:om a common cai:ti.91:
involved, and the complex nature of the signals. supply. In the C.C.l.R. plan for 6 GHz common
The mechanisms are varied. In the simpler cases earner systems, eight channels of radio in each
they may be direct interference into the radio direction are recommended, each with a capacity of
receiver. In other cases they may be spurious 1800 or more message channels..- The successful
products or combinations of products which arrive operatlon of this system requires very tight limits
at the receive input and produce a net resultant on~ tole~e. A common carrier supply
interference into the receiver intermediate fre- is one way or-assuring that all of the precise
quency section. The latter may be frequency trans- frequency relationships are maintained within the
lations resulting from sum and difference products system. If, on the other hand, through radiating
within the same system. In still other cases the waveguide flanges and/or leaking filter connections,
receiver may see an identical signal to the regular the high level carrier supply is introduced into the
signal, but which arrives later or earlier than the wrong input circuit, a translated signal as well as
regular signal. the regular signal can be introduced into the
channel, with certain degradation resulting. Also,
because of the close relationships between' the
channels, there may be a tone translation which
Interference can produce beats or noise prod- results in interference to an adjacent channel and
ucts in a radio receiver which have detrimental even to a third channel. '
effects depending on the frequency, dt;!viation,
channel separation and linearity of the receiving External Interference
medium, as well as the nature of the interfering
signal. In some cases they combine with other The control of external interference depends
frequencies in the system, including carrier sum and in part on coordination, control, and sometimes
difference frequencies, to produce interference in a compromise on radio channel assignments through,
third radio channel. These products may hold up in most cases, direct negotiation. The frequency
automatic gain control during critical fading regulating body, such as the Federal Communica-

29
 tions Commission in the United States, assigns the interfering signal power not to be exceeded, or not
frequency spectrum by services and licenses specific to be exceeded for more than some specified
channels within the designated bands. In most cases percentage of time, at the input to the interfered·
the public service communications bands are as- with receiver or, (2) as a value of S/I ratio where S
signed in accordance with the recommendations of is the power of th~ desired signal at the receiver
the Consultative Committee On International input and I is the. power of the undesired signal.
Radio (C.C.I.R.); however, certain priorities and For co-channel operation (desired and undesired
other special requirements are recognized. Thus in signals on the same frequency) typical objectives
the ii- GHz band, where transcontinental networks for the fust type of criterion range from as low as
were established in the United States prior to -125 dBm to perhaps -100 dBm, and typical
C.C.I.R. recommendations, a different plan is used values for the second type of criterion from ap-
req\].iring a wider band. In the 2 GHz band and the proximately 60 dB to 95 dB, depending upon a
bands between 6 and 11 GHz, the allocations used number of factors.
in the United States differ considerably from those
used by other nations, and channel a.ssignmen ts are Figures 10 and 11 illustrate the method of
accordingly different. For all plans, adjacent chan- calculating S/I ratios for external interferences.
nel discrimination within the immediate section is Typical criteria for co-channel objectives are shown
aided by cross-polarizing adjacent channels. For on the figures and are applicable where desired and
such channels transmitted and received by the same undesired signals are closely held to a small
antennas, the discrimination is maximum; up to 20 frequency difference. For slightly larger frequency
dB per antenna. Cross-polarization discrimination differences, where the interfering signal falls within
varies widely at angles other than zero degrees the first order sidebands of a heavily loaded system,
between the interference signal and the desired the criterion for satisfactory operation may become
signal, The pattern of variation is quite different for more stringent by as much as 25 to 30 dB.
different types of antennas and in many cases the
discrimination is actually negative when the angle is For off-channel interference (between adja-
90 degrees. In dealing with cross-polarized interfer- cent channels for example) the criteria will be
ing signals, the calculations can be meaningless substantially affected by the selectivity characteris-
unless the cross-polarization discrimination charac- tics of the particular receiver involved. Most manu-
teristic of the receiving antenna is known. For facturers can provide curves or other data showing
example, there is no generalized discrimination the allowable levels for interfering signals as a
curve for parabolic reflector antennas for any given function of the frequency separation between
frequency and, with a different feed, both the desired and undesired signals . Tone translations can
discrimination curves and the cross-polarization occur when a frequency received in one channel,
curves will differ. For a particular case it is well out from the carrier frequency, is modulated
recommended the manufacturer be requested to in a heterodyne repeater and radiated as a new tone
furnish this information about the antenna being in the next adjacent channel.
used.
3. Effect of Interference on
With antenna-reflector combinations (peri- Different Types of Signals
scope antennas), angular discrimination up to about
±2 degrees will generally be about as good as the The effect of interference varies, not only
dish itself for a given polarization. For larger angles with the nature of the interfering signal, but also
and cross-polarized int.erference signals, precon- with the nature of the desired signal.
struction predictions would probably not be valid,
due to the odd side lobe patterns from the
reflector. Dual-polarized periscope antennas have
been used with success in specialized cases. Gene- Voice channel interference to voice channel
rally speaking, dual-polarized dishes are not as systems usually results in either intelligible cross-
efficient as single polarized. talk or burble, which is similar to what one might
expect for voice frequency systems. All types of
The criteria established for external interfer- interference to data systems are generally capable
ence depend upon many factors, and to some of producing data errors. Interference to television
extent are arbitrary. They are typically expressed in sy~tems is usually readily detected and analyzed by
one of two ways; (1) as an absolut.e value of the observing the video monitor and "A" oscilloscope.

30
Interference from voice systems or data systems radiation that would otherwise interfere with the
produce typical overall patterns on the monitor microwave receiver. Al.so, because of the peak pulse
which are easily recognized. Pulse interference, power of the radar, it is advisable to shield the
such as radar, produces scattered dashes on the microwave antennas from the radar beam if prac-
monitor, which will be white on a black back· ticable. Figure 12 illustrates the case and provides
ground and black on a white background. On IF some objectives. It will be noted that the receiving
heterodyne microwave systems the point of inter- antenna at the far end of the microwave path will
ference may be many miles away from the point have practically zero discrimination against the
where monitoring equipment is normally available. radar signal. Obviously, this violates the rule stated
The known history of the system, or visual inspec- in ROUTE AND SITE SELECTION in connection
tion of the route, may suggest where the interfer- with off-path radars. At this.point it is necessary to
ence is originating. In the final analysis, the system look at out-of-band losses of antennas, low freq-
can be looped back at IF at different points, uency cut-off of waveguide, and preselection filter
provided there is a return channel available, and characteristics, for the fundamental. The harmonic
monitored at the transmitting point. For one-way filters can usually be counted on for about 60 dB
only channels, a portable FM transmitter and a rejection. If the harmonic is normally in the region
video signal generator can be used at successive of +60 dBm and the microwave transmitter has a
stations while the receiving terminal monitors. The one watt output, the in-band S/I ratio should be in
standard window signal is best for interference the region of 73 dB for a 6 GHz system using a 10
analysis. foot transmitting antenna, the gain of which would
be about 43 dB.
Tone Versus Pulse Interference
5. Satellite System Interference
Tone or beat interference is detrimental in the
frequency region in which it occurs, not only Certain frequency bands are used on a shared
because of the direct interference with the desired basis both by terrestrial radio relay systems and
signal, but also because of the background noise it
produces, even at levels below the signal level. Pulse
interference, such as radar signals, may not be
noticed in individual message channels when the _y1{_ Optimum angle 140°
peak pulse power received is below the message -~"-.. a~gleMin.
channel level, because of the pulse spectrum distri- Rad8' '-/130 ~ -

~ ~;owa.:-::,:,
bution; however, when the interference peak pulse
power is above or equal to the message level, the
interference becomes intolerable. The breakover
point for data is usually somewhat lower, depen- ( \ ~i~its of MW beam
ding upon the bandwidth and bit rate of the data
signal. For television, the break.over point is ap-
Plan View I.
At 140° most antennas have ma~imum discrimination but
proximately 15 dB below the equal level point. To the next re<:eiving antenna will discriminate very little on
provide fading margin, the approximate voice and the outbound transmission regardless of this angle.
television limits are -30dB and -45dB respective-
ly and, for data, except for voice channel data, it is
recommended. the latter limit of -45dB be used. Radar
lfllllll//llUIA
Profile showing screening
1
4. Calculations for Interference Effect of microwave antenna
NOTE :
Figures 10 and 11 illustrate the off-path radar 1. Alternately for filtered radar in L or S band use 6 pr
11 GHz and long wavegu ide. Waveguide for these
and the parallel systems case respectively, and frequencies will cut off well above the reeler fund•·
indicate the calculations that are appropriate to mental. For X bend or F, D radars research output
these exposures. There are, however, cases where it frequency·pattem.
2. Select receiving frequency not In harmonic
is necessary to terminate a microwave system on a spectrum of radar.
radar site. In such cases, the microwave receiver is
quite vulnerable to the radar transmitter signals Figure 12. A Method of Screening Microwave
unless special precautions are taken . The radar Antennas When Required on a Radar Site
should be filtered for harmonics and spurious

31
earth-satellite systems. Because of the widely dif- channel shall not exceed -63 dBmOp (500 pWpO)
fering parameters of the two systems, the potential for more than 20% of any month, and -43 dBmOp
for interference is high when earth stations and (50,000 pWpO) for more than 0.005% of any
terrestrial radio relay systems in the same bands are month. Jt is assumed that there are no more than
located anywhere near to each other. The potential two such sources of interference in any system.
interference radius around an earth station may
range as high as several hundred miles, depending The corresponding criteria for allowable inter-
on terrain factors and relative orientation. ferences from terrestrial radio relay transmitters
into earth station receivers are that the interference
The present international commercial satellite in any voice channel shall not exceed -66 dBmOp
service uses the 5.925-6.425 GHz band for trans- (250 pWpO) for more than 20% of any month and
mis~ion from earth to satellite, and the 3. 7-4.2 -43 dBmOp (50,000 pWpO) for more than 0.01 % of
GHz band for transmission from satellite to earth. any month. It is assumed that there are no more
Because of the enormous (by line-of-sight stan- than four sources contributing to the 20% value,
dards) effective radiated power of the up-link and no more than three to the 0.01% value.
transmission, the earth-station transmitters can
interfere with terrestrial system receivers in the 6 Beyond-the-horizon operation in the form of
GHz band to distances which can extend far tropo scatter has been in use for many years, and
beyond the horizon. The earth station receivers are much work has been done on methods of calcula-
much more sensitive than those of a terrestrial relay ting path loss. This work is, however, primarily
system and they can be interfered with by even the concerned with determining the average value and
low-powered transmitters of terrestrial 4 GHz the highest value of transmission loss to be expec-
systems well beyond the horizon. ted, with little or no concern about those periods
when transmission loss drops to lower than normal
Although there is little need for sophistication values. But, in evaluating interference potentials,
in the calculations of microwave path losses within what is of concern is precisely the lowest value of
the horizon, the matter of path losses at ranges transmission loss over the undesired path, since this
beyond the horizon is much more complicated. As results in the highest level of interference. The
a result, the problem of coordination between problem is to calculate how strong the interfering
earth-satellite systems and terrestrial systems shar- signal will be under supernormal propagation con-
ing the same bands is a rather complex considera- ditions, and for what percentage of the time such
tion. strong interference signal conditions can be expec-
ted to occur.
Within the United States, Part 25 of the FCC
rules requires the earth station licensees or appli- This is a much more difficult task indeed, and
cants to calculate coordination contours around is complicated by the fact that operational data has
each earth station, and also to calculate interfer- not been oriented in the past toward shedding any
ence levels for all stations within these areas. After light on this situation.
an earth station has been established, any user
operating under Part 21 of the rules and desiring to In recent years considerable work has been
establish a microwave station in the 6, 4 or 2 GHz done on the problem, by a number of organiza-
bands must, if the proposed station falls within the tions. Much of the work is based on NBS Technical
coordination contours of an earth station, demon- Note 101, Revised, January 1, 1967.
strate to the Commission by suitable calculation,
that the proposed station will neither interfere with
A COMSAT technical publication "Transmis-
(in the 4 GHz band), or be interfered with by (in
sion Loss Calculations For Interference Evaluation
the 6 GHz band), the earth station. The procedure
in the 4 Ghz and 6 Ghz Shared Frequency Bands'',
for doing this may be quite complicated ·as it
dated September 15, 1967, provides a somewhat
involves calculation of expected path losses on
simplified method based on the NBS work (the
beyond-the-horizon paths.
latter is very lengthy and somewhat abstruse so that
it is not easy to follow or apply).
The internationally established criteria, at the
present time (1969), for allowable interferences
from earth stations into terrestrial radio relay A considerable number of CCIR documents
receivers are that the interference in any voice deal with the coordination problem, for example:

32
 CCIR Oslo, 1966 Vol IV Recommenda- pose of the present section is to cover the subject in
tions 355 through 359, Report 382 and more depth and to provide working criteria for
393. establishing antenna elevations.

CCIR Oslo, 1966 Vol II Reports, 243, 1. Variations in Signal Level

244 and 339. due to Fading

Part 25 of the FCC rules also outlines a coordina· Fading is a general term applied to loss of
tion calculation procedure. signal as seen by the radio receiver at its input. The
term is intended to apply to propagation variables
One additional source of potential interfer- in the actual radio path. This section is concerned
ence has begun to receive attention, but is so far with actual fading, which is the change in path loss
not very amenable to calculations. That is the between the transmitter at one station and its nor-
problem of scattered interference caused by rain- mal receiver at the following station. These changes
storms which happen to fall within common in path loss have to do with atmospheric condi-
volumes illuminated by an earth station antenna tions and the geometry of the path. This is true
and neighboring radio relay station antennas. Indi- even though at times the complexity of condi-
cations are that this can, in some cases, be quite tions, and the impracticability of measuring pre-
serious. This problem is discussed in the above cisely the parameters at the moment of difficulty,
referenced CCIR Report 339, and will be treated in may result in erroneous judgments being made
greater detail in a revised version of that report concerning cause and remedies.
intended for inclusion in the next CCIR books. The
subject has also been treated in several places in the
technical Ii terature.
The effect of fading on radio paths is very
Another coordination procedure which will much greater than the attenuation variables of open
probably .become mandatory in the very near wire and cable carrier systems, which are primarily
future, is that of calculating or determining due to the effect of temperature variations in the
whether or not the extended beam of a terrestrial metallic medium. Radio fading is caused by refrac-
microwave antenna operating in any of the shared tive, diffractive and reflective effects in connection
bands, will intersect, within ±2°, any portion of with the atmosphere and fixed objects, which can
space which could be occupied by a satellite in a result in defocusing, blocking and sometimes can-
stationary equatorial orbit. This problem and the cellation from multiple paths of varied lengths, due
necessary calculation methods are touched on in to the resultant variation in phase angles on arrival
the referenced CCIR Report 393, and more refined at the receiving antenna.
methods have been suggested in proposed draft
revisions to that report. At any given terrestrial 2. Ground, Sky and Space Waves
site there are only two azimuths at which such
intersections can occur, and only in the near Considering the radio spectrum in its entirety,
vicinity of these azimuths are detailed calculations radio waves are propagated from one point to
needed, taking into account the effects of changes another in three principal forms; ground waves, sky
in the refractive index of the atmosphere and the waves and space waves. At a given frequency, these
angle of elevation of the terrestrial beam. forms bear a specific relationship to each other,
depending upon the characteristics of the media
through which they travel. Ground waves, for
Earth · stations ·are typically located in areas example, depend on the reflection coefficient,
which are relatively isolated and, .where possible, induction field and secondary ground effects, as
well shielded by surrounding terrain. As more and well as the ground conductivity.
1

more earth stations come into the picture, the

problems can be expected to increase.

C. Propagation Whereas the proximity of the ground has a

profound effect on. the propagation of radio waves,
Under ROUTE AND SITE SELECTION there its effect varies substantially with frequency. If the
is contained a discussion intended to impart a space wave transmission (which itself varies with
general appreciation of path influences. The pur- frequency) is taken as a standard, the surface wave

33
diminishes much more rapidly with frequency, and therefore the velocity of propagation. The earth
is negligible in the microwave region. The induction atmosphere is therefore the refracting medium that
field and secondary effects of the ground can tends to make the radio horizon appear closer or
usually be ignored, so that for the portion of the farther away. It also affects the path clearances in
spectrum of interest here, there is only the direct the manner discussed in the section on SITE AND
wave and the reflected wave, reflections from fixed ROUTE SELECTlON. In the discussions following,
objects, or sky waves which are generally classified it will be shown how it also affects other factors of
in this category although, theoretically at least, judgment on the radio path.
reftaction may be the proper category.
' 4. Free Space Attenuation
3. General Nature of Microwave
Propagation Although the atmosphere and terrain over
which a radio beam travels have a modifying effect
Because the path of a radio beam is often on the loss in a radio path, there is, for a given
referred to as line-of-sight, it is often thought of as frequency and distance, a characteristic loss. This
a straight line in space from transmitting to loss increases with both distance and frequency. It
receiving antenna. The fact that it is neither a line, is known as the free space loss.
nor is the path straight, leads to the rather involved
explanations of its behavior, which attempt to give Definition
an understanding of the fundamentals of path
propagation essential to the solution of the prob- Free space loss is defined as the loss that
lems within each radio path. would obtain between two isotropic antennas in
free space, where there are no ground influences or
obstructions; in other words, where blocking, re-
fraction, diffraction and absorption do not exist.
A microwave beam and a beam of light are An isotropic antenna is defined as one which
similar in that both consist of electromagnetic radiates or receives energy uniformly in all direc-
energy, the difference in their behavior being tions. Although such an antenna is physically
principally due to the difference in frequency. unrealizable, it provides a convenient reference
Because a light beam is visible, it is easier to observe point for calculations. Path loss charts for micro-
its behavior. So long as the similarities and differ- wave tranmission are customarily prepared on the
ences can be classified, the comparison is useful. As basis of free space loss between isotropic antennas,
a matter of fact, most of the characteristics of and antenna gains are specified with respect to the
microwaves can be visually demonstrated with light gain of an isotropic antenna. These gains may be
waves, and in a very small space. easily applied to obtain the net loss from the
waveguide out at the transmitter to the waveguide
A basic characteristic of electromagnetic in at the receiver. This is often referred to as the
energy is that it travels in a direction perpendicular net loss for the path.
to the plane of constant phase; i.e. if the beam were
instantaneously cut at right angle to the direction Nature of Losses in Free Space
--~-----------
of travel, a plane of uniform phase would obtain.
If, on the other hand, the beam entered a medium Radio energy is lost in space primarily because
of non-uniform density and the lower portion of of the spreading of energy in the wavefront as it
the beam traveled through the more dense portion travels through space, in accordance with the
of the medium, its velocity would be less than that inverse-square law. Only a small amount of the
of the upper portion of the beam. The plane of energy which is radiated from the transmitting
uniform. phase would then change, and the beam antenna actually reaches the receiving antenna. The
would bend downward. This is refraction, just as a remainder is spread over areas of the wavefront
light beam is refracted when it moves through a outside the capture area of the receiving antenna.
prism.

The atmosphere surrounding the earth has the

non-uniform characteristics of temperature, pres- The derivation of the formula for free space
sure and relative humidity, which are the para- loss involves the isotropic radiator, from which the
meters that determine the dielectric constant, and energy is transmitted equally in all directions. If

34
one were to look instantaneously at the surface of Blocking, Cancellation of
constant phase at some point d distance from the Out of Phase Signals - -
source, it would appear as a sphere of radius d. If .
one were to intercept the energy impinging on a Where an obstacle is blocking, much depends
small portion of that surface with an area of A, the upon whether it is totally or partially blocking,
energy intercepted would bear a relationship to the whether the blocking is in the vertical or the
total energy from the source as A bears to the total horizontal plane, and the shape and nature of the
area of the sphere, which is 41Td 2 • This relationship obstacle. The most serious of the secondary effects
represents the loss between a point source and an is reflection from surfaces in or near the path,
antenna whose "gain" in terms of A is equal to ~~A including the ground. The problem in such cases, is
that the reflected energy travels a separate and
where A is wavelength. By appropriate substitutions longer route than the main beam, and usually is not
and converting d to miles and frequency in GHz as directly in phase with it. The result is often
an inverse function of wavelength, the loss between cancellation of the direct signal to an extent
two isotropic antennas becomes: dependent on the relative powers of the direct and
reflected signal, and the relative phase of the two
A= 96.6 + 20 log10F + 20 log10D (3) signals arriving at the receiving antenna.

where A = free space attenuation between Nature of Obstruction Losses

isotropics, in dB
F = frequency in GHz It may be useful to discuss the effect of some
D = path distance, in miles commonly· experienced obstacles to illustrate the
nature of obstruction losses. Trees for example,
cause dispersion of energy and affect the vertical
For very short distances, such as between two clearance. At grazing they look similar to a knife
points on the same tower, another formula is edge in diffraction theory, and result in about a 6
useful, but is usually stated verbally rather than dB loss. When they become obstructions they are
mathematically. Simply stated, it is; for a distance normally considered to be totally blocking. At
equal to one wavelength the loss is 22 dB, and each clearances above grazing there are usually no
time the distance is doubled, another 6 dB is added. secondary effects of consequence above the point
For example; at 6 GHz, one wavelength is 0.05 of free space transmission.
meters and the loss for this distance is 22 dB. At
0.1 meter, the loss is 28 dB and at 0.2 meter, the The effect of man-made obstacles depends
loss is 34 dB. This progression builds up rapidly and entirely upon their shape and position, if micro-
can be used in connection with near-end crosstalk wave-transparent objects, which are few, are ig-
calculations where the antennas are separated on nored. A large round container such as a gas storage
the tower. The two loss formulas can be shown to reservoir, if partially in the path, causes both
produce identical results at a given distance. Figure diffraction and dispersion as well as some blocking.
13 is a set of curves showing free space losses at It will also reflect a certain amount of energy
different frequencies and distances. off-path, where the wrong receivers may be affec-
ted to the point of serious interference. A more
common object is a water tower, which may
5. Terrain Effects produce some of these effects at times when
refractive conditions are such as to place the tank
The effect of obstacles, both in and near portion in the main beam.
the path, and the terrain, has a bearing on the prop-
agation of radio energy from one point to another, Square or rectangular objects in the path 01'
even at microwave frequencies, where the ground near it can be very destructive from the transmis-
wave does not enter into the calculations. 'I,'he sion standpoint, not only because of blocking
nature of these effects depends upon many things, effects, but also because diffraction occurs over and
including the position, shape and height of obsta- around them. The flat surfaces cause reflections.
cles, nature of the terrain, and whether the effects These are all, in effect, spurious signals and may
of concern are primary or secondary effects. cause both interference and signal cancellation. In

35
 70 50 ll010

L _ _ _:;111'1 ice tenuai 111· ,.,,, .,,..

cities, where this usually occurs, re!lected energy reflection coefficient is the 180° phase shift which
has boon known t.o Interfere with a receiver from takes place for reflected energy at low angles. The
the opposite direction, or after several reflections, curve marked R = -Q.3 represents about the
cause delay distortion. Billboards nre also good common experience on many paths. lt should be
reflectors. One pnrticularly desb'uctlve type is the pointed out that the criterion of smoothness is not
mechanically rotating sign. ·rhls results in energy always a.s obvious as it ls, for instance, on water or
being deflected in variow directions as it rotates. In a dry lake bed. The point is that within the
a working system it can usually be identified by "obstruction zone" th.e loss in signal depends
comparing the rate of rotation with IJ1e rate of substantially on the nature of the ob.rtruction.
interCerence in the system.
The curves or Figure 14 are illustrative only,
Figure 14 is an interesting set of curves which and are not intended to be used for path loss
illustrate the effect of the shape of an object over calculation purposes, particularly in the obstruction
which a microwave beam passes. The curve marked zone. In situations where actual calculations of
R E 0 iUustraws the knife edge diffraction cue u such obstructed zone losses are required for a
shown in ~'igure 1. The curve marked R • - 1.0 particular path, it is recommended that the
illustrates the smooth sphere dll!raction case also methods developed iri NBS Technical Note 101,
shown in F igure 1. The significance of the negative ~vised, or other equivalent methods be applied.

JO

0 ()Ii I.Cl l5 2.0 2.5

CL£ARl\NCE
R • Roll1tC1100 Cot1ff1c1crm
F IAS"T FRESN EL ZONE

Flgurr 14 \llcnuaUon I"> Path O c:sr.mcc

 The first Fresnel zone at any point in the path
may be calculated from the following formula:
Refer again to Figure 14. The solid curve
representing transmission losses when the reflection
coefficient R is -1.0, is the type of curve to be
~
F1 = 72.ly---rfj (4A)
expected when path height-vs-los·s tests are made
over flat, relatively smooth terrain such as dry lake
bed, the salt flats of Utah or smooth water surface. where F 1 First Fresnel zone radius
The type of test represented is the typical path loss in feet
test, where transmitter and receiver are separated Distance from one end of
by a normal path length with smooth terrain path to reflection point in
between. The curve is the result of a height-loss run miles
as described under ROUTE AND SITE SELEC- D Total length of path in
TION. As the transmitting and receivng antennas miles
are raised to the point where free space loss is just D-d 1
obtained, and then further, the received signal Frequency in GHz
reaches a peak value. This is because the direct
signal from the transmitting to the receiving an- Once again refer to Figure 14. The lowest antenna
tenna, and the ground-reflected energy are in phase elevations which will produce cancellation of main
addition at the receiving antenna. Since it is known and reflected signals are indicated by the null below
that, for the very low angles of incidence typical of Fresnel zone 2. The locus of points along the path
microwave paths, there is a 180° phase delay (~) at
where surfaces would produce the same condition
describes a larger ellipse, and its ellipsoid describes
the reflection point, the total reflection path tfom
the locus of all possible surfaces which would
transmitting antenna to reflection point to receiv-
produce second Fresnel zone cancellation. As illus-
ing antenna must be 1/2 wavelength (~) longer than trated in Figure 14, the pattern of additive and
canceling Fresnel intervals increases with increasing
the direct signal path. If this is true, there must also
path clearance, but the differences keep getting
be a point where the direct and reflected signals are
smaller as the number increases. All of those which
in phase opposition. This first occurs when the
produce cancellation are even numbered zones. If
reflection path is one wavelength longer than the
the value for the first Fresnel zone is known and it
direct signal path. With the 180° phase delay at the
is desired to calculate the nth zone, where n is the
reflection point, the reflected signal is, in effect,
Fresnel zone number, then:
one and one half wavelengths behind the direct
signal at the receiving antenna, and in phase
opposition to the direct signal. The first point of (4B)
phase addition is the point where first Fresnel zone
clearance over the reflection point obtains. If an
imaginary line were drawn longitudinally on the Or to calculate any Fresnel zone-directly
path from the transmitting antenna to the receiving
antenna, such that a reflection surface at any point
on that line would produce first Fresnel zone (4C)
addition, it would describe a very long, narrow
ellipse. If this ellipse were rotated about the main
beam as an axis (using the straight beam philosophy Figure 15 is a curve which permits determination of
and the center of the beam) it would describe an the first Fresnel zone tor any point on a path of
ellipsoid of revolution, which is the locus of all given length for the center of the 5.925-6.425
possible surfaces which would produce first Fresnel GHz band. This is sufficiently accurate for the
zone addition. The condition therefore applies to entire band.
objects at the side of the path as well as to ground
reflections. The distance from the exact center of Table Bl lists multiplying factors to allow
the main beam to the above line or surface is also Figure 15 to be used for each of the other
known as the first Fresnel zone radius. It will be commonly used bands. In each case the value of F
noted that the reflection point need not be in the read from the scale is to be multiplied by the factor
middle of the path, but at any point which provides listed for the band of interest. Also included is a
the necessary geometric· rela_tions. table of square roots of integral numbers from 1

38
 MQ

1ltl
g 30
26
120
JO

•
!;;
w 15 ~
.._ i
~
z
l
.,; ..,
::>
c Ill ....-
<I:
z
"'z"' 8
20
0
N
--'
...
I-

1J
UI
;;::
6 z
fil 5 "'
Iii
...,,
._
"
.
4
.5

...tt. ~

+-
f:4_ ~

.:Et .......... H
70
l B 10 I~ 20 1-l •o 100
TOT.\1. P'ATII UliGTH IN MILES• D

Bwuc l5. Fm.t frest1l'I Zorw R:iJiu.\ «• I 7S GllI )

through 65 (Table B2), to facilitate calculation of opposition, the loss can be very large, approaching
the nth Fresnel zone radius when the 1st Fresnel cancellation. There are also some other effects
zone radius is lmown. To calculate the nth zone which tend to distort the signals, and these are
radius, simply multiply F 1 by the square root of n. covered in a later section.

At this point, the reader is .reminded that the Up to this paint the discussion has been
microwave beam travels as a wavefront of consider- principally about a perfectly reflecting surface. This
able tranverse cross-section. Specular reflection of is not a common experience. Referring again to
sue~ a wavefront requires a reflecting surface of a Figure 14, it will be noted that, as the reflection
ceriain area,. rather than a single point. The coefficient becomes less, the addition and cancella-
receiving antenna collects reflected energy from the tion effects diminish, so that for many paths
reflection surface from ahead, beyond and to the clearance is the principal concern. One very in-
sides of the theoretical "reflection point". When teresting point about the curves however, is that
the terrain is perfectly flat and the reflection co- regardless of the reflection coefficient, the eleva-
efficient is -1.0, it is possible to receive exactly as tions where free space loss first occurs ·are such that
much energy from the reflection path as from the approximately 0.6F 1 clearance for the center of
direct signal path. Under these conditions, when the beam obtains over the reflection point. When
they are in phase addition, the summation signal at path loss tests are made, the value of K at the time
the receiver will be 6 dB higher than would obtain of the test can be determined with this knowledge
with free space loss, or without the ground in- and an accurate profile.
fluence . When the two signals are in direct phase
While, as mentioned above, many paths do not
exhibit serious reflective characteristics, reflective
phenomena are not confined to totally flat areas
Table Bl. Multiplying Factors Which Can Be and water surfaces. There are many areas with
Used To Convert Fresnel Zone rolling hills that are devoid of trees and brush, or
Radii Calculated For 6.175 GHz undulating valleys between high hills, which will
To Other Bands. cause serious reflections. Our common experience
BAND CENTER MULTIPLY
with light waves tends to inhibit our judgment as to
GHz FREQUENCY BY the criterion of smoothness, and also regarding the
geometry of the path itself. The judgment of such
1.850 - 1.990 1.920 1.793 areas by visual inspedion alone is often inaccurate
1.990 - 2.110 2.050 1.735 with regard to three important parameters. These
2.110 -2 .130 2.145 1.697 are; the criterion of smoothness for the frequency
2.160 - 2.180 to be used, the effective area of a possible reflecting
2.130 - 2.150 2.165 1.688 surface, and the angles of incidence and refl.eetion.
2.180 - 2.200
2.450 - 2.500 2.475 1.580 The reflection coefficient actually increases
markedly as the angle of incidence becomes very
3.700 - 4.200 3.950 1.250 small. This can be illustrated by viewing an asphalt
4.400 - 5.000 4.700 1.146 highway surface at a considerable distance. The
5.925 - 6.425 6.175 1.000 surface appears like glass and actually reflects the
6.575 - 6.875 6.725 0.9582 sun at this very small angle of reflection. Yet when
viewed from directly overhead, the surface appears
6.875 - 7.125 7.000 0.9392 quite rough at light frequencies. Since microwaves
7.125 ,_ 8.400 7.437 0.9112 have a very much longer wavelength than light
7.750 0.8926 waves, and the angles of incidence and reflection
8.063 0.8751 are very small, the surface can be very much
rougher than the highway surface and still reflect
10.700-11.700 11 .200 0.7425 very well. For instance, wheat stubble, a uniform
12:200 - 12.700 12.450 0.7043 growing crop, and flat prairies, can be very good
12.700 - 12.950 12.825 0.6939 reflectors at 2, 4 and 6 GHz . At 11 to 13 GHz the
12.700 - 13.250 12.975 0.6899 reflection coefficient appears to be somewhat
reduced, probably because of the shorter wave-
lengths.

40
 fnble 0 2 Mulliplyb111 Factor For l>cumrunm1 Fn When I' I Is Known.1Fn = r 1yn1
n

I
Vn
I 000
n

16
'vr--;:-
4000
n

31
v"
Ii 568
n

46
v.:-
6 782
n

61
Vn
1.810
2 I •'14 17 4 123 32 5.657 47 6 856 62 7.874
3 1732 18 4 24J 33 5.745 118 61128 63 7.9:17
4 2 000 19 4 359 34 5.831 49 7000 64 8000
5 2.236 20 44n 35 5 .9 16 50 7 071 05 8062
6 2449 21 4 583 36 6.000 St 7 141
7 2646 22 •1.690 37 8.083 ~ 7 211
8 2.82a 23 4 796 38 6164 53 7 280
9 3.000 24 4.999 39 6.245 54 7.348
10 3 162 25 5(100 40 6.325 SS 7 416
11 3.317 26 5~ 41 6.403 56 7 483
12 3.464 21 !'>198 6481 7.550
13
14
3.606
1742
28
29
6.291
53115
"'
43
44
6557
6.633
57
58
59
7 616
7.681
15 3.873 30 5477 45 6.708 60 11115

1'here are at least two conditions which tions. The variation in these limita morning and
produce reflections quite similar to ground renec- evening, are determined by local conditions. For
tions, and are often classified with ground rel'lec- Instance, sunrise o.r sunset arc quite different in
tion phenomena. A growing crop such as alfalfa mountainous terrain than they are at sea level, or in
often, on level irrigated land, tends to collect a intermediate terrain. Between these daytime houn,
heavy dew in the early morning. The resulting for most areas, the refracfue effect does not
"surface" between wet vegetation and dry air, as usually vary much Crom the K : 4/3 condition.
presented to microwaves, is highly rellective. Also During these daylight hours. rising convection
in a fairly arid country where there is a small currents and winds tend to produce a homogene·
stream in a valley, there Is often, at times of still nous atmosphere, in the sense that stratification in
air, a low ground fog. The upper surface of this fog the air does not exist, and t.be refractive gradient
represents an abrupt change in the dielectric con- resulting from the normal pattern of pressure,
stant 111\d c= be rcflootivo. temperature and relative humidity is fairly uniform.
Because this is the only reasonably st.able refractive
6. Atmospheric Effects condition for any period, it is often referred to as
standard. It is also the basis for the start of path
The matter of establishing antenna elevations analysis in many instances, because beam bending is
to provide minimum fading would be relatively considered in relation to this reference standard.
simple were it not for atm06pheric ef(ects. The
antennas could easily be placed at elevatl.ons to The Refractive Index
provide somewhere between free space loss and
fL1:11t Fresnel zone clearance over the predominant The radio refractive index of the atmosphere,
surface or obstruction, reflective or not, and the n, is a number on the order or 1.0003, varying
transmission would be expected to remain stable. between 1.0 (free space, above atmospheric in-
llnfnrwnstcly, the · effective terrain c.learance Ouence) and about 1.00045 aL ~ rmudmum. Fuc
changes, due to changes in the air dielectric, with grea~r computational convenience, It is custo111ary
consequent changes in refractive bending. The radio to utilize a term N, called "radio rerractiliity".
beam is almost never a precisely straight beam in wnich is defined as:
!act, which is to say that using our straight beam
concept, the condition for K = 1 is a rarity.
Actually the most stable atmospheric condition N • (n-1) x 106 (5)
exists. in most areas, during the daytime !lours
from 1 to 2 hours after sunrise to 1 to 2 hours The "N" term would be zero in free space, and a
before sunset, and during nonnal weather condi· number on the order of 300 at the earth surface.
 The radio refractivity of air for frequencies up Figure 16 is a group of M profiles representing
to 30 GHz is given as: specific conditions which will be discussed in the
following paragraphs.
N = 77.6 PT+ 3.73 x 105 ~ (6)
T2 illustrations of Refraction as
Related-tOtheMProfile -
where P is the total atmospheric pressure in
millibars, T is the absolute temperature in degrees
Figure 16a illustrates the M profile represent-
Kelv,in, and e is the partial pressure of water vapor
ing the "standard" condition, where K = 4/3 and
in millibars. The P /T term is frequently referred to
the slope of the profile is constant at 3.6 units per
as the "dry term" and the e/T 2 term as the "wet
hundred feet.
tenp".

By examination of Equation 6, it can readily If N decreases more rapidly than normal with
be seen that, while pressure and relative humidity increasing altitude, the slope of the M curve is
are direct factors in the refractive index, tempera- steeper, the value of K is greater than 4/3, and the
ture as a function of N is the predominant factor. microwave beam follows the curvature of the earth
In the following discussion, the phenomenon of more closely. If the value of M becomes constant
temperature inversion is covered. It is easily seen with change in altitude, the microwave beam
why this phenomenon is of concern in connection follows the curvature of the earth exactly, and K is
with radio propagation. equal to infinity. This condition is represented
graphically by a vertical M profile, as shown for
M Profiles super-standard in Figure 16b. It would be repre-
sented on a path profile by a flat earth and a
The discussion of atmospheric irregularities is straight line microwave beam. If conditions become
often aided by the use of another term or symbol, even more extreme, the M profile will have a
M, which is called the "modified" index of refrac- negative slope, corresponding to a negative K, or a
tion. It is defined in terms of the radio refractive "concave earth" condition. An example of this
index and the mean sea level elevation. The condition is the rare instance when an overreach
following formula is applicable: interference signal is recorded at a station, and yet
the overreach path is obstructed by several hundred
feet when the path profile is plotted on flat earth.
M = (n-1) x 106 + 4.8h 7)
When the slope of the M profile is greater than
wheren the radio refractive index normal, the refractive condition is referred to as
h = the height above sea level super-standard or earth flattening, since the radio
in hundreds of feet horizon distance is increased. When the slope of the
M profile is less than normal, the refractive condi-
In the normal atmosphere (where K = 4/3), M tion is known as sub-standard or earth bulging. This
increases at a linear rate of about 3.6 units per condition is reflected in Figure 16b.
hundred feet increase in altitude. When height is
plotted as ordinate against M as abscissa, the plot is
called an M profile. The slope of the M profile In practice, linear profiles do not usually
determines the degree. of bending of the microwave occur except near the standard profile, because
beam in relation to the earth. weather factors usually change the shape of the M
profile as well as its slope.
For discussion purposes it might be somewhat
easier to follow a simplified equation for M, which
results from combining equations 4 and 6. The The effect of an abnormally high surface
term N, which is the variable fraction of the temperature, or increasing water vapor content
refractive index, then .becomes the parameter with altitude, is shown in the M profile of Figure
against which the modified index M and its profile 16c. Such a sub-standard surface condition will
are compared. The new equation becomes: result in curving the beam away from the earth, and
this is called inverse beam bending or earth bulging.
M= N+4.8h (8) The effect is similar to that from a linear M profile

42
with a slope less than normal (earth bulging), the available data based on meteorological measure-
except that it is concentrated near the surface of ments is still of relatively limited value in deter-
the earth. mining the values of K to be used in engineering
line-of-sight microwave paths.
A rise in temperature with increasing height,
or a decrease in water vapor content, or both, will Three K values are of particular interest in this
produce the effect shown in Figure 16d. This is a connection;
slightly super-standard condition that will cause the
beam to follow the curvature of the earth more (1) Minimum value to be expected over the path.
closely (earth flattening). This determines the degree of "earth bulging"
and directly affects the requirements for
When the changes in refractive index are most antenna height. It also establishes the lower
severe near the surface, the condition will be as end of the clearance range over which reflec-
shown in Figure 16e. This condition is known as a tive path analysis must be made, in the case of
surface duct, because the beam will tend to stay paths where reflections are expected.
within the surface and the elevation limit a;
depending on the slope of the M profile near the
surface. When the beam enters the duct at a small (2) Maximum value to be expected over the path.
angle, it is bent until it is horizontal, and then This leads to greater than normal clearance
turned downward by further bending. and is of significance primarily on reflective
paths, where it establishes the upper end of
Figure 16f is the M profile of an elevated duct, the clearance range over which reflective
the upper limit of which is formed by the upper analysis must be made.
limit of the super-standard or inversion layer from a
to b, and the lower limit by the sub-standard layer (3) Median or "normal" value to be expected over
from b to c. Under these conditions, the beam will the path. Clearance under this condition
tend to remain within the duct limits from a to c, should be at least sufficient to give free space
due to the bending toward the center of the duct. propagation on non-reflective paths. Addi-
Concentration of radio energy within a duct will tionally, on paths with significant reflections,
cause an increase in received signal when both the the clearance under normal conditions should
transmitting and receiving antennas are .within the not fall at or near an even fresnel zone.
duct. Obviously this effect cannot be relied on for
satisfactory propagation, because the conditions
Of these three values of K, only the median
producing it are subject to change. The terms
value can be predicted with any degree of confi-
trapping, super-refraction and guided propagation
dence from available meteorological data.
are also employed to describe duct phenomena.

M profiles which are essentially linear are The minimum value chosen for K must, for a
significant primarily because of their effect on path highly reliable path, be an extreme value which will
clearance. The non-linear profiles, in addition to be passed for only exceedingly small percentages of
affecting path clearances, also give rise to condi- the time. Experience has indicated that, for actual
tions leading to atmospheric multipath effects. microwave paths, the effective K over the entire
path reaches a very high or very low value for a
K Factors much smaller percentage of time than would be
indicated by the distribution of K values as found
The discussion of refractive effects as given by meteorological measurements at single points.
here is principally for use as background informa- The most probable explanation is that the uhusual
tion to aid in understanding the mechanisms and conditions causing these extreme values a:i:e un-
principles involved in the complex phenomenon of likely to occur over more than a small part of the
propagation through the atmosphere. path at any given instant. In any event, the
correlation between limiting K values as found in
Despite the great amount of work which has practice with those based on meteorological data
been done in collecting and analyzing data on the has been found to be very low, and the best guide
variations with time of the refractive index, and its to choice of K values to be used in path engineer-
gradient at many locations throughout the world, ing, is past history and experience in the field.

43
 The K factor corresponding to an atmosphere There is also a seasonal pattern. The maximum
with a linear gradient of refractive index dn/dh can values of K are usually greater in summer than in
be calculated by the equation: winter, with the minimum values for summer and
winter running about the same. There is, therefore,
K= __1
____ a greater excursion of Kin summer than in winter.
(9A) This, together with its effect on the radio path, has
1 +A. dn given rise to the generally prevalent feeling that
n dh
fading is a summer phenomenon. This is not
exclusively true, as there are radio paths which fade
where' a is the true radius of the earth, n the radio in winter as well as summer, but in most areas the
refractive index, and dn/dh is the gradient of n with summer fading is likely to be much more frequent
respeft to height in the portion of the atmosphere and sometimes more severe.
affecting the path.
Weather Fronts
In this equation, the variations of n itself are
too small to have significant effect, and n can be Weather fronts moving through a particular
taken as 1.0003 for all practical purposes. This area during the hot summer months are usually
leaves dn/dh as the significant variable affecting the accompanied by sudden cooling in the lower
value of K. atmosphere. The result is a rather abrupt change in
the air dielectric to a lower value, with a reduction
It is more convenient to consider the gradient in the n gradient and an increase in the value of K.
of N units instead of the gradient of n units, and, This is a very temporary change. The value of K
when dN/dh is substituted for dn/dh, with the changes according to the storm condition while it is
appropriate correction factor of 10 ·6 , and the value in progress, which may vary widely depending upon
of 6370 kilometers for a and 1.0003 for n are whether saturation rain, high winds, hail, etc.,
substituted in (9A), the following equation is obtain. After the storm, the value of K usually
obtained: returns to something in the order of its normal
value for the time of day and the area. The drop in
barometric pressure preceding a storm front by
157
K = - - -..-...~- (9B) some hours, is in itself not a large variant in the
value of K, although it does affect the refractive
index as such. Referring to Equation 6, it is
estimated by the National Bureau Of Standards
where dN/dh is the N gradient per kilometer. 7
that the "dry term" ~ 6 p accounts for at least
From (9B) it can be calculated that an N 60% of the value of N.
gradient of -40 units per kilometer would give a K
of 4/3 (the so-called standard atmosphere), an N Rain Attenuation
gradient of -157 units per kilometer would give a
K of infinity (super-normal refraction), and an N Attenuation of a microwave signal due to
gradient of about +79 units per kilometer would rainfall or snow along the path, is present to some
give a K of 2/3 (sub-normal refraction). degree at all microwave frequencies, but the effect
is so s.mall as to be insignificant, at least in
In addition to the linear variations in the comparison to the other types of fading, for the
gradient, there are periods of considerable non- bands of 8 GHz and lower. But at higher fre-
linearity such as just after sundown, particularly in quencies, the excess attenuation due to rain in-
coastal areas. At that time the lower strata of air is creases rather rapidly and, in the bands above about
cooling; the relative humidity is increasing, the n 10 GHz, is great enough to significantly affect path
gradient is increasing, and the value of K increases. length criteria, except in areas of very light precipi·
This pattern often holds until around midnight, tation.
after which the relatively warmer earth surface, and
the cooler air above it, appear to produce an The degree of attenuation is a function of a
irregular pattern in which values of K smaller than number of variables including the frequency band,
the daytime values are not unusual. size and shape of the drops, and the distribution of

44
 t
i
w
;c

M-

~
(!}
w
r
II

M-

Figura J 6. Ty11k;il M l'rt•fi~

 rain (in terms of its instantaneous intensity) along values to the yearly outage times shown on Figure
the path. What is important is not the total amount 20, one can see that in the heavier rain areas, the
of rain which falls over an extended period, but second objective could not be met at all, and the
rather the maximum instantaneous intensity of fall first could be met only with very short paths. In
which is reached at any given moment, and the size the light rain areas such objectives might be met
of the area over which the high intensity cell with even relatively long paths.
extends at that moment. Most available rainfall
statispcs cast little light on these matters and, On the other hand, there are certain types of
consequently, are of only limited value in estima- service (for example, CATV relaying) in which
ting the magnitude of rain attenuation effects. somewhat lower reliabilities, 99.9% for example,
Figure 1 7 gives excess path loss in decibels per mile are considered quite acceptable, and in such cases
verstts rainfall rate in inches per hour, for several relatively long paths may be practical, even in areas
frequency bands. It is based on the theoretical with high rainfall.
work of Ryde and Ryde. Figure 18, taken from a
CCIR document, provides somewhat similar infor- Two things to bear in mind in connection with
mation in the form of excess path loss in decibels rain attenuation are that, (1) multipath fading does
per kilometer versus frequency in GHz, for a not occur during periods of heavy rainfall, so the
number of rainfall rates. This figure also includes entire path fade margin is available to combat the
curves for attenuation in fog or cloud, which, rain attenuation, and (2) neither space diversity nor
though substantially lower than that of heavy in-band frequency diversity provide any improve-
rainfall, can nevertheless reach measureable values ment against rain attenuation.
at the higher frequencies. Hathaway and Evans, in
an article published in Communications and Elec- One thing has been well established; that
tronics, January, 1959, discussed both the theoreti- cross-band frequency diversity, with one channel in
cal and practical aspects of the rain attenuation a 6 GHz band and the other in an 11 or 12 GHz
problem and provided application data for the 11 band, is entirely practical, even in the heaviest rain
GHz band, applicable to the continental United areas and for highest reliability requirements. The
States, which is still one of the best available reason is that, since multipath fading is unlikely
sources. Figure 19,' adapted from that article, during heavy rainstorms, the 6 GHz path can carry
divides the U.S. into eight geographical areas in the service during such periods without needing any
ascending order of effect of rain attenuation, and diversity protection. The degree of equipment
Figure 20 gives the estimated outage time in hours protection is reduced slightly, but not by a signifi-
per year versus path length in miles for each area. cant amount.
The latter figure is based on 11 GHz paths with a
40 dB fade margin. Figure 20 can be used for 13 Apart from the rain attenuation problem, the
GHz by reducing the mileage figures on the path 11 to 14 GHz bands have excellent characteristics
length scale by approximately 30%. Dropping the and, despite the rain limitation, they have proven
fade margin from 40 dB to 3 5 dB would increase very useful in practice. They are lifesavers in areas
the expected outage time by approximately 25%, where congestion has used up all available frequen-
while increasing it from 40 dB to 45 dB would cies in the lower bands. In addition to their
decrease the expected outage time by approxi- usefulness in cross-band applications, they can be
mately 15%. used for spur routes or very short paths in the
heavy rain areas, and almost unrestrictedly in very
The degree of severity of the rain attenuation light rain areas. They are extremely valuable for
problem, depends very critically on the degree of hops into or in the vicinity of earth stations, since
reliability which is established as an objective. they avoid the coordination problems associated
Present day reliability objectives for highest relia- with the shared 4 and 6 GHz bands. In any given
bility systems are such as to require per path situation, the effects of rain attenuation can be
reliabilities on the order of 99.99% to 99.9999%, reduced by raising the fade margin, shortening the
depending on the number of hops involved. This paths, or both.
means that total outage objectives for a path may
range from 0.01% to as little as 0.0001%. On an
annual basis, 0.01 % amounts to approximately 53
rµinutes per year, while 0.0001% would amount to When fog forms, either by nocturnal cooling
only about 30 seconds per year. Comparing these of the ground or by the flow of warm air over cool

46
 ~
z <
Ci a:

w
~8~-
< -
"'a:l>.,,~ z
<
c:
>
>
<
w
t;
a:
:I
:: g~
co~ m
..J
a: !5 >- > .x Q
1::1 ... > > :I
a: Er-R g 8'g ...r
< ...
a: g
.\Qo :i!:!:.. ~~- ;::. u

10
8
II
i'
e
w "'
m •
=E
:;; ~
a:
; a. '
W r

w
0, 8
m
w
IJ
I
0 "
~J 0.ll
~ "
0_, I
04
i=<( ,;M
a..
~ Q.2
W _i
0
...x ::..
0..
0.1

-
i.:l 0.08
IJ 06

0.1)4

)02

0.(12 0I 0.4 0.6

02 4 (j 8 10
RAl~f ALL RATE IN INCHES PER HOUR
!Pat In mm • 2S 4 • (rantin 1-D"' h iur!
Figure 17. Rain Attenuation vs. Rainfall Rate (Theoretical, after Ryde nnd Ryde)
• II
::;:
,,,
~
-a 7
-t

z O,&
0
~
<(
::>
z
"'
t:
<(

01

0.05

FREOl.ENCY - GHt

.\11.....,ounn In ralnldll lnll!milYof A 0.25 mm/hr !dr~tlill - 01 In/hr

9, 1.0 niml!>r (light'""'' - 04 Jn/hr
C. 4 .0 mm '" (modet•"' tliinl 18 1~1hr
D, 18 mm"1r 111-v ...int 84 1n/11r
E, 100 mm/ht ''"<Y h-v nirnl 4 0 In/hr

- Attenuation in fog or clou<I: F, 0.032 gm/m 3 {visibility greate< man 600 mete11il
G, 0.32 gm/m 3 {visibility about 120 meters)
H, 2.3 gm/m 1 (visibi lity about 30 meters)

•Attn - dB/mile= 1.61 x (l\rtn in dB/l<ml

Figure 18. Attenua tion Due To Precipitation (after CCIR)

48
H"
~IT!'! 111 •"l'!i tt~ fl:>',..."'
"mJ•lrt1;&I .i...s. Pl!l<tll=<l l•v
'8c1fic Nor111was: Ill I fOf 111111 •t91.

•
FTg,urt' 19 Co111our,: Q ( Cnr1s1.11111 l'uth Ll!uph For .FL<cecl OuLllJJD ThM
 r i---+-

~ ~ 1---1-~-1--+--'~
;:)
0
:c
2 4
"'
::;:
i=
w
C)

g
0

15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60
PATH LENGTH IN MILES

Figure 20. Expected Outage Time In Hours Per Year vs. Path Length In Miles Fo r Various Areas
o f the United States. (Based on I I GHi paths with 40 dB fade morglo ; for I 3 GHz paths.
reduce path lengths by 30%. For 45 dB fade margin, decrease outage time by I 5%; for
I
35 dB fade margin, increase it by 25%.)
L
ground, the total amount of water In the air
rem a Ina 1u bstantially the same, but part o r the
wat.er condel\le6 into minute droplets. It. contribu·
tion to the refractive index is then suhlltantially le11 The principal gaseous ablorption is by oxygen
than when It ii in the form o r vapor. The weathtr aod water vapor. The attenuation due l:o oxygen ii
effect normally accompanying a Cog 1s very still air, relatively constant in the 2 OHi t.o 14 GHi
and some temperature inversion. Thell-0 are the frequency range, and is slightly under 0.01 dB/mile
conditions for a sub-standard surfoco layer with an at 2 GHz ·and slightly above at the 14 GHz end.
M profile as in Figure 16c. The result la to reduce Water vapor ab6orption, on the othe.r band, is
the effective beam clearance at all trequen.:ies and, highly dependent on the rrequency (as well as the
in extreme cases, will put the system out oC aervlce. den• ity of water vapor). It is extremely low at 2
The term "earth bulging" I& often applied to the OHi. on the ol'der or 0.0002 dB/ mile, and &till
reC~livt' effect. negligible, on the order of 0.002 dB/mile, in the 8
GHz range. But a t about 14 GH:t it is approx!·
Foe which occurs very close to the ground In mately equal to the oxygen ahllorpt.ioo, at about
the early morning, usually In a valley immediately 0.01 dB/ mile, and at frequencies in the vicioity or
over a small atream, hos quite ano ther effect. In thu 20 GH:t it is up to neazly 0.2 dB/ mile. These data
case, the normal beam is in the clear, but the aze taken from NBS Monograph No. 92, " Radio
surface at the roe layer is a smooth strata whlch Meteorology", and Table C ii alJO balled on that
ronm a good reflector of microwave energy . sou.roe.
 the antennas high enough so that even under
Table C. Excess Attenuation Due To subnormal refractive conditions there will still be
Atmospheric Absorption adequate signal strength. Yet if the antenna heights
are greater than actually needed, there can be an
PATH ATTENUATION - dB unwarranted increase in system cost and - for
LENGTH paths with significant ground reflections - an
MILES 2-4-6 GHz 8GHz 10GHz 12GHz 14GHz
increase in multipath and ground reflective fading.
20 0.20 0.26 0.32 0.38 0.48
40 0.40 0.52 0.64 0.76 0.96 Normal Non-Reflective Paths
60 0.60 0.78 0.96 1.14 1.44
80 0.80 1.04 1.28 1.52 1.92 Although there are some variations, there are
two basic sets of clearance criteria which are
100 1.00 1.30 1.60 1.90 2.40
in common use in microwave communications
systems. One is a "heavy route" set used for those
systems with the most stringent reliability require-
ments, the other a ''light route" set used for
It is seen that the assumption of "free space" systems where some slight relaxation of the require-
propagation through the atmosphere is reasonably ments can be made. The following are typical
well justified for paths up to about 50 miles from 2 clearance criteria:
through 8 GHz, or for paths up to about 20 miles
for 10 through 14 GHz, but for longer paths, the For "heavy route", highest-reliability
gaseous absorption loss should be taken into
consideration. Unlike free-space loss, this loss is At least 0.3F 1 at K = 2/3 and 1.0F 1 at K
directly proportional to the length of the path. The - 4/3, whichever is greater. In areas of
water vapor absorption will change witl'l the density very difficult propagation, it may be
of water vapor in the atmosphere, consequently the necessary also to ensure a clearance of
bands of 10 GHz and up, which have significant at least grazing at K = 1/2. (For 2 GHz
amounts of attenuation from this source, will vary paths above 36 miles, substitute 0.6F 1
with the vapor density. at K = 1.0).

Clearance Criteria Note that the evaluation should be carried out

along the entire path and not just at the center.
For practical calculation purposes, based on Earth bulge and Fresnel zone radii vary in a
the experience of many users, K is usually consid- different way along the path, and it often happens
ered to fall within a range from about infinity in that one criterion is controlling for obstacles near
the supernormal direction (flat earth condition) to the center of the path and the other is controlling
about 2/3 in the subnormal direction, with normal for obstacles near one end of the path.
or "standard atmosphere" being taken as K - 4/3.
For "light-f'oute" systems with slightly
Excursions beyond these upper and lower less stringent reliability requirements
limits do occur in some areas, but on rare occasions At least 0.6F. + 10 feet at K = 1.0.
and usually for quit.e small time int.ervals. Published
At points quite near the ends of the paths, the
data based on point meteorological soundings show
Fresnel zones and earth bulge become vanish~gly
considerably higher percentages of time at the
small, but it is still necessary to maintain some
extreme ends, particularly in some difficult areas
minimum of perhaps 15 to 20 feet above all
(hot, humid) such as the Gulf Coast, but practical
obstacles. ,
experience indicates that the extreme values shown i
by such point measurements apply only to a small The "heavy route" criteria are on the conser-
area and do not accurat.ely represent what is likely vative side except in the more difficult propagation
to happen along an entire path at a given instant. areas, and undoubtedly in some cases will result in
greater heights than actually needed. But it is
The choice of clearance criteria for a micro- difficult to predict accurately just what can happen
wave route or path is an important one, since it can on a given path under all conditions, and these
profoundly affect both the cost and the quality of criteria are well backed by experience. It should be
performance. It is desirable on the one hand to get noted, however, that even the heavy route criteria

51
will not guarantee complete protection against the moved In close to the low stations. The elevation of
rare and unpredictable "blackout" fading which the antennas on the flats is quite low, and is
occurs in some areas. computed to receive direct and not more than first
Fresnel zone reflected energy most of the time. The
transmit side works the same way, since the two
Note: A theory has been propos_ed recently at
transmission directions are symmetrical geometri-
Lenkurt which, if experience backs it up,
might provide protection against some cally. As the value of K changes, the reflection
forms of "blackout" fading. The theory point moves. As K becomes larger it moves toward
is based on an assumption that even in
the low site, and when it becomes smaller it moves
difficult propagation areas the extreme toward the high site. A principal objective is to
establish the low antenna elevation so that second
gradients necessary to produce such
blackout situations are likely to occur and higher order Fresnel zone energy, that might
only very near the earth's surface. Some otherwise reach the ~ow antenna (receiving side), is
evidence seems to indicate that a layer of blocked by tlie curvature of the earth at any
perhaps 100 to 150 feet above the earth's expected values of K except near infinity.
surface might encompass most of this
difficult area. The theory then suggests Figure 7 can be used to locate the reflection
that in areas where this kind of propaga- point for a given path under various values of K.
tion anomaly is known to exist or might However, for this special case, because of the small
be expected, an additional criterion of at value of x (or h 1 ), it is advisable to derive
least 150' clearance above the earth's approximations from the curve, and then use the
surface, all along the path, for a K value iterative procedure described in the text to find the
of 1.0 might be applied. Obviously on exact values of n for various K. The critical
relatively short paths with no other parameters are the relative elevations h 1 and h 2 ,
clearance problems, this would require a path length, frequency and the size of the antenna
considerable increase in tower heights, aperture. By experimenting with Figure 7, the
limiting values for path geometry can be easily
over those needed to meet the other
established in a given case. The high-low technique
criteria.
is a good solution where applicable, if the operating
frequencies are in the 2 or 4 GHz range. At 6 GHz
Reflective Terrain and above, the smaller Fresnel intervals in relation
to the sizes of antenna aperture required for good
For non-reflective paths it is necessary only to transmission, would render the scheme question-
provide sufficient clearance to ensure free-space able at 6 and 7 GHz without other external
propagation under normal conditions, and to meet structures, and impracticable at 11to13 GHz.
minimum acceptable clearance under subnormal
conditions. The same considerations apply to re- The high-low technique can be used at all
flective paths, but with the added requirement to microwave frequencies if the reflection point,
study the path for supernormal conditions, at least under all values of K, can be placed in rough
up to K = oo in most cases. non-reflective terrain. It should be noted that under
this arrangement, the reflection point moves over a
As discussed in earlier sections, it is possible in considerable distance with different values of K.
some situations to choose sites and antenna heights For instance; a 30 mile path, with antennas at the
so as to provide screening or blocking of all sites at elevations of 10 feet and 1000 feet (relative
potential reflective . paths. In other situations this to the reflective surface), will have the reflection
may not be possible. Where local conditions permit, point for K = 2/3 at 1.35 miles from the low site,
the so-called high-low technique can be used to but for K = oo the point will be approximately 0.3
advantage to minimize the effect of reflections. miles from the low site. In many cases, advantage
There are some variations in this plan, and some may be taken of the existence of low ridges or
pitfalls. Basically, the plan involves one adjacent other irregular obstacles. Figure 6 illustrates such a
repeater on a mountain ridge or very high point, case.
and the other on a very low point, even on the flats
if such is the nature of the surface. The point is,
that provided the difference in elevation is suffi-
cient considering the length of each path, the In open terrain where a path may have trees
reflection "point" (center of locus of reflectio11) is and other obstacles at some points, and barren,

52
rolling hills at others, the obstacles and high terrain viewpoint, the principal precautions are avoiding
should be considered for clearance based on the excessive waveguide lengths,. and minimizing the
criteria indicated above. Additionally, the barren amount and number of flexible waveguide sections.
hills should be considered as possible reflectors, and The latter have a tendency under the stresses of
determinations made within the assumed limits of installation or maintenance to produce mismatches
K as to whether serious even zone reflections could which, combined with slight mismatches at the
be experienced. Frequently adjustments in antenna antenna, will produce round trip echoes, causing
elevations can be made to eliminate such possibility delay distortion. ·
without seriously affecting terrain clearance at the
assumed lower limit of K. There is an economy in 9. Fading
considering the reflection possibility when original
antenna elevations are established, even · though The beam of microwave energy is not a single
only a small percentage of the cases considered may line, but a wavefront extending for a considerable
turn out to be seriously reflective. distance about the center line. Since the index of
refraction under normal atmospheric conditions is
8. Delay Distortion lower at the top of the wave front and higher at the
bottom, and since velocity is inversely proportional
Delay distortion may be caused by the radio to the. index of refraction, the upper portion of the
path, waveguide system or the radio equipment. wavefront under such conditions will travel slightly
The end product is noise distortion in the message, faster, with the result that the wavefront as it
data or television channel assigned to the baseband. moves along the path will tend to have the top
It can be particularly destructive of data service tilted more and more forward. Since the direction
assigned to part of the baseband, when message or of beam travel is always perpendicular to the
data service is assigned to other parts of the wave-front, the beam itself will be bent downward,
baseband, because of the cross-modulation noise thus increasing the apparent clearance. The amount
peaks that cause data errors. of bending is actually very slight on a percentage
basis, but is sufficient to cause significant varia-
In the propagation path, delay distortion is tions.
caused by reflected energy which reaches the
receiving antenna, but is delayed by a number of Under certain atmospheric situations there can
wavelengths as compared to the direct signal. In be even greater than normal negative N gradients
this case it is not the instantaneous phase, but the (supernormal, or ''earth flattening" type), or others
actual time delay, that causes the delay distortion. in which the N gradients become less negative, or
It can be detected by delay sweep instrumentation, even positive. In the latter situation the lower part
and is measured in nanoseconds. The critical of the wavefront will travel faster, and the beam
amount of delay that can be tolerated without will be bent upward, reducing the apparent clear-
serious.distortion depends upon the top frequency ance. This is the subnormal, or "earth-bulging"
of the baseband. As discussed under ROUTE AND type.
SITE SELECTION, the typical situations to avoid
in order to minimize delay distortion in the Most of the time these gradients in the lower
propagation path, are paths which are mountain atmosphere are essentially linear. These linear
top to mountain top with low, flat terrain between, variations affect clearance, and are also important
and paths that go through areas of tall buildings; when the path is reflective, but they do not
particularly where the path aligns with the street. produce atmospheric multipath situations.
All paths which may result in terrain clearance of
F60 (60th Fresnel zone) or more over flat terrain, However, when non-linear gradients such as
should be examined for possible delay distortion. shown on c and d, and particularly e andi f of
Building reflections are difficult to compute in Figure 16 occur, it is possible for multiple paths, in
advance, but situations which might indicate this addition to the direct path, to exist within the
possibility should be avoided oecause of rf;lflection atmosphere itself, independent of any reflecting
fading and interference, as well as delay distortion. surface.

Waveguide echoes are another source of delay These "kinks" in the atmosphere can occur
distortion. They result from impedance mismatches when conditions ai:e such that stratified layers with
or irregularities. From the systems engineering different gradients may lie on top of one another,

53
much like a layer cake. The familiar smog- tests, of 20 to 25 dB when 4 and 6 GHz CW test
producing temperature inversion is an example. signals are used. Two or more reflection surfaces in
a path, which, under some combinations of antenna
These conditions typically are most likely to elevations and specific values of K, produce coin-
occur on hot, still, humid wind-free nights when cident even zone reflections, can cause even deeper
temperature inversions are in, existence. Under fades.
normal daytime conditions, temperature is greatest
near the ground and decreases with altitude, a Growing crops such as alfalfa, can produce
co~dition which leads to convection with the rising serious fading with early morning dew, especially if
air keeping the atmosphere well mixed. But at on low, flat irrigated land. Wheat stubble (depend-
night, radiation can cool the ground more rapidly ing partly on the planting orientation) and new
t;hv.n the air, and the temperature may then increase wheat in the early growing period, provide insuffi.
with increasing altitude. This is a stable condition cient roughness to break up a reflection pattern. All
and allows the stratifications to occur. These low, flat areas, and rolling country without trees,
conditions can also happen in daytime, but are heavy brush or obstacles, should be considered for
much less likely. ground reflection possibilities when analyzing a
path for the determination of antenna elevation,
When the appropriate conditions exist on a and for space diversity intervals. The combination
path, it is possible to get the so-called atmospheric of ground reflection fading and atmospheric multi-
multipath, in which 2, 3, 4 or even many more path fading can be particularly severe.
distinct signal paths may exist between transmit
antenna and receive antenna. Under these condi- This brief and very sketchy discussion of a
tions the received signal is the vector sum of the very complicated process is intended only to give a
various components, all of which are varying in general familiarity with the phenomena causing the
phase in a random manner, and usually in ampli- fading effects. Ordinarily in line-of-sight microwave
tude as well. In such a situation there will be short work it is not necessary to calculate or measure the
intervals in which the various vectors will effec- actual variations in the atmosphere or the index of
tively cancel each other to produce a null. It is this refraction.
phenomenon, often accentuated by some ground
reflection complications, which causes most of the Insofar as the clearance portion is concerned,
fast, very deep fading experienced on many micro- the accepted practice is to assume a range of
wave links. variations based on documented experience, and to
select a set of clearance criteria appropriate to the
Fading due to ground reflection phenomena is type of service and the area.
not confined to water and perfectly smooth, flat
surfaces such as dry lake beds or salt flats, although The treatment of multipath fading is also
such surfaces approach the classical reflection based largely on experience. This type of fading has
coefficient of -1, indicating a perfect reflector. Our been found to follow distributions which are
common experience will show that two different generally related to the well-known Rayleigh distri-
surfaces will reflect visible light even though, when bution. The latter or some modification is widely
examined under a microscope, one is much rougher used in estimating propagation reliability, and in
than the other. Such is also the case with micro- estimating the improvements which are attainable
wave energy, which will be reflected by different by the use of suitable diversity methods.
surfaces with somewhat different reflection coef-
ficients. Moreover, t):le effective reflection coeffi- It is generally agreed that multipath fading
cient is affected by angle of incidence, and by the tends to be greater on long paths than on short
wavelength of the microwave energy. Additionally, ones, and also to be somewhat greater at the higher
from a quantitative standpoint, the effective area of frequencies. The Rayleigh distribution is often
the reflecting surface with just the right angle of taken as the limiting value for multipath fading on
incidence, is a measure of the reflected energy line-of-sight paths with adequate clearance. One
reaching the receiving antenna. Experience has way of estimating reliability is to make a "worst
shown that rolling prairie, such as that existing in case" assumption that a path will have continuous
some of the midwestern United States, can have a Rayleigh -distributed fading. This distribution has a
fairly high reflection coefficient, and may produce slope of 10 dB per decade of percentage of time. A
fades from one reflection surface, as shown by path path with this fading distribution would have 20 dB

54.
fades for 1.0% of the time, 30 dB fades for 0.1 % of however, t.Qat the Barnett and Vigants formulas
the time, and 40 dB fades for 0.01% of the time. give results which are considerably more pessimistic
Continuous Rayleigh-distributed fading is unlikely (conservative) than similar formulas developed by
to occur on most paths, and the assumption is Japanese investigators and reported in the litera-
therefore very much on the conservative side. It ture.
does, however, allow some leeway for the effects of
combinations of attenuation fading and multipath 10. Propagation Reliability and
fading, which can be much worse than either one Diversity Considerations
alone.
Table D provides a simple means of trans-
The incidence of multipath fading varies .not
lating a given system reliability percentage into
only as a function of path length and frequency,
terms which are more easily related to experience.
but also as a function of climate and terrain
For example, the 99.99% value would corres-
conditions. In the most favorable areas, for ex-
pond to about 53 minutes of outage time per
ample paths in dry windy mountainous areas, it
year, while the 99.9999% value would amount to
may be essentially non-existent. Hot, humid coastal
only about 32 seconds per year. The latter value is
areas typically have a high incidence of multipath
typical of per path objectives for the highest
fading, and inland temperate areas are somewhere
reliability systems.
in between. Flat terrain along a path tends to
increase the probability of fading, while irregular or
hilly terrain tends to reduce it. It was indicated in a previous section that
diversity techniques, when properly applied, can
Over the course of the years a number of reduce the effects of multipath fading on line-of-
approaches have been developed for calculating or sight systems to insignificance. Whether or not the
estimating the distribution of deep fading for a considerable expense of providing diversity is justi-
microwave path. fied will depend very critically on the nature of the
communications and the degree of outage which is
In a following section we develop methods of acceptable .
calculating the annual outage probability for a
line-of-sight microwave path, as a function of the
By providing adequate path clearance to essen-
pertinent parameters and conditions of the path.
tially eliminate outages due to earth blocking
(which diversity does not help in any event), and
These methods are based on relatively new
by providing fade margins of 40 dB or more, it is
experimental and theoretical results reported by
possible to achieve per path propagation reliabili-
W.T. Barnett, of Bell Telephone Laboratories, at an
ties, with respect to Rayleigh-distributed fading, on
URSI meeting in Washington, D.C., in April, 1969,
the order of 99.99% or better without diversity.
and by Arvids Vigants, also of Bell Laboratories, in
For many types of service this may be adequate.
several published papers. (See Page 119).
But for long systems, and particularly for systems
carrying data, it is almost mandatory to employ
Barnett's work was in two parts. One de-
diversity if very high reliability is needed.
scribed ways of calculating the outage due to fading
on a non-diversity path as a function of terrain,
climate, path length, and fade margin. The other A point of considerable significance in connec-
gave formulas for calculating the effective improve- tion . with multipath fading, is that its potentictl for
ment achievable by frequency diversity, as a func- causing data errors is a function of the number of
tion of the spacing interval and the frequency band. interruptions as well as total interruption time. A
Vigants' work gave formulas for calculating the great many very short interruptions becau~e of
effective improvement achievable by vertical space deep multipath fades would be far worse than the
diversity, as a function of the spacing in feet, the same total time if it were only a single interruption.
path length, and the frequency.· As a result of this phenomenon, and the greatly
increased use of systems for data as well as voice,
Since these studies were based on a relatively diversity protection may be desirable even if the
limited number of paths, the generalization to total time reliability objectives did not require it.
other paths, other frequencies, and other areas Diversity reduces the number as well as the total
involves some degree of risk. It may be noted, time of the multipath propagation outages.

55
 Table D. Relationship Between System Reliability And Outage Time

OUTAGE OUTAGE TIME PER

RELIABILITY TIME
% % MONTH DAY
VEAR (Avg.) (Avg.)

0 100 8760 hours 720 hours 24 hours

50 50 4380 hours 360 hours 12 hours
80 20 1752 hours 144 hours 4.8 hours
90 10 876 hours 72 hours 2.4 hours
95 5 438 hours 36 hours 1.2 hours
98 2 175 hours 14 hours 29 minutes
99 1 88 hours 7 hours 14.4 minutes
99.9 0.1 8.8 hours 43 minutes 1.44 minutes
99.99 0 .01 53 minutes 4.3 minutes 8.6 seconds
99.999 0.001 5.3 minutes 26 seconds 0.86 seconds
99.9999 0.0001 32 seconds 2.6 seconds 0.086 seconds I
I

Vertical space diversity, applied on a per

hop basis, with post-detection combining
For rout.es which have two or more parallel or selection.
working channels (for example, the TD2 or TH
mainline routes), the protection arrangements a:re Hybrid diversity, a special combination
of the so-called 1-for-N or 2 -for-N type, where one of frequency and space diversity.
protection channel protects on a sectional basis
against either equipment failures or selective fading The frequency diversity arrangement provides
in any one of several working channels. In effect, full and simple equipment redundancy, and has the
this is a form of frequency diversity, though great operational advantage of two complete end to
considerably more efficient in usage of spectrum end electrical paths, so that full testing can be done
than the straight frequency diversity arrangement, without interrupting service. Its disadvantage is that
which requires two RF channels for each working jt doubles the amount of spectrum required. Also it
path. There are at present no practical ways of is sometimes\prohibited by the licensing authority;
using space diversity alone to provide both equip- it is not, for 'example, available to industrial users in
ment and propagation protection on a multiple the U.S.A. .
channel switching section, consequently the 1-for-N
or 2-for-N systems are the only available method of The space diversity arrangement can also
handling this situation. provide full equipment redundancy (when auto-
matically-switched hot standby transmitters are
For systems requiring only one working RF used), but does not provide a separate end to end
channel, as typical of most industrial systems and a operational path. Because of the requirement for
great many of the military systems, the most additional antennas and waveguide, it is more
commonly used basic protection methods are: expensive than the frequency diversity arrange-
ment. However, it provides efficient spectrum
Frequency diversity~ either in-band or usage, and extremely good diversity protection, in
cross-band , applied on a per hop basis, many cases substantially greater than obtainable
with post-detection combining or selec- with frequency diversity, particularly when the
tion. latter is limited to small frequency spacing inter-
vals.

56.
 The somewhat specialized form of diversity, of correlation is high. For example; at a fade
which we have called "hybrid diversity", consists of margin of 40 dB, diversity with 0.99 correlation
an otherwise standard frequency diversity path, in would improve the path reliability by a factor of
which the two T-R pairs at one end of the path are 100, from 99.99% to 99.9999%. At this same fade
separated from each other, and connected to margin, diversity with 0.0 correlation would show a
separate antennas which are vertically spaced as in calculated improvement by a factor of 10,000!!
space diversity. This arrangement provides a space
diversity effect in both directions; in one direction In order to estimate or calculate the ieliability
because the receivers are vertically spaced, and in of a diversity system it is necessary to know or
the other direction because the transmitters are make some assumption about the value of the
vertically spaced. This arrangement combines the correlation coefficient, . for · the particular path
operational advantages of frequency diversity with conditions.
the improved diversity protection (particularly on
reflective or difficult paths) of space diversity. It Until fairly recently it has been a common
has, of course, the same disadvantage as ordinary practice to assume essentially zero correlation for
frequency diversity, in that it requires two RF frequency diversity with spacings of 5% or more,
frequencies to obtain one working channel. and a correlation of around 0.8 for the more
common spacing interval of 2%. Barnett's data,
Because of growing congestion in the micro- supported by that reported by others, indicates
wave bands, the use of vertical space diversity has that the correlation is far higher and the diversity
increased tremendously in the past few years. This improvement far less than would correspond to
change has come about largely as a result of its these values.
demonstrated effectiveness in long haul industrial
systems in the United States. Space diversity is On the other hand, Vigants' data on space
particularly effective against ground or water- diversity improvement indicates that the commonly
reflective fading, and can even be arranged in assumed 100 to 1 improvement, with a 40 dB fade
particular instances to provide "anti-correlated" margin and spacings of about 30 to 40 feet, is a
fading, in which a fade on one diversity half is valid and somewhat conservative assumption.
accompanied by an actual signal rise on the other
diversity half. Space diversity is also quite effective With 40 dB fade margins, the 100 to 1
against atmospheric multipath fading. improvement indicated by this assumption is suffi-
cient to provide estimated path reliabilities of
The amount of improvement against interfer- 99.9999%, even if there were continuous Rayleigh
ence fading (an all-inclusive name for multipath or fading on every path.
selective fading) which will be provided by diver-
sity, depends on the distribution of the fading on It should be noted that considerably lower
each diversity half, and on the degree of correlation space diversity correlation coefficients, with con-
between the two distributions. If each diversity half sequently much larger diversity improvements, have
has Rayleigh-distributed fading, the correlation been reported in the literature. For example, a
coefficient between the two halves can be any value Japanese report to CCIR gave a semi-empirical
from 0 to 1. A correlation coefficient of 0 would equation for space diversity correlation coefficient
mean completely independent fading on the two which produces coefficients on the order of 0.6 to
halves, and a correlation coefficient of 1.0 would 0. 7 for the spacings suggested in this document,
mean that the two halves faded identically. A and even lower coefficients for greater spacings•. At
coefficient of 0.0 corresponds to uncorrelated or the 40 dB fade margin level, such correlations
independent fading. It is often referred to as a would indicate diversity improvements in excess of
"Rayleigh-squared" distribution, since, in this case, 1000 to 1; an order of magnitude greater throt our
the probability that both halves will simultaneously conservatively assumed value of 100 to 1.
fade below a given level, is equal to the square of
the probability that either half alone will fade In frequenc~ diversity operation, band alloca-
below that level. tions and frequency patterns are relatively rigid and
there is little freedom to choose or vary the amount
The diversity improvement at the higher fade of spacings. Ty,pical diversity spacings in most
margins is startlingly large for uncorrelated fading, microwave bands are on the order of 2%, and even
and remains surprisingly good even when the degree less in some cases.

57
 Space diversity applications allow essentially or 4th zone, the lower would be near a maximum
full freedom of choice as to spacing interval, at the 5th or the 3rd zone. In practice, it is
subject only to economic or physical limitations. common to use spacings which, at K = 4/3, are
The method of choosing a spacing interval depends somewhat less than that between an adjacent even
primarily on a judgment as to whether the signifi- and odd zone. The purpose is to avoid a spacing
cant multipath fading on the ,particular path is which might, as K.increases toward infinity and the
likely to be of the atmospheric type or the ground separation between Fresnel zones gets smaller and
reflected type. For the atmospheric type of multi- smaller, reach a point where it corresponds to the
patli, the diversity improvement tends to increase separation between two even zones, and thus allow
as the vertical separation increases, very rapidly at both antennas to be in a deep simultaneous fade.
first and then more slowly. With this situation it is
no\ necessary to use discrete, calculated spacings,
but simply to ensure that the spacing is at least
equal to some chosen minimum value. Experience The following procedure can be used to
has indicated that, on most overland paths, excel- calcl1late the desired vertical spacing interval to
lent diversity will be obtained with minimum protect against reflected path fading up to K = oo.
vertical spacing intervals of about 60' at 2 GHz, 45' The procedure provides calculations for a spacing
at 4 GHz, 30' at 6 GHz, and 15' to 20' at 12 GHz. which, under normal atmospheric conditions (K =
Larger intervals can be expected to provide even 4/3), will have the upper and lower path clearances
better diversity action, but may impose undesirable differ by one Fresnel zone or less, and for the
problems in tower heights, clearances, etc. A super-refraction condition of K = oo, will have the
spacing of 40' in the 6 GHz bands, chosen from two clearances differ by no more than 85% of
physical as well as propagational considerations, has two Fresnel zones. The latter condition prevents
been widely used by Lenkurt with extremely good both paths from simultaneously reaching an even
results. Fresnel zone null, up to K = 00 • Both situations
are calculated, and the smaller of the two spacings
Reflectiv~a~Diversit;r_ Spacing!_ is chosen. A difference of one Fresnel zone at
K = 4/3 provides "anti-correlation'', that is, one
For overwater paths with unblocked reflective signal goes up as the other goes down.
paths, or for overland paths with known surfaces of
high reflectivity, it is possible to calculate discrete
vertical spacings which will provide improved diver- Step A: Establish the antenna heights needed to
sity action against ground-reflected multipath meet the required path clearance criteria.
fading. In fact, if this is the only kind of fading on
a path, spacings can often be chosen so that over a
considerable range of variation of K, one or the
other of the two diversity signals will always be Step B: Let h 1 = the difference in elevation be-
close to the free space value. The basic principle is tween the antenna at one end of the path
to choose an interval such that when the signal on and the reflecting surface, h 2 = the differ-
one diversity half is at or near a null point, the ence in elevation between the antenna at
signal on the other diversity half will be at or near the other end and the reflecting surface,
one of the adjacent maximum points. For example; and ht = the height of the transmitting
referring to Figure 14, we might choose diversity antenna above a plane tangent to the earth
antenna heights on a particular path in such a way at the point of reflection.
that, under normal atmosphere (K = 4/3), the
upper antenna has 5th Fresnel zone clearance over
the reflection point, and the lower antenna has 4th
Fresnel zone clearance. This would mean that Step C: For K = 00 , first consider the h 1 end as the
under normal conditions the upper antenna would transmitting site and calculate a tentative
have a strong signal and the lower one would have a value for the receiver spacing at the other
faded signal, the depth depending on the amplitude end of the path, using the fallowing
of the reflection. But if K moved in either formula: (This formula makes the reflected
direction, the signal on the upper antenna would go path 1. 7 half-wavelengths - slightly less
down and that on the lower antenna would rise. than two half-wavelengths - longer than
When the upper antenna hit a null at either the 6th the direct path at K = oo.)

58
 path. Except in the case of symmetrical
3 antenna heights, the spacings will be dif-
.6.h = 2.2 x 10 D (lOA) ferent at the two ends of the path. Step F,
2
FQHzXht
therefore, consists of repeating Steps A
through D for the other direction of
transmission.
where diversity spacing at the h 2
end, in feet. Cautionary Note.
ht height of the transmitting
antenna, in feet, at the h 1 Depending on the path configuration, the
end, above a plane · tan- above calculations can, at times, produce
gent to the earth at the spacings which are either very large or very
point of reflection. (For small. In such cases the method may
"flat earth", K = oo, this is become impractical, and one would simply
simply the elevation revert to choosing spacings adequate to
above the reflection point provide protection against atmospheric
and ht= hi.) multipath. Such arbitrary spacings will
FQHz= frequency in GHz almost always also provide a large measure
D = path length in miles of protection against ground reflected
multipath, or a' combination of the two
Step D: In most cases, the final spacing will be that types.
calculated in Step C, but to ensure that it
does not result in spacings which would 11. Methods of Calculating the
give more than a one-half wavelength path Probability of Outages due
difference at K = 4/3, the following calcu- to Propagation (See Page 119)
lation is also made using the same symbols
as in (lOA) These methods are based on the previously
mentioned work of Barnett and Vigants. In this
.6.h _ 1.3 x 103 D section we will, for mathematical convenience, use
2 (lOB) fractional probability (per unit) rather than per-
-FGHz x ht
centage probability, and will deal with the "unavail-
ability" or outage parameter, designated by the
Note, however, that ht in this formula will symbol U. The "availability" parameter, for which
not be equal to h 1 , because of the earth we use the symbol A, is given by (1-U). "Reliabil-
curvature. ity", in percent, as commonly used in microwave
In order to determine this ht, it will be circles, is given by lOOA, or 100 (1-U).
necessary to locate the reflection point for
K = 4/3, by the methods described in an
earlier section. ht will then be equal to h 1
minus the earth curvature corresponding to Let Undp be the non-diversity annual outage
the distance between the reflection point probability for a given path.
and the h 1 end.
We start with a term r, defined by Barn~tt as
That is, ht1 = h1 follows:

where d 1 is the distance, in miles, from the

_actual fade probability
h 1 end. r- Rayleigh fade probability(= 10-F/lO] (llA)
Step E The desired vertical spacing at the h 2 end
will be the smaller of the two calculated For the worst month
values of .6.h 2 •

Step F: The above steps cover one direction of rm=ax10· 5 x(f/4)xD 3 llB)
transmission and give a calculated spacing
between receive antennas at one end of the

59
 0 = path length in miles Frequency Diversity Improvement
f = frequency in GHz Factor - - - - - - - - - - - -
a = 4: for very smooth terrain, includ-
ing overwater, Barnett has defined two ~'frequency diversity
1: for average terrain, with some improvement factors", one for the 4 GHz common
roughness, carrier band and another for the 6 GHz common
1A: for mountainous, very rough, or carrier band. Those are experimental formulas
very dry. derived by curve fitting of actual measured data in
F "' fade margin, to the "minimum ac- the deep fade regions.
ceptable " point, in dB.
The formulas are:
Ova.r a year

Ifct(4) = 1/2x .... ~fl (14A)

ryr: bx rm UC)

b 1/2: Gulf coast or similar hot, lfd(6) = 1/4 x [~ x 10F/10 (14B)

humid areas,
1/4: normal interior temperate or
northern, where f is the frequency and 6f the
1/8: mountainous or very dry diversity spacing, and
F is the fade margin in dB.
By combining the three equations and noting that
Unctp is equal to the "actual fade probability" for a Unfortunately Barnett's data, though exten-
given fade margin F, we can writ.e sive, covers only these two bands, and there is
nothing to indicate how to extend it to other
bands. Furthermore, his data at present covers only
Undp = ryr x 10-F/lO =bx rm x 10-F/lO, paths of average length (25 to 30 miles or so) and
do not indicate whether there is any distance
or (12) dependency.

Undp =ax: bx. 2.5 x.10- 6 x f The two formulas do indicate that a given
frequency spacing in percent gives twice as much
x 0 3 x 10-F/lO improvement at 4 GHz as at 6 GHz. This is a
startling and unexpected phenomenon, and if the
same dependence continues on to the higher bands
The product of the terrain and climate factors, would indicate progressively poorer diversity per-
ax b, in this equation, ranges from a maximum of formance with increasing frequency.
4 x 1/2 = 2, for very smooth paths and hot, humid
climate, to a minimum of 1/4 x 1/8 = .031, for As an "educated guess", the following for-
mountainous or very rough, dry .paths. This is a mulas (with no experimental data) are suggested:
range of 64 to 1 in outages, between the worst and
the best situations. "Normal" or average paths,
with some roughness would have a x b = .25,
lfd(7-8) = 1/8 x [ ~f J x toF/10 (14C)
halfway between the two extremes.

The method we will use here for calculating

lfd(ll-12) = 1/12 x [ ~J x 10F/lO (140)
the outages for a system with diversity will be to
calculate separately the non-diversity outage for the
path, and a "diversity improvement factor", for
which we will use the symbol I. The diversity
outage or fade probability will be given by: Since Barnett's work doesn't cover this situa-
tion, judgment must again be used. Experience
Undp indicates that for 6/11 or 6. 7 /12. 4 GHz cross-band
'div - I (13) situations, the diversity improvement is at least as

60
good as that achieved by 4% in-band spacing at 6 Correlation Coefficients
GHz. This corresponds to an improvement of 100
to 1, assuming fade margins of 40 dB. Hence, with Although our calculations do not require the
40 dB fade margins we can simply assume: correlation coefficients, they are of some theoreti-
cal interest. The correlation coefficient is related to
Icbd = 100 (15) the improvement factors as follows:

I
k 2 =1 (18)
10F/lO
Vigants has defined a "space diversity im-
provement factor" which is a function of the path where k2 is the correlation coefficient
length, the frequency, the vertical spacing, and the I the diversity improvement factor,
fade margin. (He called it a 'fade reduction factor', and
but we will use the term 'improvement factor' to be F the fade margin.
consistent with the similar term in Barnett's work
on frequency diversity). Note: All of the above formulas are valid only in
the situations where the calculated value of I
In a modified form, Vigants' improvement is at least 10. If the calculations indicate that
factor can be written as: I is less than 10, the diversity improvement
will be somewhat better than shown by the
7.0 x 10-s x f x s2 x 10F/lO calculations. A further point: the formulas
lsd (16) apply only to the deep fading regions, that is,
D fades of 20 dB or more. They cannot be used
to calculate the incidence of low level fading.
where f = frequency in GHz
s vertical antenna spacing, in Example: To illustrate the method, consider a 30
feet, between centers mile path with average terrain, with some rough-
D = path length in miles ness, in an inland temperate climate, operating at a
frequency of 6.7 GHz with a fade margin of 40 dB.
F fade margin associated with we will make calculations for this path without
the second antenna. The diversity, with 2% frequency diversity, and with 40
barred F is introduced to cover foot vertical space diversity.
the situation where the fade
margins are different on the Non-Diversity Case
upper and lower paths. In such
a case F will be taken as the
Using (12), with the proper values for the
larger of the two fade margins
various factors, we have
and will be used in calculating
Und for the path. F will be
taken as the smaller and will be
Undp = 1x1/4 x 1.25 x 10- 6 x (6.7) 1·5
used in the .calculation of Isd.
x 30 3 x 10-4 = .0000148
Hybrid_!)iversity_!mprovement_!actor_

Experience indicates that the improvement in

This would correspond to an A of .9999852, or a
hybrid diversity systems is mainly due to the space "reliability" of 99.99852%. '
diversity effect. Consequently, we assume that:
Frequency Diversity Case
Ihy brid = Isd (17)
Using (14C), we have

and the improvement factor is calculated as if the lfd(7-8) ;;;;;' 1/8 x (.02) x 104 = 25
path were straight space diversity.

61
so that, substituting in (13), GHz, 15.4 for 6.2 GHz, 17.4 for 6.7 GHz, and 37.5
for 11.2 GHz, and so on. The factor 10F/lO is
equal to approximately .63 x 104 for a 38 dB fade
Ufdp .00~~ 148 = .00000059 margin, .8 x 10 4 for a 39 dB fade margin, 1 x 104
for a 40dB fade margin, and so on. The factor ~f is
s~~ply the frequency diversity spacing, in per cent,
Thus, the calculated "frequency diversity improve-
men~" is 25 to 1, and the calculated reliability for d1v1ded ·by 100. By making up a few tables covering
freqt).ency diversity is 99.999941%. (If we had used the pertinent range of parameters, the calculations
(14B) instead of (14C), the calculated improvement can be done easily and quickly, using slide rule or
factor would have been 50, twice as great as logarithms. Extreme precision in the calculations is
sho\Vll). not warranted. Path lengths can be rounded to the
nearest mile, and fade margins to nearest dB.
Space Diversity Case
As an aid in visualizing the relationships
Using (16), we have between the various parameters and illustrating
some of the characteristics of the fading probability
distributions predicted by these theories and equa-
1 tions, two charts are presented. In both . cases a
Isd = 7.0 x 10- 5 x 6.7 x 1600 x 104 x
30 frequency of 6.7 GHz is assumed.
= 250
Figure 21 shows the probability of outage vs.
fade margin for non-diversity paths of various
and substituting in (13), we have lengths, and for the same paths with 40' vertical
space diversity. The Rayleigh and the Rayleigh-
square distributions are also given, for information.
Usdp = .oog~6 48 = .000000059 Also, Figure 21 is for an "average-average" path.
That is, ax b = 1 x 1/4 = 0.25.

Thus, the calculated "space diversity improvement" A point of considerable interest, and one
is 250 to 1, and the calculated reliability for space which differs significantly from some previous
diversity is 99.9999941%: theories, is that the slope of the fading probability
distribution for non-diversity paths in the deep
The superiority of space diversity for this fading region is the same as the Rayleigh slope, that
situation is clearly evident, but it is important to is, 10 dB per decade of probability, and that the
note that despite the 10 to 1 difference, the slope of the simultaneous fading probability distri-
reliability associated with the frequency diversity is bution for diversity paths in that region is the same
still extremely high, and would be quite adequate as the Rayleigh-squared slope, that is, 5 dB per
for very high reliability systems. decade of probability.

On the other hand, if the path were located in Figure 22 shows, for the same path and
the "worst case" propagation area, all of the frequency, the probability of outage vs. path length
calculated outages would be increased by a factor for non-diversity with a 40 dB fade margin, and for
of 8, which would put the frequency diversity the same paths with a 40 dB fade margin and 40'
reliability at 99.99953%, perhaps slightly marginal vertical space diversity.
for ultra-high reliability systems.

Equations 11 through 18 provide a complete

analytical fading model which can easily be set up The previous analysis applies only to diversity
for routine machine computation. It is also rela- systems of the 1 for 1 type, with the diversity
tively easy to do the computations by hand. Hand applied on a hop by hop basis. A more complex
computation can be facilitated by preparing tables situation exists with respect to propagation outages
of several of the factors. For example, the factor in multiline systems. These systems have two or
(f)l.5 is 2.82 for 2 GHz, 8 for 4 GHz, 11.2 for 5 more working RF channels. and one (sometimes

62
1 . 10-t

h 10
20 30 15 65
FADE LIAAGl"I 1111 d8
llJ!llR' 21 Ouill!I! l'Tobubolllv ' ' r 1dc.- " ·•r;Jn for 6.7 CUz p3th:. of Vanou~ Li:ngth ,
,\\CT.ige I erraln rmd 01ma1e 1.U1cr V1pnu 8- Jl;imt'll I

63
 10...

"'C>
g
0
...0
>-
I-
:;
iii
10 '*
<l

..."'a:
0

r
101

10
5 1n m JO 40 so 60 10 76
PATH LENGTH MILES

~ 22. Outage Probability vs Path Length for a 6.7 GRt Path with 40 dB Fade Margin

64
two) protection RF channel operating in parallel another way, the "diversity improvement factors"
over the path, each on its own frequency. The for inter-hop combinations at a 40 dB fade margin
protection channels, besides giving protection would be in the range of 10,000 to 1, so that
against equipment failure, provide a form of fre- outages attributable to an inter-hop combination
quency diversity protection against propagation would be considerably less than 1% of the outages
failure. attributable to an intra-hop combination.

The amount of diversity protection depends Thus, though there is a slight increase in
among other things on the frequency spacing outage probability for the tandem arrangement, it
between the closest spaced channels, and in the is far too small to be of any significance and from
case of fully equipped systems in the 4 or 6 GHz the propagation point of view either system can be
common carrier bands, adjacent channels may be treated, analytically, as if the diversity were on a
separated by as little as 0.5% in frequency. Con- per hop basis. In ·either case the total calculated
sidering two such closely spaced channels as a outages for an N-hop system will simply be N times
"frequency diversity pair", it is clear that the the calculated single hop outages. (In the case of
probability of simultaneous fading to threshold very high reliability systems, the possibility of
could be relatively high, that is, the fading highly diversity outages occurring at the same instant on
correlated between the two channels. two different hops is extremely small and so can be
neglected.)
The analysis of the complete propagation
effects in multiline systems, particularly those
utilizing 2 protection channels and arranged with
switching sections comprising several hops in tan- The diversity improvement factors apply only
dem, is too complex to be treated in this book. to fading which is caused by some sort of multiple
Comprehensive treatments can be found in the path conditions, since this sort of fading exhibits
literature. frequency and space selectivity. The improvement
does not apply to those types of fading which are
There is one aspect of the multiline situation non-selective. On well-engineered paths (adequate
which we can usefully treat. That aspect is the clearance and fade margins) outages due to such
effect on the diversity action which results from non-selective fading are very unlikely to occur, but
switching or combining only at the end of a when and if they do occur they can have a
number of hops in tandem, rather than on every significant effect on the overall availability because
hop. The difference between the two lies in the fact they tend to last much longer than multipath deep
that in the tandem situation, outages can be caused fades and because they receive no diversity im-
by simultaneous inter-hop as well as simultaneous provement. No attempt has been made to include
intra-hop fades to thresholds. For example, a them in the analytical models, since no adequate
simultaneous fade to threshold on Channel 1 of prediction methods are available for them and since
Hop A and Channel 2 of Hop B could cause an they do not apply to the great majority of paths.
outage in this situation, but not if the diversity
were applied on a per hop basis. If the same degree Other Treatments
of correlation existed for the deep fading on
inter-hop combinations as on the intra-hop combi- Several pertinent articles on reliability and
nations, the outage with diversity applied end to diversity have been published in recent ye.ars in the
end on an N-hop system would be N times that of IEEE Transactions on Communications Te\!hno-
the same system with diversity applied over each logy. Among them: February, 1966 - Barnett on
hop. But in actuality the fading distributions on reliability; December, 1966 - Abraham on reliabil-
inter-hop combinations, even for adjacent hops, ity; August, 1967 - Makino and Morita on• space
must be essentially independent (zero correlation) diversity; February, 1968 White on space 1diver-
because each path at a given instant has a unique sity; December, 1968 Vigants on space diversity.
set of multipath conditions which cannot possibly
be the same as those of the other path. We thus D. Noise Performance
have the situation that the fading for intra-hop
combinations is highly correlated (k 2 in the range The noise, performance of a communications
of .99 and higher) while the inter-hop combinations system is one of the most significant parameters,
have zero or at least very low correlations. Stated with strong effects .on many phases of system
engineering.

65
 1 Total Noise Its magnitude is a complex function of the relative
magnitude of the delayed signal, its absolute delay
The total noise in any derived channel is with respect to the main signal, the amount of
composed of noise contributions of several types loading present, the width of the baseband, and the
including; thermal, intermodulation, echo path relative position of the channel in the baseband. It
distortion, interference, and noise from the multi- is more significant the higher the channel fre-
plex equipment. quency, the greater the echo amplitude and the
greater the delay. In high density systems with long
Thermal Noise waveguide runs (or long IF cable runs), it is
necessary to maintain close control of impedance
Thermal noise is caused by random current matching throughout (low VSWR of antennas,
vatjations in every portion of the electronic equip- equipment, waveguide runs and all junctions) in
ment and is present whether or not a modulating order to keep distortion to acceptably low levels.
signal is being applied. One portion of the thermal
noise, often called intrinsic or idle noise, is that Path reflections can, in some unusual cases,
generated in the transmitter and in the late stages also produce echo signals with sufficiently long
of the receiver. It is independent of receiver input delay as to cause significant path distortion. Such a
level, and is the limiting noise performance level condition could occur on a path with a relatively
which could be measured between terminals under strong reflection and an abnormally large amount
conditions of no modulating signal and a very of clearance, or as a result of a double bounce off
strong RF input signal. one building to another building and thence to the
distant antenna. With good equipment design and
The more important portion of the thermal proper system layout, path distortion noise can be
noise includes noise generated by the antenna kept to the very low levels needed to meet overall
resistance, plus the noise generated in the front end noise objectives.
circuits of the receiver. This noise undergoes
amplification within the receiver, along with the
RF carrier, and as a result of the FM process the
noise at the output of the receiver will vary The contribution to system noise from atmos-
inversely with the RF carrier input level. For RF pheric and most forms of man-made noise is very
signals above the FM improvement threshold (to be small at microwave frequencies and can be neglec-
discussed later), the thermal noise at the output of ted. However, interfering signals from other micro-
the receiver will decrease 1 dB for each 1 dB wave systems, or from the spurious radiations of
increase in RF signal input, up to the point at high powered radars, can produce noise in a
which the intrinsic noise, unrelated to the RF microwave system. This form of noise must be kept
carrier, becomes controlling. to insignificant levels by proper equipment, systems
design and by appropriate coordination of fre-
quency usage in any geographical area, as discussed
Intermodulation Noise in more detail elsewhere.

Intermodulation noise is created whenever the

complex modulating signal passes through any kind
of non-linearity of phase or amplitude in the The multiplex system is also a source of noise,
transmission facility. It is present only when the but its noise contribution is not affected by fading,
system is being modulated, and increases with the so for any given configuration it is relatively fixed.
level of the modulating signal. Such factors as the The amount of noise contributed by the multiplex
total number of active message channels, the level system under loaded conditions, is a characteristic
of signaling and data tones, and the individual of the equipment, and can be determined either
speech levels, determine the level of the baseband from the manufacturer's specifications, or from
signal, or the baseband load on the system. actual measurements on terminals connected back-
to-back.
Echo Distortion Noise
2. Noise Units
Echo distortion noise is a form of intermodu-
lation noise which is created when delayed echo The most commonly specified noise parameter
signals are present in the FM portion of the system. is that of noise power in a voice channel. It is

66
defined and specified in a number of ways. Noise
power units in common use include: dBrncO = 10 log10 pWpO + 0.8 = dBaO +6.8
(19)
dBrnc (dB above reference noise, C-message = dBmOp +.90.8 = 88.3 S/N
weighting. Reference noise is equivalent to a
1,000 hertz tone at -90 dBm.)
The conditions for precision are a frequency
(dB above reference noise-adjusted, Fl A band of 300-3400 Hz, a square channel response,
weighting. Reference noise adjusted is an ideal noise meter, and that the noise be
equivalent to a 1,000 hertz tone at -85 essentially "white noise".
dBm.)
Note: The parameter "noise power ratio"
(picowatts of noise power, psophometri- (NPR) has had wide usage as another way
cally weighted. 1.0 pWp is equivalent to a of describing noise performance. But it
800 hertz tone at -90 dBm.) cannot be considered as a "noise unit" in
the same sense as the other parameters
dBmp (psophometrically weighted noise power in listed here, because its relationship to
dB, with respect to a power level equivalent noise in the derived channel is not
to a 800 hertz tone at 0 dBm.) constant but depends on the relationship
between the noise loading ratio and the
(signal-to-noise ratio in dB, either unweight- bandwidth ratio being used. For this
ed or with a specified weighting.) reason the use of NPR as a means of
specifying noise performance is not rec-
The first four units as defined above represent ommended since it often leads to con-
absolute values of noise. In order to make them fusion.
meaningful with respect to an actual circuit, it is
necessary to take into account the relative level at 3. Determination of System Noise
the point of measurement. For measurements made
at a point of 0 relative level, the absolute and The receiver "front end" noise is of particular
relative values will be the same. Consequently, it is significance in microwave system engineering be-
customary to express objectives and measurements cause of its effect on thresholds and fading margin,
in equivalent noise power at a point of zero relative in addition to its effect on overall noise. Fortunate-
level (0 dBmO point), and to identify such objec- ly, this type of noise and its effects in a derived
tives or measurements as dBmcO, dBaO, pWpO or channel are readily calculable from a knowledge of
dBmOp, respectively. certain system parameters, including receiver noise
figure (F) in dB, receiver IF bandwidth in mega-
The dBrnc is the present noise unit used in the hertz at the 3 dB points (BMHz), the per-channel
telephone industry in the United States. The dBa is deviation (b.f), the center frequency of the derived
no longer in general use in the telephone industry, channel at the top of the baseband (fch), the effect
but is still common among industrial users. The of emphasis (if used), and the desired voice channel
pWp and dBmp are international units based on weigh ting characteristic.
CCIR recommendations. Table E shows the approx-
imate relationships between these various noise Note: The receiver noise figure F and the
units. Because of differences in weighting curves, various equations for noise developed in
the correlations are in some cases valid only for this and later sections are all based on the
"white noise". The correlations shown, which are assumption that the noise temperature of
rounded off to integral values, are the ones in the area in the field of view of the
widest use, though slightly differing correlations are antenna is approximately 290° Kelvin.
also found in the literature. This is a sufficiently accurate approx-
imation for any microwave path between
In most practical cases the variations due to two terrestrial points. But a different
the round-offs are unimportant, but where frac- approach (using noise temperatures in-
tional dB's are significant (in meeting guaranteed stead of noise figure) is needed for
performance requirements, for example), the situations where the antenna "sees" a
following correlations are more precise: region of space with a much lower noise

67
 temperature, such as an earth station available fade margin in such a receiver is, there-
antenna looking up at a high angle fore, the difference in dB between the normal
toward a satellite. For such situations the unfaded signal and the FM improvement threshold.
formulas in this book will give correct The FM improvement threshold (TFM) can be
results if the noise figure F as used here is calculated as:
replaced by an "operational noise figure"
. Ta+ Te
defined as Fop = 10 log10 ( ), TFM = 104 + 10 log10 BMHz + F (21)
290
where Ta is the noise temperature. in
degrees Keluin, associated with the an-
tenna and Te the noise temperature of This is the point at which the RF carrier-to-noise
the equipment. For the case where Ta= ratio (C/N) is equal to 10 dB. It is notable that the
290° Keluin, Fop is identical to F. FM threshold is independent of baseband fre-
quency, deviation, emphasis, etc., but the noise at
Receiver Thermal Noise the FM threshold in a derived channel, which is a
function of these parameters, is indeterminate until
The starting point for receiver thermal noise these parameters are known or specified.
calculations is the thermal noise generated in the
antenna resistance. For terrestrial microwave sys- The choices for these other parameters, as
tems with an assumed effective antenna noise now reasonably well standardized by international
temperature of 290° Kelvin, the antenna noise usage, are such as to make the noise in a derived
transferred to the receiver has been calculated to be channel, at the FM threshold, fall approximately at,
-174 dBm per cycle of bandwidth, or -114 dBm or slightly higher than, the level considered to be
per megacycle of bandwidth. In a perfect receiver the ma.ldmum tolerable noise for a telephone
this would be the only source of "front end" noise, channel in the public network. By present stan-
but any actual receiver will itself contribute addi- dards, this maximum is considered to be 55 dBmcO
tional noise, which will raise the equivalent noise ( 49 dBaO). In industrial systems, a value of 58
input by the dB value of the receiver noise figure. dBrncO (52 dBaO) is commonly used as the
Total equivalent noise input (N) in dBm can then maximum acceptable noise level.
be calculated as:
The noise in a derived voice channel resulting
N = 114+10 logio BMHz + F (20) from the receiver equivalent input noise can be
calculated, for RF inputs above the FM threshold,
as:

This is one kind of threshold, and is often dBmcO = -C 48.1 + F 20 logia t.f/fch (22A)
called "detection threshold", "absolute noise thres-
hold" and similar expressions. It should be clearly dBaO = -C 54.1 + F 20 log1 O t.f/fch ( 22B)
understood that, in an FM microwave system, this
threshold does not represent a usable signal level. S/NdB "" C + 136. F + 20 logio M/fch (22C)
The true working threshold, often called the FM flat '
improvement threshold or the FM breaking point,
occurs when the power of the signal is approxi- pWpO = log10-
1
(22D)
f-c-48.6 + F-20 log~]
mately 10 dB higher than the power of the noise.
At this point the peaks of the signal begin to
exceed the peaks of the noise and FM quieting 10 .
begins. For input signals higher than this level, the
thermal noise in a derived channel will decrease 1 where C = RF input power in dBm.
dB ,for each 1 dB increase in RF input level. F ::: receiver noise figure in dB,
referred to the point at which
If the input signal drops below the FM input power is established.
threshold, the noise in the derived channel rises 6f = peak deviation of the channel
quickly to an intolerable level. Consequently most for a signal of test tone level.
microwave receivers are arranged to mute when the fch center frequency occupied by
input level drops below this point. The maximum the channel in the baseband.

68
 Nu151: Unh Cump.irison Otart

d8111cO d&O pWpO dBmOp SINde dBmcO dB•O pWpO dB1nllp SIN dB

0 -6 I0 90 88 34 28 2520 -56 &4

1 ~ I3 -&9 87 35 29 31ti2 -55 53
2 -4 10 -88 86 36 30 3981 -5-\ 62
J J 2.0 -81 85 37 31 5012 -53 51
4 -2 2.5 -88 84 38 31 6310 -51 so
5 -1 32 -85 83 39 33 7943 -S I 49
6 0 40 -84 82 40 34. 10.000 -50 48
7 -83 35 -49 47
8
1
2
5.0
63 -82
81
80 "42 3G
12,500
15.850 -48
-<ll
46
45
II 3 7.9 -a1 79 43 37 19.950
10 4 10.0 -90 18 44 38 25,200 -<16
11 5 12 6 -79 77 45 39 31,6?0 -45 '"
43
78 78 .....u
12
13
14
8
7
8
16 8
200
2!">.2
-71
76
76
H
48
47
48
4()
~1
42
39,810
50.120
63,100
-43
-42
"'
41
~o
1& 9 31 8 -76 73 49 43 79,430 41 3!l
,,
16 10
11
398
GO.I
7~
-73
72
71
50
51
44
45
100,000
125,900
-40
-39
38
37
18 12 113. I 72 70 52 46 158.500 -36 30
19 13 70.4 -7 1 69 53 q1 199,500 -37 35
20 14 !OD 10 Gil 54 48 252,000 -36 34
21 lfi 120 -89 67 55 40 310.200 -35 33
22 16 158 68 66 56 50 398, 100 -34 32
23 17 200 ·Bl 65 S7 51 501,200 -33 31
-37 30
24 18 ~' • li4l 64 58 57 631,000
:lO
25 10 316 -65 03 5!l 53 7!t4,3ll0 --31
26 20 398 -64 62 60 !>4 l.000.000 -30 28
27 21 601 -63 81 61 55 t.259.000 -29 27
28 '22 631 ·82 llO 82 56 1,585.000 -28 2B
29 23 794 -61 69 63 67 1,905,000 -27 25
JO 24 1000 -60 !">II 64 58 2,!i20.000 -26 24
31 25 1259 -59 !i7 60 59 3,162.000 -25 23
32 2U 1685 - 58 56 U6 60 3,981.000 -24 n
33 27 1095 - 57 SS

Tlblt E s i - the rr~t•o•..taii> bvt"'nn f,...• commonly u.-.1 i.n•b for ~"'I"°""
'" o '''"" baod chonnet , In the l1m lour columnt, 1i.uni~rtpRS8'11 ""'M,lhl*! no11e al•
_ .. , o1 tt•o ... ,.,..,. lwQi, In 1110 fifth cotumn th<' "s~ "'Pf"2nl> • 1orw 11 itro 1lla11>,•
ltNct, ond th• ..N" ••111_,,u "'"''"'Ulilied llO•W in• 3 kl-It vOICl! CllDJlnfl, !Mreloro, SiN
f> th• <ll! 11110 o l m1 toM 10 noise

Tiu IAblt "s b-.l on the loll.,..,1ngcom"'°"lv U1ed CON'8131JO<' formule. whor.h •nc:Juoe
·.omo t1IQ11t mund olfs lor ca>e.wtnlcn""- Corralo!lont fe>r CohJmns 2, l llf\d ;I Aro valid fur
nll 1ypw. of nolut All 01he1 correlation•.-. .-110 101 whrtll l'01M. but 001 l\llCellolrll~ lor
1>11\<IT IVP91

e18rncO 10 lo\110 pWpO dB..O~ 6 =d9m0p + 90 88 - SIN

 In FM systems without emphasis, ~f has a Sptp/Nrms C - F + 118 (22E)
constant value, regardless of the baseband fre- (unweighted, unemphasized)
quency occupied by the channel. In this case, the
equations show that the noise will be higher in the
higher frequency channels, the increase being at 6 Sptp/Nrms = C --- F + 126.5 (22F)
dB per octave. Thus the thermal noise is worst in (EIA emphasis,
the top channel, and that channel is typically used EIA color weighting)
for system noise calculations.
(
In order to provide a more even distribution The latter formula is applicable to most
of noise across the baseband, emphasis networks television transmission in North America.
pe often used to increase the deviation at the
higher frequencies and decrease it at the lower CCIR at this time (1970) has not yet standard-
frequencies. ized either emphasis or weighting for color TV. For
monochrome television, CCIR Recommendation
Most present day microwave systems are No. 421-1 describes several different systems.
designed around the parameters recommended by Monochrome weighting network characteristics are
CCIR for certain standard configurations. For included, and monochrome emphasis network
example, per channel deviations of 200 kHz rms characteristics are given in Recommendation No.
(282.8 kHz wak) are used for systems of 300, 600 405. The following equation can be used to
or 960 voice channels, and per channel deviations calculate the video S/N ratio for the various CCIR
of 140 kHz rms (200 kHz peak) for systems of monochrome systems. The first constant term in
1200 and 1800 voice channel capacities. When each equation represents the unemphasized, un-
CCIR emphasis is used, this deviation applies only weighted S/N value, and the second constant term
to the channel at the crossover point of the is the combined effect of weighting and emphasis.
emphasis curve; at 0.608 fmax, where fmax is the The equations also take account of the fact that
top baseband frequency. Channels near the bottom CCIR defines the "signal" to exclude the synchron-
of the baseband will have deviations approximately izing pulses, unlike North American practices.
4 dB lower, and the channel at the very top of the
baseband, a deviation 4 dB higher than the refer- Sp-p/Nrms = C F+A (22G)
ence deviation.
(CCIR monochrome emphasis and weighting)

r
Even with emphasis, the thermal noise is
greatest in the top channel, consequently, it is 119.5 + 13.7 (405 lines, 3 MHz)
customary to make calculations for that channel 115.7 + 17.3 (525 lines, 4 MHz -Japan)
only. Table F lists values for the 20 log10 ~f/fch A= 112.8 + 16.2 (625 lines, 5 MHz)
factors for the top measuring slot (also standard- ll0.5 + 18.1 (625 lines, 6 MHz)
ized by CCIR) for the various channel configura-
tions, both with and without emphasis.

The thermal noise parameter used in video

l112.8 + 13.5 (819 lines, 5 MHz)
103.8 + 16.1 (819 lines, 10 MHz)

applications is a broadband "signal-to-noise ratio" Practical Threshold

(S/N), which is defined as the ratio of the peak-to-
peak signal to the rms thermal noise in the video The "practical threshold", or m1mmum ac-
baseband. The S/N ratio is dependent on the ceptable RF input level point, cannot be lower than
receiver input level, the noise figure, the video the FM improvement threshold, but may be higher
bandwidth, the peak deviation, the de-emphasis if it is established as an arbitrary value of noise in
characteristics if used, and the weighting function. the top channel. As an example, consider a 960
channel system with CCIR deviation and emphasis,
The following formulas can be used to calcu- with a receiver noise figure of 10 dB and an IF
late the video S/N ratio in dB. They assume a peak bandwidth of 32 MHz. We can calculate the FM
deviation of 4 MHz (this is generally standard threshold as TFM =-104 + lOlog 32+10 = -78.9
everywhere) and a video bandwidth of 4.3 MHz. dBm. We can then use this level as the value of C in
They would not be correct for other bandwidths (22A) to calculate the derived channel noise level at
and deviations. the FM threshold, for example:

"'If\
 Table F. Standard CCIR 20 log10 l:lf/fch Factors For Top Slot
SYSTEM TOP WITHOUT WITH
CHANNELS SLOT EMPHASrs EMPHASIS

120 534 kHz -5.52d8 -1.82 dB ( 120 channel emphasis)

300 1248 kHz -12.9dB -9.2 dB (300 channel emphasis)

420* 1722 kHz - 15.7 dB -12.0 dB (420 channel emphas~}

600 2438 kHz -1a7dB -15.0 dB (600 channel emphasis)

960 3886 kHz -22.8 dB -19. 1 dB (960 channel emphasis)

1200 5340 kHz -28.5 dB -24.8 dB (1200 channel emphasis)

NOTE: 200 kHz rms per channel deviation for all except 1200 channel system, which is
140 kHz rms per channel deviation.
"Not a CCIA Standard, but widely used in U .S.A. industrial systems.

dBrncO = - (-78.9) 48.1+10 (-19.1: Lines corresponding to the limiting values

=59.9 established by the two types of threshold are
shown on the figure. The FM threshold lines
If we are using a value of 5 5 dBmcO as the correspond to four commonly used IF bandwidths.
maximum allowable limit, it is evident that the The 12 MHz IF is typical for systems limited to
"pract.ical threshold" will be at an RF input which 300 channels, the 22 MHz IF is typical for systems
is 4.9 dB above the FM threshold, or -74 dBm. This with 300 to 600 channels and a 32 MHz IF is
illustrates the point that the threshold may be typical for systems with 600 channels or color TV.
controlled either by the FM threshold or by the For systems of 960 channels through 1800 chan-
channel noise, whichever requires the higher signal. nels, 40 MHz IF bandwidths are commonly used.

In order to meet overall noise objectives, most

microwave paths are engineered with normal signal
levels chosen to limit receiver thermal noise to
Fade margin is the dB difference between the about 14 to 16 dBmcO. Figure 23A shows that,
"practical threshold" level and the normal signal
with a 10 dB noise figure, this will dictate receiver
level. Most line-of-sight microwave systems are input levels of about -40 dBm for the 300 channel
engineered with fade margins in the range of 35 to system, about -37 dBm for the 600 channel sys-
40 dB or more. The high normal signal levels are
tem, about -33 dBm for the 960 channel system,
only partly to provide protection against fading.
and about -28 dBm for the 1200 channel system.
Even if there were no fading, they would still be
When very stringent noise objectives are required,
needed, in most cases, to meet basic syst.em noise
receiver inputs up to 5 dB higher than the above
objectives. may be essential.

Figure 23A shows characteristic curves of per System_~wing~~itsEfiecto~Noise

channel thermal noise for typical receiver configu-
rations, as a function of RF input level. The curves At the low end of the RF input range, the
are calculated for a receiver with a noise figure of thermal noise is· the only significant noise source,
10 dB. They can be used for other values by but at the high end of the range, intermodulation
shifting the input scale 1 dB upward for each dB noise and intrinsic noise are significant contribu-
increase in noise figure above 10 dB, or 1 dB tors, and provide a lower limit to the total noise
downward for each dB of decrease in noise figure. curve.

71
 ++

"'a'
uJ
!lj

•
z
Lilz
T
l- 0
z
oJz
~
:r
u
Ht z
<
~

....tr
Q.
"
a:
I:.'

Figure :?JA ltt!<:Civcr ·numnnl Nol5c-. I I() dU 'IOoi5e Figure Assumed 1

72
 The amount of intermodulation and intrinsic mance can be improved by increasing the per
noise is a characteristic of the equipment and can channel deviation, but at the expense of worsened
be determined either from the manufacturer spec- intermodulation noise because increasing the
ifications, or from actual measurements on systems; deviation increases the loading. The CCIR recom-
unlike receiver thermal noise, it is not readily mended parameters are well suited to systems
calculable from known system parameters. The carrying principally public telephone traffic, but
intermodulation noise is, however, a function of may not be optimum for systems with high
the system loading as well as equipment para- percentages of the channels devoted to data.
meters.
A slightly different loading formula is in
It is now standard practice to specify the widespread use in the U.S.A. telephone industry.
loading capacity of a microwave system, and its This loading, which was established by the Bell
performance, in terms of "white noise" loading System as a result of the latest available measure-
applied to the used portion of the baseband at a ment data, is given - for multi-channel systems of
level chosen to make its peak values equivalent to relatively high capacity- by:
those of a multichannel telephone load.

P = (-16 + 10 log10N) dBmO (23C)

Microwave systems are commonly designed

and rated for the equivalent loads as established by It represents 1 dB lighter loading than the
CCIR and given by the following equations: corresponding CCIR formula, and reflects· a reduc-
tion in talker volumes from previous values.
p (-15 + 10 log10N) dBmO (23A)
(when N = 240 or more)

Standards currently in use or proposed by the

p (--1 + 4 log10N) dBmO (23B) Defense Communications Agency (DCA) for U.S.
(when N = 12 to 240) military systems specify an equivalent loading 5 dB
higher than CCIR, in order to allow essentially
unrestricted use of data at relatively high levels.
where p = equivalent noise loading power The corresponding formula is given by:
N = number of SSBSC channels

P = (-10 + 10 log10N) dBmO (23D)

The expressions within the parentheses give the
ratio, in dB, of the equivalent noise load power to
test tone power, and are often called "Noise This means an equivalent loading power ap-
Loading Ratio" or NLR. proximately 3.2 times as great as that for CCIR
loading. Thus, a 300 channel system with this type
The second equation reflects the fact that the of loading must be engineered essentially as if it
peak-to-rms factor for the smaller number of were a 960 channel system with CCIR loading.
channels is higher than that of white noise, so that
a higher value of rms white noise power must be
provided, in this case, to obtain the same peak
value as that of the voice channels. Beyond the 240
channel point, the white noise and voice are Equations (23A) and (23B) given abov~, are
considered to have the same peak factor, so that based on systems which are primarily used for voice
the rms values of the voice load and the equivalent transmission, though they include an allowance for
white noise load are equ31. signaling tones and for a small percentage of the
SSBSC channels to be used for telegraph or data
The choices of per channel deviation, IF multiplex.
bandwidth, etc., are made to provide reasonably
good balance between thermal and intermodulation When relatively large numbers of the channels
noise at normal signal levels. Thermal noise perfor- are used for such data services, the calculation of

73
equivalent loading becomes more complex. Usual specified by the manufacturer, at the normal design
practice is to calculate separately the equivalent loading of the system and for specified conditions.
white noise loading for the number: of channels On a measurement basis, it can be determined by
used for voice, and the equivalent rms power in noise loading measurements on terminals connected
dBmO of all the tones used for transmitting data back-to-back, with the RF received signal set
over the system, then to sum the two rms powers sufficiently high so as to reduce front-end thermal
on a power additive basis to obtain an equivalent noise to insignificance. The resulting reading will
total white noise loading power and noise loading then give the equipment intermodulation plus
ratib. This is justifiable because the peak to rms intrinsic noise. If desired, the latter can be deter-
factor for a composite signal consisting of a number mined by repeating the measurement with loading
of tones, is closely equivalent to that of white noise removed.
wqen the number exceeds about 16 tones.
As an example, consider a 600 channel system Echo distortion noise, as described earlier, is a
with 500 channels devoted to voice, 40 channels form of intermodulation noise which is produced
by delayed echo signals, created usually by a
carrying data at a level of -12 dBmO per channel,
and 60 channels, each carrying 20 submultiplexed combination or combinations of impedance mis-
telegraph carriers at -21 dBmO per carrier. The matches in waveguides, antennas, and the equip-
equivalent load of the voice is, from equation ment itself. It can also occur at IF, from cable and
(23A), -15 + 10 log 500 = +12.0 dBmO; the equipment mismatches and, more rarely, as a result
equivalent load of the data is -12 + 10 log 40 of long-delayed echoes in the path itself.
= + 4.0 dBmO, and the equivalent load of the tele- The effects of echo distortion are a very
graph carriers is -21 + 10 log 20 + 10 log 60
= +9.8 dBmO.
complicated function of a number of things such as
the number of mismatches, the magnitudes of the
mismatches, the distance between them, the veloc-
ity of propagation in the guide, the number of
Table G provides a simple means of summing channels, the per channel deviation, the total
(or subtracting) non-coherent powers expressed in loading, the presence or absence of emphasis, etc.
dB form. Using this table, we can calculate that the Because of the complexity, exact calculations are
summation of the three loads of +12.0, +4.0 and very difficult.
+9.8 dBmO, determined in the preceding paragraph,
is approximately +14.5 dBmO. The curves of Figure 24 can be used to
calculate an approximate value of echo distortion
Since the equivalent noise loading for a 600 noise, for certain standard channel arrangements.
channel system is only +12.8 dBmO, it is evident To use the curves, it is necessary to know the
that the +14.5 dBmO load would be some 1.7 dB equipment return loss, and to know (or to assume)
higher than that of an equivalent 600 channel voice a composite value for the combined return losses of
system. It would then be necessary to determine antenna-plus-waveguide at the frequencies of in-
whether the system could actually carry the extra terest. The latter are assumed to be lumped at the
load with an acceptable level of performance, and antenna location. As an example of the use of the
without exceeding bandwidth restrictions. If not, chart in Figure 24, make the following assump-
the load could be reduced by any of several tions:
expedients. One would be to lower the levels of the
data and the telegraph channels until the total rms A 960 channel system, in the 6 GHz
power of data tones occupying a SSBSC channel band, with 100' of waveguide. Equip-
does not exceed -15 dBmO. Another would be to ment return loss of 28 dB. Antenna-plus-
eliminate some of the voice channels. A third waveguide return loss of 26 dB (equiva-
would be to reduce the per-channel deviation, lent to a VSWR of 1.1).
seeking a more optimum balance between thermal
and intermodulation noise for the new conditions. From the chart, the dBrncO constant for
It is beyond the scope of this work to discuss all 960 channels at 100' is 70.5, and the loss
the ramifications associated with this problem. of 100' of waveguide at 6 GHz is
Intermodulation Noise approximately 2 dB. Hence, the noise in
the top channel in dBrncO is equal to;
Equipment intermodulation noise is not a
directly calculable quantity. Its value is usually 70.5 28 26 4 = 12.5 dBrncO

74
Table G. Summation Or Subtraction Of Non-Coherent Powers.
This table can be used for summing the powers
of two non-coherent signals expressed in dB Col. 1 Col. 2 Col. 3
form. It can also be used for power subtraction.
Pa -Pb Ps -Pe Ps- Pb
Pa and Pb represent two powers whose
summation is P5 : in all cases Pa is taken as 0.0 3.010 3.010
the larger of the two powers. 0.2 2.911 3.111
0.4 2.815 3.215
To sum two powers, calculate Pa - Pb, locate 0.6 2.721 3.321
the resulting value in Column 1, then add the 0.8 2.629 3.429
corresponding value in Column 2 to Pa 1.0 2.539 3.539
to obta in Ps. the desired sum. 1.2 . 2.451 3.651
1.4 2.366 3.766
To subtract one power from another, treat 1.6 2.284 3.884
the larger one as P5 and the smaller one 1.8 2.203 4.003
as Pa (if it is within 3 dB of P5) or Pb 2.0 2.124 4.124
(if it is more than 3 dB below P5) . 2.2 2.048 4.248
2.4 1.974 4.374
In the f irst case, cal cu late Ps - Pa. locate 2.6 1.902 4.502
the resulting value in Column 2, then 2.8 1.832 4.632
subtract the corresponding value in 3.0 1.764 4.764
Column 3 from P5 to obtain Pb. the 3.2 1.698 4.898
desired remainder. 3.4 1.635 5.035
3.6 1.573 5.173
In the second case, calculate Ps - Pb, locate 3.8 1.513 5.313
the resulting value in Column 3, then subtract 4.0 1.455 5.455
the corresponding value in Column 2 from 4.2 1.399 5.599
P5 to obtain Pa. the desired remainder. 4.4 1.345 5.745
4.6 1.293 5.893
When more than two powers are to be summed 4.8 1.242 6.042
or subtracted, iteration can be used . 5.0 1.193 6.193
5.2 1.146 6.346
Example: Summation 5.4 1.100 ' 6.500
5.6 1.056 6.656
To add+ 10.0 dBmO to +8.7 dBmO 5.8 1.014 6.814
10.0 - 8.7 = 1.3 6.0 0.973 6.973
1.3 in Column 1 falls between 1.2 and 6.5 0.877 7.377
1.4 so the value from Column 2 is 7.0 0.790 7.790
(2.45 + 2.37)/2 = 2.41 . 7.5 0.710 8.210
. So P5 = + 10.0 + 2.41 = + 12.41 dBmO 8.0 0.639 8.639
8.5 0.574 9.074
Example: Subtraction 9 .0 0.515 9.515
9.5 0.461 9.961
To subtract -15.0 dBm from -1 0.0 dB mO 10.0 0.414 10.414
-10.0 - (-15.0) = 5,,treating -10.0 as 11.0 0.331 . 11.33,
P5 and -15.0 as Pb we locate 5 in 12.0 0.266 12.266
Column 3 as very near to 5.035, so we 13.0 0.216 13.216
subtract the corresponding value in 14.0 0.170 14.170
Column 2, 1.635, from -10.0 to obtain P3 . 15.0 0.135 15.135
So Pa = -10. 0 - 1.635 = -11. 6 (rounded). 16.0 0.108 16.108
17.0 0.086 17 .086
18.0 0.068 18.068
19.0 0.054 19.054
20.0 .0.043 20.043
25.0 0.016 25.016
30.0 0.004 30.004
00 0.000 00

75
 i
·l

'

8 <u<:
E . \ ....
en co
"O "O
I
:: ··
w I'
' UJ
~ ~
0 0
• z z
; .. ...J
..J
w w
z z
z z
<( ~
:c
(.)
I
u
a: a::
ut· w
Q; a.

-30 60

...

40 ' . 50

...

10
1 . 111
-11"·1111111·. 1 :
20

·~

~, ..

-9ot...........:tr.:ttt:!tltt:t'.tt:lttt:tt!t::t:tr:tl::t!t:tt:rttt1:ttr:t1:tttt!1-~:t:t:1::ttttt::ttt:tf:::t:ttt!::ttttlo
-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20
AECIEVER INPUT IN d8m

Figure 23B. Typical Receiver Noise Curve. Top Slot Of 960 Channel System; 10 dB Noise Figure;
200 kHz Deviation; CCIR Emphasis, +14.8 dBmO Load.

76
 ·J>J

u.. tXI" ~ vw «nonl&wn""' Ol)IY 141 .,.dll!llCQ Of ~

'11C-""t'"''• .._..,... m U. dBrt.:() o• d81rt(ln 1,1.tt1 l111r·• •-' ft91f1 a. •-"''•+
-~ MllUICM1"tnofthefft1m"'-M ti:q11tpmmtll'l'lld ~·
lf"d twk'e ~ "'.wt!lf' 109 .,...

CitrrYM •II Wll.lUl 91tfW'- Yfl\llt fl ~ 11ie toP C:~l(I•' KtlO

-~~ dlttWttoh, t)mle wlft W '°'"_. l • ISl:P . _,,ty j 0 llQ iwt
tt~tnfm· 1'11'.lltl: 1r1"""' c.tln'llla fNY 11• .,.._

- 41

I.ENG Yi

l;All llb
 From Table E, in a previous section, this Pe!._Hoe._Total Noise
can be found to be equivalent to 18
picowatts, psophometrically weighted, if If the level of intermodulation noise plus
that noise unit is to be used. If emphasis intrinsic noise for the top channel of a given system
is used, the noise will be 3 dB lower, or at the desired loading is known (it usually must be
9.0pWpO. obtained from the manufacturer), this noise and
the receiver thermal noise can be plotted on a chart
. It will be seen from the chart, that the echo and added on a power basis, to construct an overall
dist~rtion noise constants increase rapidly with curve showing loaded noise as a function of RF
guide length until a plateau is reached, beyond signal level for the particular equipment and condi-
which they change very little as the guide gets tions. Figure 23B is an example of such a curve. It
longer. Because of the effect of waveguide attenua- should be borne in mind that such a curve will be
tion in reducing the noise, for any given configura- valid only for the particular parameters and condi-
tion there will be a peak point in the noise curve, at tions on which it is based. Note also that Figure
about the knee of the curve, for which the noise 23B does not include echo distortion noise, which
will be a maximum. For longer or shorter lengths it must be treated separately for each case. See later
will be less. examples.

Return loss in dB can be calculated as The curve of Figure 23B is for a "baseband"
VSWR+l
or remodulating type of equipment, and includes
20 log10 VSWR _ 1 the noise contributions of the FM modulator,
demodulator and associated baseband equipment.
or taken from the following: In heterodyne systems these elements are not
included with the radio equipment, so their loaded
noise contributions must be determined separately,
VSWR R.L. VSWR R.L. VSWR R.L. and added in as another contributor to the system
noise. The radio portion of a heterodyne equip-
1.02 40.1 1.07 29.4 1.15 23.0 ment will have the same thermal noise as an
1.03 36.6 1.08 28.3 1.20 20.8 equivalent remodulating equipment, but its inter-
1.04 34.1 1.09 27.3 1.25 19.0 modulation and intrinsic noise will be lower be·
1.05 32.2 1.10 26.4 1.30 17.8 cause of the absence of remodulating and baseband
1.06 30.7 1.12 24.9 1.40 15.4 equipment.

4. System Noise Objectives

Note: The significant parameter in micro-
wave systems work is return loss rather Because of the wide variety of communica-
than VSWR. The continued use of VSWR tions systems, and the many ways in which a
in describing the impedance characteris- channel can be used, there is no way to establish a
tics of microwave antennas, waveguides simple and universal noise objective which would
and components is a holdover from the be optimum for all systems. A very strong trade-off
days when the only available measure- relationship exists among system capacity, system
ment technique, the slotted line, gave costs, and system noise performance. Each com·
results directly in VSWR. With modern munications user must, in some manner, evaluate
sweep generators and reflectometer tech- and establish his own requirements in the light of
niques the measurement gives return loss these relationships. Choosing noise objectives
directly, and it is somewhat pointless to higher than really needed can often cause an
first convert it to VSWR and then recon- inordinately large increase in system cost, while
vert it to return loss. It would be simpler setting them too low can seriously limit the
if ratings were simply stated in terms of usefulness and expandability of the system.
return loss rather than VSWR, by the
manufacturers of microwave equipment Since the noise power in a multi-hop system is
and components. Some companies have approximately equal to the power summation of
already taken steps in this direction. the noise powers of the individual hops, the noise

78
objectives must, of course, include a distance The CCIR/CCITT objectives were originally
factor. Consequently, most noise objectives are developed for circuits over coaxial cables. It is now
established as proportional to the length of the recognized that they are not well suited to micro-
system. This is a reasonable assumption for long wave systems because of the "in any hour"
systems, since hop lengths tend to average out, but requirement which, if strictly interpreted, could
is difficult to apply to short systems, and particu- mean the "worst hour" of the "worst month" of
larly to those with short average hop lengths. the "worst year". This has two significant disadvan-
tages. One is that there is no practical way to
The following paragraphs list some noise determine in advance (and hardly any practical way
objectives in current use at the time of preparation after the fact) just what the relationship is between
of this manual. It should be borne in mind that mean noise in the worst hour and mean noise under
these values are design objectives and not "stan- normal conditions for any microwave system. The
dards" or specification requirements, though they other is that, even if there were such a way, it
are often interpreted in that way. would in many cases be economically grotesque to
perhaps double· the cost of the system to avoid
QCIR/CC!TT International Circuits allowing a relatively modest increase in noise during
a very few hours of the year.
CCIR and CCITT establish hypothetical refer-
ence circuits 2500 kilometers long, and relate their The subject has been under discussion for
noise objectives to these reference circuits, or to some time, but as yet no changes have been agreed
systems closely similar to them. on. Most CCIR-conforming countries have adopted
an· informal and pragmatic approach, which is to
The basic design objective for a voice channel assume that the mean noise in the worst hour will
of the hypothetical reference circuit is 10,000 be that corresponding to the noise with all hops in
pWpO mean noise power in any hol;JI, of which the system faded by approximately 5 dB below
2,500 pWpO is allocated to the multiplex equip- their normal free space level. This, of course,
ment and 7 ,500 pWpO to the transmission line requires that in some cases, the hops be engineered
(microwave system in this case). For systems for roughly 5 dB stronger signals than would
between 280 and 2500 kilometers in length, the otherwise be needed, but at least it establishes a
noise contributed by the line is considered propor- definable and measurable condition.
tional to length, i.e. 3 pWpO per kilometer.
The CCIR noise objectives assume that the
For real systems, the following somewhat system is loaded, either with traffic or with white
more complicated formulas are established: noise, at the levels indicated by the appropriate
CCIR loading formulas. In addition to the "mean
Systems of 50 to 840 kilometers; 3 pWpO noise in any hour" criterion, CCIR requires that the
per kilometer plus 200 pWpO. same numerical value of noise, measured on a
"one-minute-mean" basis, not be exceeded for
Systems of 840 to 1670 kilometers; 3 more than 20% of any month. This, too, is
pWpO per kilometer plus 400 pWpO. conventionally handled by a simulated fade of 5 dB
below the median signal. This value is justified by
Systems of 1670 to 2500 kilometers; 3 the fact that there is a difference of 5 dB between
pWpO per kilometer plus 600 pWpO. the median ( 50%) level of a Rayleigh- distributed
signal and the 80% level, as well as by experimental
CCIR does not attempt to define noise perfor- data.
mance for systems shorter than 50 kilometers, since
such systems are not amenable to any pWpO per
kilometer formula and must be treated as. special
cases. The above formulas are for the noise contri-
buted by the microwave or transmission· system Noise objectives in the U.S.A. are not as
only, and do not include the multiplex noise. The rigidly or officially formulated as in the CCIR, and
latter must be added in to obtain total noise on the are subject to fairly frequent changes. Table H gives
system. what we believe to be objectives commonly applied

79
 Table H. Typical U.S.A. Noise Objectives.
TYPE OF TRUNK
TRUNK TOLL CONNECTING*
LENGTH INTERTOLL* OR TANDEM DIRECT-
dBrncO dBrncO
IN MILES dBrncO
>.

0-60 30 32 36 j
\ I .
51-100 31 33 36
101-200 33 35 38
201-400 35 37 40
401-1000 37 39 42
1001-1500 38 40 43 .,

1501-2500 41 43 46 \1
2501-4000 43 45 47
*SEE NOTE ON PAGE 80.

at the present time. They are for complete trunks, the "intertoll" column to all trunks. The
from the out€oing switch in one office to the reason is that with modern telephone
incoming switch in the next office, and therefore, industry switching and automatic routing
include multiplex noise and any other noise practices the clearcut distinctions be·
sources, as well as that of the microwave. They are tween the various types of trunks tends
given in terms of dBrncO, measured during the busy to disappear. We haue left the table
hour (but with the microwave system in a normal intact, however, because of its usefulness
or unfaded condition). for other applications.

Two points are worth mentioning. One is that, Another slight difference between the CCIR
unlike CCIR, these objectives assume that any and U.S.A. approach, is that the latter generally
microwave systems are in the unfaded condition, assumes an equivalent white noise busy hour
which prevails for the overwhelming percent.age of loading of -16 dBmO per channel (Bell System
the time. Another is that the most stringent Standard) instead of the -15 dBrnO per channel
objectives are applied to intertoll circuits, and other CCIR value.
types of circuits have considerably relaxed objec-
tives. lntertoll circuits in the public networks may
be tandemed with a considerable number of similar
ones in making up very long circuits, and it is for A commonly used objective for industrial
this reason that their performance must be so good. systems, is 32 d.BaO (equivalent to 38 dBrncO) busy
Private microwave systems do not generally have hour loaded noise, for a system 1,000 miles in
this problem to cont.end with (at least not to that length (34 hops). This objective includes the
degree), consequently a privat.e user looking to multiplex noise contribution.
telephone company objectives as a guide to his
desired microwave performance could, in many
cases, use the more relaxed objectives associated
with toll connecting trunks or even in some cases, Current or proposed DCA standards for the
those of direct trunks. long term median noise on real systems are as
follows (where L is the length of the hop or system
Note: The objectives as tabulated in in nautical miles)
Table H represented the practices at the
time this book was first prepared. It is Section Length (L) Allowable Noise
our understanding that present practices
(1970) remoue the distinction between L> 151 nmi 3.33 L pWpO
intertoll, toll connecting, tandem, and 27 < L < 151 nmi (2.76 L + 85.5} pWpO
direct trunks, and apply the objectives of L< 27 nmi 160 pWpO

80
 As presently stated (1970) these are spec- time during which the receiver is below the
ifically identified as "worst hour" objectives. An practical threshold (and usually muted) are by
EIA ad hoc committee has recommended to DCA definition "propagation outages".
that the "worst hour" statement be deleted and the
objectives specified and measured with all hops This parameter thus establishes the bottom
faded 3 dB below their normal calculated signal limit of the fade margin range, and is closely tied in
level. The reasons are the same ones discussed in with system reliability.
the section on CCIR objectives.
Line-of-sight microwave systems are invariably
Note that the military objectives apply with engineered with very large fade margins, and often
the system loaded per Equation (23D), that is, -10 with diversity protection, so that the percentages of
dBmO equivalent noise loading per channel. time during which any one hop will be at, or below,
threshold are very small. Consequently, it is un-
Television_Tran_sm._i~ion Systems likely that two hops of even a long system will be
simultaneously below threshold. This means that
The random noise parameter used to specify the expected propagation outage time of a multi-
noise for television transmission, is the ratio of the hop system will be equal to the sum of the
peak-to-peak video signal to the weighted rms noise expected propagation outage times of all the
in the band occupied by the television signal. individual hops. Consequently, only a single value
Various objectives are in existence. of maximum noise is used, regardless of the number
of hops, but the allowable time percentage during
EIA Standard RS-250A recommends a weight- which it can be experienced, does increase with the
ed S/N ratio minimum of 59 dB for a single hop number of hops, and is approximately proportional
system, and a minimum of 56 dB for a multihop to system length.
system. This is applicable for either color or
monochrome transmission. CCIR/CCITT

CCIR Recommendation 4 21 lists, for the The CCIR objective for the 2500 kilometer
2500 kilometer hypothetical reference circuit, var- hypothetical circuit, is that the one-minute mean
ious values ranging from 50 dB to 57 dB, depending noise power should not exceed 47,500 pWpO for
upon the system. This recommendation is for more than 0.1% of any month, with proportion-
monochrome only. In general, systems engineered ately smaller allowable percentages down to 280
to meet voice channel noise performance require- kilometers.
ments for 600 channels or more, will provide
adequate noise performance for television trans- The same objective is applied to real circuits
mission. from 280 to 2500 kilometers in length, but for real
circuits of any length up to 280 kilometers, a single
percentage value of (280/2500) x 0.1%, or
Note : The EIA and the CCIR definitions of S/N 0.0112%, is specified.
differ by a factor of 3 dB, because EIA
defines the "signal" as the total video signal, Again, the CCIR objective is adapted from
whereas CCIR defines it as the picture older objectives developed for cable systems, and is
signal, exclusive of synchronizing pulses. not well suited for microwave systems. One reason
Other differences arise as a result of widely is that it is in terms of "one-minute mean noise",
differing emphasis and weighting networks, that is, noise integrated over a period of one
so the EIA and CCIR S/N ratios cannot be
minute. This is reasonable for systems in vyhich
directly compared. noise changes are slow with respect to a minute,
such as cable systems, but it is inappropriate for the
5. Noise Allowable for Small rapidly changing noise associated with deep fading
Percentages of Time in a microwave system. Consequently it is a
difficult parameter to predict and measure. A
A second type of noise objective establishes a second objection is that this value of noise is not
maximum allowable value of noise, beyond which really high enough to justify considering it a
the circuit is considered unusable. Jn a microwave "mute" or "propagation outage" point, since the
system, this value of noise defines the "practical circuits would be quite usable with 8 or 9 dB
threshold" of the receivers, and those periods of greater noise.

81
 No solution satisfactory to CCIR has yet been The allowable time percentage objectives de-
found to this problem, which is still under study by pend on the type of system. For systems of the
CCIR/CCITT. For further details of CCIR noise long-haul type (specifically intertoll) an objective
objectives, reference should be made to CCIR of 0.02% for a 4,000 miles system is applied, with
Recommendation No. 395-1. proportionally shorter times for shorter systems.
For systems of the short-haul type, an objective of
Note: CCIR Recommendation No. 0.02% for systems of any length up to about 200
393-1, which applies only to the hypo- miles is used. Both types of objective are such as to
thetical reference circuit, has an addi- require, in general, some form of diversity to
tional short term noise objective which is protect against multipath fading.
omitted completely from the objectives
in 395-1 for real systems.

The additional objective is that the noise The most commonly used value of maximum
power on the 2500 kilometer reference allowable noise in industrial systems is 52 dBaO.
circuit should not exceed 1,000,000 pWO This corresponds to 58 dBrncO, and thus allows 3
unweighted (with an integrating time of dB higher noise before muting, than the current
5 ms) for more than 0.01% of any telephone objective described above. Until fairly
month. recently, 52 dBaO was the objective of the tele-
phone industry as well.
This value would correspond to 562,000
pWpO of weighted noise power, or about
57.5 dBmcO. Allowable time percentage objectives vary
rather widely, depending on the type of system and
It is a relatively easy parameter to pre- the usage. Many industrial users have reliability
dict and measure, and is a satisfactory objectives no less stringent than those applied to
value to be used as a muting or "propa- long haul telephone systems. Meeting such objec-
gation outage" point. tives will, in general, also require diversity to
protect against multipath fading.
It thus appears that it would be a much
more suitable CCIR noise parameter to "Mili+,,,..,.,,, Svstems
-~_.z._::..z.. __ _
use in real systems than the controversial
47,500 pWpO parameter discussed above. Current or proposed DCA standards state that
the short term mean noise power, with an inte-
grating time of 5 ms, on any 4 kHz (nominal)
It is very similar in all respects, to the channel shall not exceed 316,000 pWpO for more
short term allowable noise objectives as than an accumulated 2 minutes in any month or
used in the USA and described in the more than 1 minute in any hour over any hop.
following two paragraphs.
316,000 pWpO is equivalent to 55 dBrncO or
49 dBaO ..

Television Transmission
The maximum allowable noise level is pres-
ently established at 55 dBmcO. It is to be measured EIA RS-250A suggests that a weighted S/N
with a short time constant meter (on the order of ratio of 33 dB be considered as the "outage
milliseconds), and does represent the muting or threshold" beyond which the noise will be unac-
outage level, consequently it is a much more ceptable. No time percentage is suggested. A
realistic parameter than the comparable CCIR color-weighted S/N ratio of 37 dB is also widely
objective. used as a practical threshold for video.

.82
V. EQUIPMENT

It is obvious from the preceding discussions ment for drop and insert along the route. The
that there is a very close inter-relationship between heterodyne type is also preferable for systems
the characteristics of the various items of the carrying color TV, if more than a few hops are
equipment to be used, and the engineering choices involved.
and performance parameters of the paths them-
selves. Equipment of the baseband or remodulating
type is widely used for short haul or for distributive
Thus it is desirable, in fact almost essential, systems in the telephone industry, and ·for either
that the path survey engineers have enough advance short or long haul industrial systems. The great
knowledge of the frequency bands to be considered flexibility for drop and insert, plus maintenance
(often only one, but in some cases more than one), advantages, are the determining factors. Hetero-
the kind of service, the number of channels (both dyne systems are inherently at a considerable
present and future) to be accommodated by the disadvantage in such applications.
system, the kind of performance and reliability
criteria desired, and the pertinent parameters of the Apart from the choice between heterodyne or
microwave equipment to be used (for example, remodulating equipments, some other primary con-
transmitter output power, receiver noise figure and siderations in the selection of the best radio
bandwidth, per channel deviation etc.), to allow an equipment for a particular system include: (a)
intelligent approach to the problem of path engi- characteristic of the end-to-end baseband facility,
neering. Many choices are involved in path selec- including bandwidth, frequency response, loading
tion, and choices made without a thorough know- capability, noise figure and noise performance; (b)
ledge of all the pertinent circumstances may not be the ampunt of radio gain available, as determined
the best ones. by transmitter power output and receiver n9ise
characteristic; (c) operating frequency band, and
A. Radio Equipment required frequency spacing between radio channels,
as determined by transmitter deviation, receiver
Microwave systems can range from as little as selectivity and frequency stability; (d) primary
5 or 10 miles to distances as long as 4,000 miles. power requirements and options available; (h)
Facility requirements can be relatively small, re- supervisory functions available, including order
quiring structures and equipment for only a light wire, alarms and controls; (f) equipment reliability,
route, or they may be very heavy, requiring including availability of redundant versions such as
multi-channel, heavy route layout with sophistica- frequency diversity, 1-for-N or 2-for-N multiline
ted switching. They can be constructed for nomi- switching, hot standby, or hot standby at trans-
nally good service during certain limited hours of mitters and space diversity at receivers; and, (g)
the day with considerable economy, or they can be provisions for testing and maintenance.
built for a very high quality of service on a 24 hour
a day, year-in and year-out basis. With the rapidly changing nature of the state
of the art, and the continuing development of new
Some systems are of a "through" type, with equipments and upgrading of old ones, specific data
all or almost all of the channels going end-to-end, on microwave equipment characteristics can be-
while others require multiple access, with dropping come outdated in very short order. Consequently
and inserting of channels at most, if not all, we have not included such data in this manual.
repeater points. The latter is very typical in Rather, the user or engineer should rely on up-to-
industrial systems, in which long haul and short date data obtained from the manufacturer.
haul are almost always combined in a single radio
channel. B. RF Combiners

The two types of FM microwave equipment in A variety of methods are used to combine a
common use, are the IF heterodyne type and the transmitter and receiver, or several transmitters and
baseband, or remodulating, type. The IF .hetero- receivers, for operation over a single antenna
dyne type, by eliminating demodulation and re- system. These methods make use of waveguide
modulation steps at repeaters, contributes the least switches, hybrids, filters, phasors, isolators, circula-
amount of distortion, and is the preferred choice tors, and other devices that have a certain amount
for systems handling exclusively, or almost ex- of inherent attenuation. This attenuation must be
clusively, long-haul traffic, with little or no require- included when measuring transmitter power and

83
receiver sensitivity, or it must be taken into there are very strong incentives toward the use of
account when calculating net path loss. Because of guyed towers, provided there is sufficient space to
the wide variety of devices and possible combina- allow them.
tions, it is necessary to rely on the manufacturer
specifications for attenuation data. These data Figures 25A, 25B and 25C show the required
should clearly state the point at which transmitter areas for various types of tower. Though these
power and receiver sensitivity are specified and drawings are representative, other types of tower,
measured, and the loss of any device that is to be particularly the large, heavy structures used with
l~ated between this point and the antenna. high-density systems, will have different base ar-
rangements and area requirements. An examination
C Towers of the figures will show the large difference in
ground requirements. Where self-supported towers
Towers and tower problems have a significant cannot be avoided, considerable study is warranted
effect on many microwave path engineering in layout of a microwave system, to try to keep the
choices. The microwave path engineer needs a paths such that excessive heights are not required.
considerable prior knowledge of the limitations
which the characteristics of towers (and of an- There are several things which are frequently
tennas and waveguides as well) impose, and the queried in connection with towers, and with the
resulting restrictions in his freedom of choice, in quoting and furnishing of towers by a manufac-
order to be equipped to do his job properly. turer. Some of these are:

For example, the engineer must have a fairly Soil conP,itions.

clear idea about how high he can economically go Wind loading.
with towers, before he can tell how long the paths Local building codes and restrictions.
can be, or conversely, whether a given path can be
achieved in one hop. From the material in previous Unless accurate and· specific information about soil
sections, it is easy to calculate that a 30 mile path characteristics (on the exact site of a proposed
on relatively flat terrain could call for towers on tower) are available, the quoted costs are almost
the order of 250 feet at each end; if there were hills invariably based on "standard soil" as defined in
or trees in the middle, this could easily go up to EIA Standard RS-222A.
300', 350' or even more, in order to achieve the
desired clearances. These are not unreasonable If it turns out that soil conditions are non-
heights for stations located in the country, or in standard, for example very rocky and requiring
areas where plots sufficiently large to allow guyed difficult excavation, or with low load bearing
towers exist. But, if a station is in a built-up capability requiring extra large bases, the additional
downtown area, as end terminal stations often are, cost incurred because of such unusual conditions is
guyed towers are usually out of the question. usually stipulated to be billed to the customer. In
Self-supported towers of such heights are extremely some unusual situations, this may amount to a
expensive, also require quite a bit of real estate for sizeable increase in tower cost.
the foundation, and often may be prohibited by
local codes or other legal reasons. Another impor- Wind loading creates some misunderstandings,
tant consideration is the proximity to airports or mainly in definitions. EIA Standard RS-222A on
air lanes, which brings in the possibility of govern- steel towers, and its companion RS-195A on
ment restrictions on permissible tower height. antennas, which are normally used in specifying
Some foreknowledge of the potential tower limita- and determining wind loadings, contain recommen-
tions is mandatory before the problem can be dations and tables for different areas of the
attacked knowledgeably. country. Figure 26 is a map of the U.S.A. divided
into three loading zones. Zone A has a recommen-
The two generic types of tower are guyed, and ded minimum of 30 lbs./sqft, Zone B 40 lbs./sqft,
self-supporting. For very short towers there is not and Zone C 50 lbs./sqft. The latter is typical of
much cost difference, but as heights go up, the cost southeast coastal areas in the hurricane belt.
of the self-supported types increase more or less
exponentially, while that of the guyed towers, This wind loading is the "design" or "elastic
which have a constant cross-section, increases more limit" wind loading, though neither of these terms
or less linearly. So where high towers are required, is very satisfactory. The point is that this design

84
 PREFERRED AREA MINIMUM AR"EA

'I
._ 120• ·-
'
::c
t:I
' \ 12()"
iii
I
a:
w
~
0
I-
120• ,.
l ,,, <

"'
./

1 I- l:W..• TOWER HEIGHT

- - - ·-l
139')1; TOWER HEIGHT

Hcl9h1 Area Apptox. Heigh t Arno Approx

(fo•tl lfeatl Acnt•<i• fl••ll !le!ltl Acrt!agci
400 665" 565 1 Jo 400 489" 56S 6.34
380 537 x 637 Gi;2 380 4S5" 63'7 5,73
350 !110 d;JO 6.07 J60 441" 510 517
340 482 "482 5..33 340 -417" 4~ 4.02
320 4SS x 465 4 75 37') 39:3" 455 4 10
300 428x ~28 4 20 .:100 369" 4?,8 3.llil
280 40Q• 4PO l.67 ~ 345. 4bo 3 18
260 372. 372 1 17 260 321•3~ 2.l4
2'10 344" 34d 271 240 291" 344 2,3!1
220 31SxJl6 2..29 220 .27:Jx 31$ i.tl8
200 288 . 288 190 200 (49 l< 288 1..64
ISO 260 . 260 I 55 180 225• 200 1.34
lilO 232 x 232 1.25 ISO <i01 JI 232 1,08
97 177,, 205 ,84
:~
1-40 205" 205
120 177. 177 n rn:i ~ in .62
100 149 " 140 51 IOQ 129)1149 .44
80 121 • 121 34 80 105J< 121 .29
60 94 . 94 2-0 60 llh 94 , 17

NOTE; Are'" 5l>OW11 In tjlbl"" 1nclL1d~ B&I g1Jylng pl~ ·~dlt1an•I all11wnnc.i mr li'JY mehOl'I
Wh~re sp~ce i. rBS1rlctllll, l9CC1nl 11gltter quylrni o;<ir1 11)<!1,lllMS !>.-used

Figure 2SA. Approximnt.: \n.•n Rc11uiro:d Fut Cuyed Tower

85
H
p

APPROXIMATE OIMENSIONS (Feetl APPROXIMATE DIMENSIONS (Feetl

To\Vef Heigh• R w H Tower Height R p

25 9.5 17.3 16.1 50 15.4 21 .8

50 13.8 26.6 23.4 75 17.8 25.3
75 15.7 30.2 26.6 100 20.5 28.9
100 17.3 33.5 29.3 125 22.8 32.2
125 19.4 37. 2 32.8 150 25.4 35.9
150 21 .9 42.0 37.1 175 27.9 39.5
175 24.4 46.8 4 1.3 200 30.6 43.3
200 26.4 50.8 44.6 225 33.2 46.9
225 28.4 54.5 48.0 250 35.8 50.6
250 30.5 5&7 51.2 275 38.1 53.8
27 5 32.4 62. 1 54.8 300 40.8 57.6
300 34.8 66.8 59.0 325 42.6 60.0
325 36.4 70.0 61 .6 350 44.5 64.0
350 38.0 73. 1 64.4

CShode:d portion represents rupt'-!re areaJ (Shad<!d portion represents rupture areal

Figure 25B. Approximate Area Required for Figure 2SC. Approximate Area Re(1uired for
3·Leg Self Supported Tower. 4-Leg Self Supported Tower
 Location of wind loading zones based on 50 year mean
recurrence interval chart from distribution of extreme
winds in the United States by H.C.S. Thom published in
the proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers
April 1960.

T
'L

Wind Loading Zones

Electronic Industries
Association
\ Standard AS-222
February 1964

!30
lbs/
:so

l\!I J he U.
__J
loading is not associated with operational require- deposit a large portion of their moisture content
ments (tower twist and sway), so if a wind velocity near the top. In such cases almost unbelievable
of this magnitude exists, the tower might twist or quantities of ice can build up on antenna and tower
sway enough to substantially degrade the signal, structures. In areas subject to icing, tower and
but it should return to normal, or very nearly so, antenna structures must be designed to carry the
when the wind stops. additional loading caused by the weight of the ice,
plus added wind loading resulting from the in-
In addition to the "design" loading, which is creased surface areas.
the\ name-loading by which a tower is described,
EIA specifies an operational loading for which the Local building codes within cities may impose
twist and sway limits of the tower should not more severe restrictions on loading than those of
degrade the signal by more than 10 dB. A table is EIA.
included in RS-222A and RS-195A giving represen-
tative values for allowable twist and sway for Roof mounted towers are sometimes required.
various beamwidths. These, if of any great size, will require careful
evaluation of the structural adequacy of the build-
Please note carefully: The EIA operational ing to support the proposed tower.
minimum loading is based on 20 lbs./sqft wind
load, regardless of what the design loading Within the United States, the FAA and FCC
may be. If operational minimums higher than both have complex regulations covering tower
20 lbs./sqft are desired, it is necessary for the heights, depending on proximity to airports or
user to call them out specifically so that the airlanes. They also have requirements on painting,
tower manufacturer can be asked to quote on lighting, and in some cases, obstruction marking of
a stronger tower, usually at a higher cost. towers. Similar government entities in other coun-
tries regulate tower heights and markings within
Wind loading increases as the square of the their jurisdictions, usually in accordance with rec-
actual wind velocity. Expressed as a formula, P = ommendations of the ICAO (International Civil
KV 2 , where P is the pressure in pounds per square Aviation Organization).
foot, K is the wind conversion factor, and V is the
actual wind velocity in miles per hour. EIA
D. Waveguide and Transmission lines
recommends the use of 0.004 as a nominal value of
K for pressures on the projected areas of flat
surfaces. Using this value for K, the approximate Waveguide and transmission line is important
wind velocities corresponding to several common not only for its loss characteristics, which enter
tower loadings are: into the path loss calculation, but also for the
degree of impedance matching attainable, because
20 lbs/sqft = 71.0 mph of the effect on echo distortion noise. The latter
30 lbs/sqft = 86.0 mph becomes extremely important with high-density
40 lbs/sqft = 100.0 mph systems having long waveguide runs.
50 lbs/sqft = 112.5 mph

The loading on a tower depends very critically In the 2 GHz bands coaxial cable is usually
on the sizes, shapes, locations and relative positions used, and, except for very short runs, it is usually
of all the antennas, reflectors, waveguides and other of the air dielectric type. Typical sizes are 7 /8'',
paraphernalia which. are mounted on it. A very with an attenuation of about 2 dB/100', and
important point is to review the possibility that 1-5/8", at about 1.1 dB/100'. It is normally
additional paths or antennas may have to be added ordered in the exact lengths required, with factory
in the future, since such considerations could installed and sealed terminal connectors. When the
significantly affect the design of the initial tower. larger sized cable is used, it is desirable to reduce to
7 /8", with a suitable transition, for flexibility in
A very important consideration in some areas connecting to the radio equipment. In some cases
is that of ice forming on towers and antennas. It is similar treatment may be needed at the antenna
of particular significance in the case of mountain- end, though generally the use of a rigid right-angle
top sites, especially those where moisture-laden connector will allow sufficient flexibility for an-
winds may sweep up one side of the mountain and tenna orientation.

88.
 The other bands use waveguide almost ex- to provide two polarizations at 4 GHz and two
clusively, one of three basic types; rigid rectangular, polarizations at 6 GHz. But circular guide has
rigid circular, and semi-flexible elliptical. The ellip- certain disadvantages. It is practical only for
tical type is of continuous construction, while the straight runs, requires rather complicated and ex-
other types come in sections with flanges. Short tremely critical networks to make the transition
sections of flexible waveguide are also used for the from rectangular to circular, and can have signifi-
connections to the antennas and to the equipment. cant moding problems, when the guide is large
In all cases it is desirable to keep the number and enough to support more than one mode for the
length of flexible sections as small as possible, since frequency range in use. Consequently, though
they tend to have higher losses and poorer VSWR circular waveguide is available in several different
than the main waveguide types. sizes, and its low losses make it attractive, it is
recommended that it be used with considerable
1 Rectangular Gui~e caution.

Rigid rectangular waveguide is the most com- 3. Elliptical Guide

monly used, with oxygen-free, high-conductivity
copper (OFHC) the recommended material. The Semi-flexible elliptical waveguide is available
types and approximate characteristics are as in sizes comparable to most of the standard
follows: rectangular guides, with attenuations differing very
little from the rectangular equivalents. The distinc-
4 GHz band; WR 229 is standard for most instal- tive feature of elliptical guide is that it can be
lations. It has a loss of approxi· provided and installed as a single continuous run,
mately 0.85 dB/100'. with no intermediate flanges. When very carefully
transported and installed it can provide good
6 GHz bands; WR137 is normally used. It has a VSWR performance, but relatively small deforma-
loss of approximately 2.0 dB/100'. tions can introduce enough impedance mismatch to
In cases where, due to high towers, produce severe echo distortion noise.
a reduced transmission loss is re-
quired, transitions can be supplied
for use with WR159, which has a The most commonly used types and their
loss of about 1.4 dB/100'. approximate characteristics are as follows:

7-8 GHz WR112 is normally used. Attenua- 4 GHz band EW-37, approximately .85 dB/
tion is approximately 2.7 dB/100'. 100'.

11 GHz : WR90 is normally used. Attenua- 6 GHz bands: EW-59, approximately 1.75 dB/
tion is approximately 3.5 dB/100'. 100'.

12-13 GHz; WR 75 is normally used. Attenua- 7-8 GHz: EW-71, approximately 2.5 dB/
tion is approximately 4.5 dB/100'. 100'.

For the most critical applications, where 11 GHz band EW-107, approximately 3.7 dB/
extremely low VSWR is required to meet stringent 100'.
noise performance specifications, special precision
waveguide, manufactured to very tight tolerance, is 12-13 GHz EW-122, approximately 4.5 dB/
recommended. bands: 100'.

2. Circular Guide
In all types of waveguide systems it is
Circular waveguide has the lowest loss of all, desirable to keep the number of bends, twists, and
and in addition, it can support two orthogonal flexible sections to a minimum. It is also vitally
polarizations within the single guide. It is also important to use great care in installation, since
capable of carrying more than one frequency band even very slight misalignments, dents, or introduc-
in the same guide. For example, WC281 circular tion of foreign material into the guides can create
guide is normally used with horn reflector antennas severe discontinuities.

89
E. Antenna Systems where G gain over isotropic, in dB
A area of antenna aperture
Highly directional antennas are used with e = antenna efficiency
point-to-point microwave systems. By focusing the X wavelength at operating
radio energy into a narrow beam that can be frequency, in same units as A
directed toward the receiving antenna, the transmit-
ting antenna can increase the effective radiated The following paragraphs list some of the
power by several orders of magnitude over that of a more c~mmonly used antennas or antenna systems,
no~-directional antenna. The receiving antenna with some descriptive comments.
also, in a manner analogous to that of a telescope,
can increase the effective received power by a 1 Direct Radiating Antennas
si.Ipilar amount.
Parabolic Antennas
Although gain is the primary characteristic,
there are other antenna characteristics which are of This type of antenna consists of a parabolic
importance in communications systems. Antenna dish, illuminated by a feed horn at its focus.
beam-width, side-lobe magnitudes, off-axis radia- Available in a wide variety of sizes, with diameters
tion and sensitivity patterns, and polarization dis- of 2', 4', 6', 8', 10' and sometimes 12' and 15' in
crimination are of great significance for frequency most frequency bands.
coordination purposes. Impedance match (usually
expressed as VSWR, though return loss is a much The simplest form is with single plane polar-
more useful parameter) across the band to be used ized feed, which can be either vertical (V) or
is of great ir:.portance in situations where echo horizontal (H). Others have dual polarized feeds
distortion is significant. Consequently, it is no (DP), with separate V and H connections. DP's
longer sufficient merely to select an antenna system usually have a bit less gain than single polarized,
for optimum gain efficiency. because of the more complex feedhorns.

Nevertheless, it is basic that the antenna Off-beam discrimination is reasonably good,

sy~tE!m must have enough gain so that the desired but front-to-back ratios on the order of 45 to 50
net path loss between transmitter output ·and dB maximum, are generally not adequate for
receiver input is attained. The required . antenna back-to-back transmission (or reception) of the
gains are determined by a .c.__ajculation which in- same frequency in both directions. Often available
volves a knowledge of the transmitter output with special low VSWR feeds (on the order of 1.05
PQ..'Y.E!r, f~ed losses of waveguides, circulators, to 1).
hybrids, radomes, and any other items between the
transmitter and its antenna, and between the The gain efficiencies of most commercially
receiver and its antenna, the unfaded path attenua- available parabolic antennas are in the order of 55
tion, and the receiver strength needed to give the to 65%. With 55% efficiency, the gain of a parabolic
required noise performance and fade margin. The antenna is given by: ·
calculations are usually formalized and recorded in
a "Path Data Sheet". An example is given in G = 20 loglQ B + 20 log10 F + 7.5 (25)
Section VI.
where G = gain over isotropic, in dB
The gain of an antenna is expressed in dB F = frequency in GHz
relative to the gain of an isotropic antenna, which is B = parabola diameter in feet
a theoretical omnidirectional antenna, with a gain
which by definition would be 1, or 0 dB. At a given Although this formula can be used for estimating
operating frequency, the gain of an antenna (either purposes, actual gain should be determined from
transmitting or receiving) is a function of the the manufacturer published specifications. In the
effective area and is given by: higher bands ·(11 to 13 GHz particularly), and with
cross-band and other complex feed horn systems,
10 log10 (4rr A e(A 2 (24) the efficiencies can often be considerably lower
than given above, and actual gains may easily be 1
to 2 dB lower than that given by equation (25).

90
 The half-power beamwidth of a parabolic both directions. This is the primary reason for their
antenna is given approximately by: use. Special feeds are usually required for very low
VSWR (1.05 to 1 or so) applications.

tf> = 70/FB (26) Cross-Band Parabolic Antennas

These are parabolic antennas with feeds de-

where half-power beamwidth in signed to permit operation in two widely separated
degrees bands (for example, 6 and 11 GHz). Because of the
F frequency in GHz very complex and critical feed assemblies, these
B = parabola diameter in feet antennas typically have somewhat reduced gain (a
dB or so) and poorer VSWR than single-band
Side-lobes and front-to-back ratio are caused antennas. Problems have also been experienced
by imperfect illumination of the parabola, phase with interaction between the two feed systems,
errors introduced by the feed, and irregularities in since the 6 GHz waveguide can propagate spurious
the reflecting surface. Antenna patterns, usually 11 GHz modes. A commonly used method of
available from the manufacturer, give the radiation solving the interaction problem is to insert in the 6
in all directions on both principal planes relative to GHz feed-line, at a point as close as possible to the
the main beam. Such patterns are necessary for antenna, a filter which attenuates the 11 GHz
interference studies. energy while allowing the 6 GHz energy to pass
through essentially without loss.
In using such antenna patterns for interference
studies, it should be kept in mind that it is not just
Horn Reflector Antennas
the response of the receiving antenna to the
opposite polarization that is important. A transmit-
ting antenna on one polarization will radiate power The horn reflector (cornucopia) antenna has a
on the other polarization as well, in accordance section of a very large parabola, mounted at such
with its cross-polarization pattern. If the transmit- an angle that the energy from the feed horn is
ting antenna has poor cross polarization discrimina- simultaneously focused and reflected at right
tion at the angle looking toward a receiving antenna angles. The standard Bell System horn antenna is
which is oppositely polarized, no amount of dis- about the equivalent of a 10' parabola insofar as
crimination at the latter will reduce the component gain is concerned. But it has much higher front-to-
it receives from the cross radiation of the transmit back ratios (on the order of 70 dB or more);
antenna. Thus, in an interference analysis, one must sufficient to allow operation in two directions (or
take as the polarization discrimination, the worst more) from a station on the same frequencies.
combination of transmitter direct to receiver op-
posite, or transmitter opposite to receiver direct. It has good VSWR characteristics, and, with
suitable coupling networks (which are quite com-
plex), can be used for multiband operation on both
polarizations. However, there are some moding
These are similar to the common parabolic problems, particularly at the higher frequencies,
types, except that they include a cylindrical built- which, if uncorrected, can cause severe distortion.
out shield which helps to improve the front-to-back
ratio, and the wide-angle radiation discrimination. Disadvantages are that this antenna is ver~ big,
heavy ,and complex as to mounting, and quite
Shrouded antennas are usually available as expensive not only for the antenna itself, but for its
either single polarized or double polarized. Gain effect on mounting and tower costs. Almost no
efficiency is usually slightly poorer than that of the flexibility in choice of sizes, though at least one
simple parabolas. smaller size of horn reflector is currently available.

They are substantially bulkier, heavier, and The following table can be used for prelimi-
more expensive than the ordinary parabolas. How- nary estimates of antenna gains in the various
ever, they can provide front-to-back ratios on the bands. Final gains should be those guaranteed by
order of 65 dB, sufficient in many cases, to allow the manufacturers of the particular antenna to be
back-to-back transmission of the same frequency in used.

91
 Tobi<- I \n rcnn:.i C3im f'or Estimiu:iug Purpu~.

PIM1t Pol1mlld P•.-boloc Ant•nn11t.. IDP's, HP't ontl C10>1 brulll wmowllftl lowutl

Gain l1•1otlvo To IJOttOPla - ~B

o_,eor
-
Inf- 2GH• 4 GHt l BGHt
-
7 GHt SGH< 11 GHt
-
13 GHt
-
4 ~5 3&.7 3!i l1 37 Cl All 3 41.3
ii '90 ~50 J87 3!14 AOII •38 448
8 315 37 3 11 I t I0 ~3 l 4Q.O 47 3
10 335 393 430 439 452 J,/ ,1 48&
12 ~,J 8 44 6 45 !i ·16 7 --
>-
If> 12" cuo
-
4611
·-~
487 -
Hom R•llec101 AntonnD

8X8 !Sttil J9" 430 -- -- 47 4 -

6 IC1'1:1 - I 35, 39..i -- -- 43.8 -

2. reri&Cope Antenna Syotems It is generally accepted, though with some

dissenting opinions, that periscope antenna system~
In many cases, usually where considerable do not have particularly good off-beam discrimina-
height is required or waveguide runs are difficult to tion chancteristics, and tor this reason their use in
make, a periscope antenna system is used. lt high density systems and in very congested areas
consists of a plll'1lbolic radiator, generally at or near leaves something to be desired. Consequently, there
ground or building level, illuminating a reflector at has been something of a trend toward increused
the top of the tower. Gain is a complex function of usage of direct radiating antennas, despite the
the antennu and reflector sizes and separation, the added loss and echo distortion problems associated
trequency, and the geometric relationships. with the long waveguide runs, which they typically
require.
A periscope system allows waveguide runs to
be kept short, thus reducing losses and improving ln their most common confliur'ation. peri-
the situation with respect to echo distortion, since scope antenna systems have the illuminating dish at
the latter is a function of waveguide length as well the bottom of the tower, directly under the
as impedance matc.b. With suitable choices of reOector. Assuming a horizontal path, the latter
combinations, and over certain ranges of separa- will then be mounted so that its face makes an
tions, antenna.reflector combinations can give net angle of 4.5°-with the borizont.al. ln some cases, for
gains equal to, or even greater than, the gain of lhe example space diversity, physical relationships may
parabola alone, thus in e.ffect eliminating most of dictate a "skewed" periscope arrangement, with the
the losses due to waveguid e. dish moved off to one side, and sometimes forward
or backward along tbe path, with respect to the
For this reason the periscope system is often, distant end.
from the point of view of overall net gain, the most
efficient antenna system, particularly where high In •uch caMS, thA rRnP.Ctor will tyr>iCA!ly have
towers are needed. The periscope system has had to be rotated around its vertical axis so that its
very wide usage in the bands from 6 GHz up, but it normal no longer points directly along the path; the
is relatively ineffide.nt at 2 GHz, and has had very tilt ungle in general will no longer be 45°, but will
little usage at 4 GHz. depend on the actual configuration.

92
 Calculations of the tilt, amount of rotation that of the curved reflectors, and it will be noted
away from the path, and the effect of the "skew" that the lines for the curved reflectors are truncated
on the gain are somewhat complicated. Graphical at that point in each case.
solutions can be made using Lenkurt drawing
EEH-20020, a copy of which is included in the For the case of the curved reflectors, it will be
Appendix section . noted that for each antenna-reflect:or combination
there is - to the right of the maximum point - a
In current practice, the reflectors used in bifurcated and shaded section bounded on the left
periscope systems may be rectangular, rectangular '
by the (C.E.) line and on the right by the (C.R.)
with some or all of the comers truncat.ed, or line. In this area to the right of the maximum
elliptical. The surface of the reflector may be flat, point, the greater size of the rectangular reflector
or it may be constructed so that it can be adjusted comes into play and results in a somewhat greater
to have a curvature approximating that of a section gain. In the case of small separations, the ''corner"
of a large paraboloid, with the focus at the radiator. areas of the rectangular reflector are no longer as
effective, and may even become slightly detrimen-
A number of theoretical studies have been tal. Consequently we have, for conservatism,
published on periscope antenna system gains, and ignored the extra size of the rectangular reflector in
these, together with experimental data and results the area to the left of the maximum point, treating
from systems in practical use, provide the basis for them the same as the elliptical.
gain curves commonly employed by microwave
manufacturers and users. It should be borne in When using the curves, the heavy solid lines
mind that in all the studies a number of simplifying should be used ·to the left of the maximum,
assumptions had to be made to render the mathe· whether the reflector is elliptical or rectangular. To
matical processes tractable. The results therefore the right of that point, the heayy solid line should
cannot be regarded as exact. be used for elliptical reflectors, and the broken
solid line for fully rectangular reflectors. Reflectors
Curved reflectors provide somewhat greater with two corners clipped can be estimated between
gain than flat reflectors over most separation the two lines, depending on the degree of clipping.
ranges, and are believed to have somewhat better Those with all four corners clipped can be treated
discrimination characteristics. There are differences the same as elliptical. At separations where a flat
of opinion about the merits of the curved reflec· reflector exhibits greater gain it should, of course,
tors, but Lenkurt's experience has been that when be preferred to a curved reflector.
they are properly installed and aligned, and the
curving very carefully done, they perform as
predicted. Best results have been found to be The gains as given by the charts are for the
obtained by carefully adjusting the curvature, prior standard periscope arrangement, with the reflector
to installation, to calculated values which will cause at a 45° angle and located directly (or nearly so)
the reflector surface to closely approximate a above the illuminating dish. In this case the projec-
paraboloidal sec tion with its focus at the illumina- ted area of the reflector is equal to . 707 x (true
ting dish. area) and is approximately square for the rec-
tangular type and circular for the elliptical type.
Figures 27 A through 27D are charts of gain- For skewed arrangements the projected shape will
vs-separation distance for various combinations of change, and in some cases the projected area also.
antennas and reflectors. Each chart covers one 9f Moving the dish straight out to one side at a right
the standard reflector sizes, together with several angle to the path leaves the projected area un-
antenna sizes. Each chart covers three types of changed. A dish location forward from the reflector
reflectors. The heavy solid lines are for curved increases the projected area and a location back-
elliptical reflectors (C.E.) and the broken solid lines ward from it decreases the projected area.
are for curved rectangular reflectors (C.R.). while
the dashed lines are for flat elliptical reflectors Skewed shots also make it more unlikely that
(F.E.). In the case of the curved reflectors, the the correct parabolic curvature can be achieved.
surfaces are assumed to be adjusted to an accurate For all these reasons it is necessary to use consider-
approximation of a paraboloid with the focus at able caution when applying the curves of Figure 27
the illuminat ing antenna. For small separation to skewed arrangemen~. particularly those for
distances the gain of the flat reflectors will exceed curved reflectors.

93
 a.,..~
OH
1111
11.
J!<~
··- -
°"''
10.8
~u
40
O..&alC,.

150
;S. t3
pn
47
817~
3 I
0.1 jg
••..
11.n~
1.Q • 04 J)j)
l ~31 • II~
llO • 1 r.
'1.l • • !> tiO
11•~
ua •••
• G9
b4
~ll

• Cnttf G111n
• G f-tr:to•
• Ola-'t Chit
D« tiit ..
• Tn.Dlrft
• Dru Ftitt""

70 SO I 160 200 JOO 400

OISTANCE tSl:PAFIATIONt trl FEET - ll '125 GHt HAND
 .: .... Biutd G.alu
l<H• , 1111.'lt\t ~~w.-
lC.E I 1.112 10 II l.!.O
IL;. R.I
rtt+ ) 15 9!1 11~
:i.95 ~a
'I 43
10
IF E.! ~., )I
Q !lb 01 'Oii
e.ni.
l.O • O.• %
H37
a.o o.s
15
01
&<
II :r
l~.45
148
f
I t~ .,.
llO
• •JI 4~

r , 11«'(,iarn . ~ICW.fft
• u f ~'"'
Tttt~ [llu.. &':'l~l-

.,, OW.n tu•1 1"o• ~111

-- • Dl•t. - "JU-t#

"'
.4- _ ~

--

•oo
OTSTA.NCE !SFPAl'IA TIONI IN FEET - IP2&<JH1 BAND
 43

~- -·
G"~

t
2.IS
19';
•7
D'
a •.,
f'.-:unr
- 108
- p II
•a
31
U1ttllllt- ~
r llGIOI
l;()
3 13
' 70
' 43
ti I 1'S 07 1 O!I
b 12•
10 • 04 .!16

:Z-40
) 431
•o
II 7
. 09
j

t
a
~.5
...
91

80
1)4• • 84 JI•
0 ic e • tl.\I '6
..."'"' r._ a.m u..... (,..,
GI oq or
"'JA
-f"r..-0... &:' Pkl
.• rrvm '""'
iii
0
~ 38
'O
Q\
°"' Dht
F.on<>r

Figun! :?7(" l'c.rl-.<:o(X' c~an luno !OI' 111'-t lS' ReOl!ciQrt

 ,,
e..,a
GI-'<
,
1. s
l'l!.
G'4p1
f~,.

- 46
111.a
- &.a
.....,
t}l!ftlllO~

J.!>O
.113
170
•.1 - J. 1 143
e.u~ -IU jlJ()
6.1'6
~'
7.0
,..,1'/
v.o
~, ':
!
. c.
'•U
,,
04 .DO
91
.$<
GO
0 ·~4~ 5-4 .So>
:z ,, 1 H8 • 09 .a
'(
.
ti>
l n'• G1u" .a Q'\M:rt &.111

= Tn1e Chn
'
a
~ tut

t:lla-1 Ula
D•1t l 1ct
1:i Om<l cu.. • Tl'-it bin
- 39 • IJ>tt '"'l<lf
"'
a
"'..., ~
-= 313'
<
l!J

CAIJTIQN Ull'• !IQl•I AIU) Ul>til"tlo

~01!11Cl1on fllt.!lor< tnr bitnda 01tro1
th•" 8 ?2!i GHt
r--·1 ~-
~· ~'~
 The charts are intended to represent the total higher frequency means greater gain and greater
gain of the periscope system when the efficiency of separation, and a lower frequency means lower gain
the illuminating dish is 55%, but have been derated and lower separation". To illustrate the point,
by about 0.5 dB to allow for some of the variables. consider a 10' antenna with a 12' x 17' reflector.
If antennas with gain efficiencies lower than 55% Figure 27D indicates that such a combination will
are used, a further derating should be made. Also give a gain of. about 44.1 dB at a separation
when radomes are used, the radome loss must be distance of 450 to 500 feet, at 6. 725 GHz. But at
deducted from the overall gain, if it is not 1.92 GHz the gain would be reduced to 44.1 -
accounted for in the fixed losses. 10.8 == 33.3 .dB, and the separation distance would
by reduced to about 130 to 140 feet. Furthermore,
The charts give directly the gain of the at this relatively short separation distance, a rather
periscope system in dBi (dB with respect to an large curvature would be required on the reflector
isotropic antenna) at 6.725 GHz, the center fre- face, a difficult mechanical problem. These facts
quency of the 6.575 to 6.875 GHz industrial band, indicate rather clearly why periscope systems are
as a function of the separation distance between seldom used in the lower frequency bands.
the dish and the reflector. Thus for this band the
charts can be used directly. In the practical case the transmission engineer
usually knows the frequency band, the true separa-
In order to allow the charts to be used for tion distance and the required gain for the antenna
other frequency bands, a table of correction factors system. The following example illustrates the pro-
is provided covering the center frequencies of most cedure:
of the bands of interest. For each frequency, a gain
factor and a distance factor are given. Assume; Band, 7.437 GHz. Separation distance
280'. Required gain 41 dB. From the
The use of the gain factors is straightforward tables, the corresponding chart distance
and self-evident. They are simply added algebrai- will be 280 x .91 = 255' and the
cally to the gains shown by the chart. For example, corresponding chart gain will be 41 - 0.9
a chart gain reading of 38 dB would, at 1.92 GHz, 40.1 dB.
give 38 -10.8 = 27.2 dB. Conversely, a true gain of
27 .2 dB at 1.92 GHz would correspond to an One possible combination, from Figure
apparent (chart) gain of 27.2 - (-10.8) = 38.0 dB. 27B, would be an 8' dish with an 8' x 12'
reflector which could be either C.E. or
The use of the distance factor, however, is not C.R. Other combinations could also be
quite so self-evident, and some care is needed to used, for example, a 6' dish with a C.R.
make sure that it is properly used. The factors as reflector.
given in the table are such that they are used as
multipliers when converting from the true distance Though the chart presentation method used
(at some frequency other than 6.725) to the chart here is somewhat less simple to use than separate
distance, and as divisors when converting from the sets of charts for each band, it makes it possible to
chart distance to the true distance. The reason for cover 12 frequency bands with only four charts
setting it up this way is that the transmission instead of nearly fifty. Also the tables can be easily
engineer normally will know the true distance and extended to frequencies other than those shown.
will want to calculate the chart distance, and most For a frequency of X GHz, the required distance
people find multiplication somewhat easier than . s1mp 6 ·725
. 1y ""-X
factor is , and the gam . fac t or ts
.
division. x
20 log10 6. 725 .
It is very important to recognize that the true
separation distance at frequencies lower than 6.725 It is also a simple matter, using 2-decade
GHz will be less than those shown on the charts, semi-logarithmic paper of the same type used in
and the true separation distances at frequencies these charts, to prepare a separate set of charts
higher than 6.725 GHz will be greater than those covering any desired frequency band, by an overlay
shown. The point is emphasized because there is a and tracing process. To facilitate this process, two
natural tendency to assume the opposite, because small crosses are placed at appropriate spots on
of the fact that the lower frequencies have longer each of the graphs. By calculation using the above
wavelengths. A good mnemonic device is: "A factors, one can determine where the points cor-

98
responding to those crosses should fall on the new required. In some cases it has been found expedient
sheet and place a pair of dots at those points. The to place metal shields on the path side of the
two points are then overlaid exactly on the two illuminating dish to cut down the direct signal.
crosses and the various curves traced on the new
sheet. F. Radomes

The gain-separation charts have been derived Horn reflector and shrouded types of antennas
from various published theoretical studies, and usually include integral radomes, whose losses are
slightly modified toward the conservative side. taken into account in the manufacturer's published
They have been used successfully to calculate gains gain figures. Parabolic dish gains, however, usually
for systems in several - but not all - of the bands do not include radome losses, and, if radomes are
covered in the tables. The charts are published here to be used, their losses must be ascertained (from
for information only, and Lenkurt makes no the manufacturer catalog) and added in with the
guarantee of their accuracy. other fixed losses. The amount of loss may vary
from less than 0.5 dB for a typical unheated
It should be remembered that the require- radome at 6 GHz, to almost 2.0 dB for a typical
ments on trueness of reflector face, and on allow- heated radome in the high frequency bands.
able deflections, become much more severe as the
frequency is increased, and are quite severe in the Radomes also can be expected to degrade the
bands of 11 GHz and higher. Twist and sway VSWR as compared to that of the antenna without
requirements at these higher frequencies also im- a radome. This becomes very significant in situa-
pose strong restraints on tower design. tions -where very low VSWR 's are needed to control
echo distortion. In some cases radomes have been
Sway requirements require special considera- found to create highly reflective "spikes" at parti-
tion in periscope systems, because the effects of cular frequencies, and if these coincide with a used
tower sway (but not twist) are doubled as a result RF channel frequency, the results can be a high
of the reflection. Thus the sway tolerances are degree of distortion in that channel.
twice as stringent as those of an equivalent direct
radiator. RS-195A provides a table with representa- G. Passive Repeaters
tive values of twist and sway as a function of
antenna beamwidth, as well as a graph of antenna Where a direct microwave path cannot be
and reflector beamwidth as a function of antenna established between two points because of some
and reflector size and the frequency band. The geographical or man-made obstacle, it is sometimes
half-power beamwidth of an elliptical reflector is possible to establish a path by way of a passive
approximately 60/FW degrees, and that of a rectan- repeater. The function of such a passive is as a
gular reflector approximately 52/FW degrees, "beam redirector" to pass the microwave beam
where F is the frequency in GHz and W is the width around or over something which would obstruct its
in feet of the narrow dimension of the reflector. direct path. A firm requirement is that there be
radio "line-of-sight", with adequate clearances,
One potential problem with periscope systems between the passive and each of the end points.
and, to a lesser extent, with passive repeaters, is
that of a "sneak" echo path existing between the There are two general types of passive re-
illuminating dish and the distant end. Unless this peaters in common use. One consists of two
direct path is thoroughly blocked by intervening parabolic antennas connected back-to-back through
terrain, some signal may get through directly, a short piece of waveguide. Because it is relatively
particularly under super-refractive conditions, and, inefficient, this type .of passive repeater is seldom
if its magnitude is sufficient, can cause serious used except on extremely short paths. The other,
intermodulation problems. The direct path will be and more common type, is the flat "billboard"
shorter (usually by about the. distance of the type metal reflector, which acts as a microwave
antenna-reflector separation) and it will be a mirror. With surfaces of adequate flatness it is close
"leading" instead of a "trailing" ech'o, but the to 100% efficient, as compared to about 55%
distortion effect is the same. Since echo signals efficiency for antennas. Furthermore, the passive
with long delays can cause significant intermodula- reflector acts both as a receiving antenna and a
tion, even if they are 50 to 60 dB below the main retransmitting antenna, and its "gain" is therefore
signal, it is apparent that a good deal of blocking is applied twice.

99
 Billboard passives fall into two basic configur- where G two-way gain in dB
ations, depending on the geometric relationships. If F frequency in GHz
the site of the passive repeater is off to one side, or A actual area of the passive in
behind one terminal, so that the included angle square feet
between the two paths at the reflector is less than one-half of the included angle
about 130° (the smaller the angle the better), a between the two paths at the
single billboard can be used. This is the most passive. (This last term in
common application. effect converts A into its pro-
jected or effective area).
However, if the only available location
happens to be more or less in line with the path, a A useful formula for "rule of thumb" deter-
double billboard may be needed, consisting of two mination of the approximate boundary of the near
reflectors usually fairly close together and geomet- zone for an antenna-reflector combination is:
rically arranged to reflect the beam at the proper
angles. Double billboards are applicable in situa- 2 2
2B 2FB
tions where the effective change in beam direction
at the passive repeater is to be less than about 50°.
d =x =0.984 :::::: 2FB2 (28)

Billboard reflectors are available in a variety of where d distance between antenna and
sizes, up to as large as 40' x 60'. They have reflector in feet
typically been used mainly at frequencies of6 GHz B diameter of dish, or widest
and higher. They can be used at lower frequencies, projected dimension of the re-
but because of the vastly increased gain at the flector, whichever is larger, in
higher frequencies, and the fact that the added gain feet
factor appears twice for the billboards while the X wavelength in feet
added path loss factor appears only once, the F = frequency in GHz
billboards are far more efficient at the higher
frequencies. Figure 28A gives the two-way free-space gains
of various sizes of passive as a function of fre-
Passive repeater gain calculations are some- quency and the included horizontal angle.
what complicated. For single billboards, things are
simple if the billboard is in the far field of both When the passive is so close to one end that it
antennas. In such a case the antenna gains and the is in the near-field of that antenna, as indicated by
billboard gains are independent and do not interact equation (28), the antenna and reflector gains are
with each other. Then we simply calculate a total no longer independent, but react with each other in
path loss which is the sum of the two separate path such a way that the net gain would be reduced. In
losses, and from it subtract the sum of the two this case the above methods cannot be used, since
antenna gains and the two-way gain of the reflec- they would give overly optimistic results.
tor, in order to arrive at the net end-to-end path
loss through the reflector. One way of attacking the near-field situation,
is to treat the antenna and the nearby passive in the
The following formula can be used to calcu- same fashion as a "periscope" antenna system. In
late the free-space, two-way gain of a single passive this case, a "correction factor" is calculated, and
billboard: applied to the gain of the antenna, to obtain the
net gain of the periscope combination. Since this
gain is referred to the location of the reflee tor, the
G = 22.2 + 40 log10F + 20 log10A (27) "path" in this method is simply that from the
reflector to the more distant end. The shorter path
+20 log1 o cos ex:. simply disappears from the calculation. Figure 28B
provides curves for deriving a "periscope" correc-
tion factor.

100
.. 1111rvu111.•C •r t=m ... .,. 4'f Utt:""'" t;S.'C I f:
• .:;n=•-=----
llCCLUDlO t!O"l~TAL Al'lC~E 2
)!I 'lO fiO "0 I

20 "° ll!I
I
I
I'
I =~
I
f
='
l
L
~
l
I
-'--/-----
/
/_
I
110
' ~ ~ :< t ~'~:-:--­
1'
!:' >< II ( ;-...,...--:-._ _ I
I
I 5S 10 X 1~I~:--- I
I
~ 4• I
I
I~ 1' I
I r.!I I
BX 10
3.10
I
/
I 7 l( 8

, . _ P-.ior Sin F..t "

:--·-.........
,\
f1Kn1ntNAI c;,.,. lln--:n 4 . ~ 03' 1:M A·-.~-~PL

"-9 ""*'"" S<tndB i: - -""--·20\ot l' )•\\~·..,

~
-~
'· fitun! Ui P.mi•~ Repeater Gmi Clurt
 r

-'"
0

•
 G.;t.... "'' , .. ~llfl' ... •11t. f'laN• \It . . tr.Yl-4 • •
two fMll! llf't-hl-'" ~.,"-II-" II' ...., ftelil
!'Mt M ••OJ ... t·...fW ~ 2·wl t ft ...........l 1nlfMI
""' , ...,,'.l-•"'1 J., HM "'II,"' ft1•11 U..M""'

•M D •d1~tl!•·•i111"
K • .._, :•, .. hth ~~l\l•ili.Jsfl1I
r • •tt.c1rw •r•4 1it Utt,,...,_... .- ttVe ltf•• •
L•D j:, ....... "t ltw1!1 tht1
,.....,.,.,,
f ..111 flllU'' tttUl
11t.IUt,1tif•l\l!• l1'tWl!Jv111
4lfi ly Ill
1
tt,,\ tie lW. . . ~

.........,..
>La11rt1v<o .,.\J rL 1\11 ftiinfnti.)ftl ttottlt h• •• MtM u-.;u

QS QI!
R, ~1 >I c- M ICROl'L[CT c .. Inc.

--
--
--
-..-
-..-
-..-
.•
il• I
-· .•
~--
'
'
'
. .
.. .' ii .
·ti
-..-
_,_ tt :i:;:· '"-r'tttt:
• ,,t "' .... .. ' ' i.. . I
-+-• flt ..
I•
+
-..-
_,_
_,...
O I I

....
t
'
;. "
'
I
t t1
tn..,•11......,
'
_,_
_,...
_,...
.. ... "
'
_,...
_,...
l.1

_,...
_.....
__,_.....
1
1
• Effcdvt Al'N Oi
The Sma~..- P..Wt '' -· r. . ...--
~ ·H

.__,_
_........
o1 • EfflCtNt Af'«e Ot
Thtl.I~ Puslvo
_, ' ?:!: ••. n ~

." - 1
-- d1 • S.Wttion Wt F•t
..........,

w
IX
i:.. r::in; ••
-2
.....r.:
7.~ 1
1

"
.. .•
~m ~-

'. .n _....
,_ :
,,,,,... .
~ ;
.
.. •

l~..... r•

"

.<11 • . ..
tti • . .
.. .
'
*1! ~

++
~-++
.4 2 4 1 40

F igure 280. Double Passive Repeater Efficiency CUTVes.

 An alternative method of handling the near- From equation (27), free-space gain of
field situation is provided by the curves of Figure passive is 105.0 dB.
28C, which are an adaptation from the curves of Assume free-space gain of 10' dishes is
Figure 28B. Figure 28C derives a gain reduction 43.1 dB each.
factor which, when applied to the 2-way free-space Waveguide and fixed losses omitted for
passive gain, gives the equivalent net gain when the simplicity.
problem is treated on a two-path basis. The big From equation (28), or by inspection of
advantage of this approach is that it allows the 1/K and Figure 28C it is' apparent that
passive repeater to be shown in the same way (as a the passive is in the near field of the
separate location) and treated in the same way on close-in antenna.
the path calculation sheets, whether it is in the far
field or the near field. Calculcition using Figure 28B

Closely spaced double passive repeaters are We find for the calculated values of 1/K
often used in situations where the transfer angle is and L, a correction factor of -1.8 dB.
less than about 50 degrees. In such cases, the Using this in a "periscope" type formula,
free-space gain of the combination of the two we find;
passives is equal to the 2-way free-space gain for the
effective area of the smaller of the two billboards Net Path Loss= 140.1 43.1 (43.1
(in most, but not all cases, they are made the same 1.8) = 55. 7 dB
size), minus a reduction in gain which can be
calculated from the "double passive repeater effi- The quantity in brackets is the net gain
ciency curves" of Figure 28D. If the double passive of the periscope combination.
is close to one end of the path, near-field correction
must also be applied. Calculation using Figure 28C

Note that the parameters 1/K and Lin Figures We find for the calculated values of 1/K
28B and 28C are dimensionless. This means that and L a correction factor of --0.7 dB.
if the antenna and reflector dimensions are in feet, Using this in a "two-path" formula, we
the separation distance must also be in feet. find;
Any consistent set of units can be used.
Net Path Loss = 140.1 + 106.1 43.1 -
The following example is included to illustrate 43.1 - (105.0 - 0.7) = 55.7 dB
the calculation procedures:

Assume; 6 GHz band. 20' x 30' passive, with an As seen, either method should give the same
included angle of 102°. 10' dishes at each result, within the accuracy with which the charts
end of path. Short leg 0.5 miles. Long leg can be read.
25 miles.
Although passives are extremely useful in
many cases, it should be remembered that they
l/K = 1TAd = 3.14 x 0.984 x 0.5 x 528~
1
have their limitations. They are seldom practical in
4 a2 4 x 6 x 20 x 30 x cos 102 /2 flat country, and even in hilly country, fairly
~ 0.9 favorable conditions are usually needed.

= n/
4 a2
1T = 10 I 3;14
V4 x 20 x 30 x cos 102 /2
0
The effectiveness of a passive repeater is an
inverse function of the product of the lengths of
the two paths, rather than the sum of their lengths
~ 0.48 as one might suppose. Thus it is highly desirable to
keep one of the paths very short. When high
density systems with stringent noise performance
From equation (3), short leg attenuation objectives are involved, it is something of a rule of
is 106.1 dB; thumb that the product of the two path lengths in
long leg attenuation is 140.1 dB. miles should not ~xceed about 30 (in the bands of

105
6-8 GHz) or about 50 (in the bands of 11-13 GHz) in any passive application the possibility of such
unless extremely large passives can be used. This is reflections should be evaluated. Small passives with
by no means an absolute restriction, and each case small included angles are particularly vulnerable to
should be considered on its own merits, taking into this problem.
account the system parameters and the required
performance. With low density systems, or systems A slightly!different but related problem can
where somewhat greater noise can be tolerated, occur with passive repeaters which are essentially
products considerably in excess of these figures can "in line" with the path (either double billboards or
be acceptable. back-to-back parabola types). The potential echo
path here is by diffraction of the direct signal, over
When passives are used, it is often necessary or around the obstruction.
(though not always) to settle for somewhat lower H. Wire Line Entrance Links
signal strengths than would be achieved if the same
total path length could be spanned directly. In high In some circumstances it is possible to achieve
density systems, where very strong signals may be substantial economies or to solve otherwise diffi.
required, this may limit or prevent the use of cult problems by an arrangement in which the
passive repeaters in some applications. multiplex or terminal location and the actual radio
site are physically separated by some distance and
With very large passives, and particularly at 11 are interconnected by wire line entrance links of
GHz, the beamwidths may become so narrow as to some kind.
raise problems in maintaining sufficient rigidity
under all conditions, and there may even be a Such links are operated on a four-wire basis,
possibility that unusual atmospheric conditions with separate pairs or separate cables for the two
may bend the reflected beam far enough to cause a directions of transmission.
significant signal loss.
Entrance links operating at baseband usually
Nevertheless, the passive repeater, where the utilize twin-conductor cables of the type used for
topography permits, and where it is suitable in video transmission. The range of distances may be
other respects for the particular application, can be from a few hundred feet up to a mile or more,
a very useful and efficient tool. Its big advantage is depending on a number of factors. Except for very
that it requires no maintenance, and thus can be short links, or small channel densities, equalization
used in spots which are too inaccessible or too and amplification are required for level and slope
expensive for an active repeater. coordination.

There appears to be no evidence of any With heterodyne systems it is also possible to

tendency toward increased multipath fading be- separate the modems and the RF equipments, and
cause of a passive in a path. In fact, a path broken operate wire line entrance links at IF frequencies,
into two segments by a passive repeater might over coaxial cables. Here, too, amplification and.
experience less multipath fading than a direct path equalization may be required, . and the distance
of the same total length. which can be spanned will be relatively limited
unless intermediate repeaters are used.
Although passive repeaters in themselves do
not appear to contribute significant intermodula- Because of the many considerations involved
tion noise, there are situations where sufficient and the rather special nature of these applications,
signal may be reflected from hillsides, terrain, or a full treatment of wire line entrance links is
even trees in the vicinity of the passive to create a beyond the scope of this book. However the
delayed "echo" path with respect to the main microwave engineer doing path transmission work
signal. In some cases the result may be an in- needs to be aware of these possibilities since they
tolerably high level of intermodulation noise. Thus, may affect his choice of sites or methods.

106
VI. CALCULATIONS FOR A MICROWAVE SYSTEM

A. Path Data Sheets to make reasonable estimates as to the amount and

types of guide to be used; to be corrected later to
The path data sheet provides a formalized way reflect the "as built" condition. The fixed losses,
of determining and recording all the parameters though they appear small in comparison to the path
affecting the overall transmission loss equation. It is attenuation, are vitally important to the system loss
a useful tool for preliminary work, as well as for and gain equation, and must receive very careful
recording this and other pertinent data for future consideration. Their importance can be understood
reference. by recalling that an increase of 3 dB in the fixed
losses is equivalent to cutting the transmitter power
A separate data sheet can be completed for in half, or an increase of 6 dB in fixed losses is the
each path, or the data for a number of paths can be equivalent of doubling the path length.
combined into a single running sheet. However, in
the latter case, the data and calculations are for the
individual paths and not for the overall system. It is obvious that, in the system design state,
the items from 10 on are not developed in the
Figure 29 is an example of a completed path order in which they appear in the data sheet. In
data sheet. The following discussion of various fact, there are strong interactions between many of
items on the sheet is intended to illustrate some of the items, and the actual Selection usually involves
the details of the system planning, as well as the evaluating several different combinations to find
calculation methods. the one most suitable for the particular circum-
stances.
The heading indicates that this is a one hop
system, operating in the 5925-6425 MHz frequency Rather than discuss the remaining items in
band, with a design capacity of 960 channels using order, we will discuss them in a sequence in which
Lenkurt 78A microwave and 46A multiplex. the transmission engineer might have developed
them, in a series of steps:
The data in Items 2, 3 and 4 we assume were
determined during the path survey, which also
produced a path profile and other information, 1. He ascertains that the fade margin he is
allowing the engineer to determine the tower required to provide, or desires to provide, is
heights shown in Item 5, based on the desired 40 dB to the 55 dBmcO point. He enters the
clearance criteria, which we can assume to have value of 55 dBmcO in the parentheses of Item
been the "heavy route" criteria described in Sec- 30, to establish the practical threshold point.
tion IV.C, Part 7. He also tentatively enters 40 dB in Item 31.
This will be changed later to 39.9 dB as a
From the disparity in tower heights at the two result of the final choices and calculations.
ends, it appears either the path was non-symmetri-
cal, or that the situation in Alpha was such that a 2. He ascertains, from the manufacturer specifi-
high tower at that location was impractical. cations, or from a curve such as Figure 23A or
23B, that the RF input required to give 55
Items 7 and 8 were determined by calculation dBmcO in the top (worst) channel is -74
from Items 2 and 3, and the path attenuation then dBm. He enters this value in Item 30.
calculated by Equation (3), or read from Figure 13,
and entered as Item 9.
3. By algebraically adding Item 31 to Item 30, he
Items 10 through 15 record, separately for determines a tentative value of -34 dBm as
each end of the path, the colle'ctive dB losses in all the received signal needed to give a 40 dB fade
items of fixed loss appearing between the equip- margin. However, he also ascertains from the
ment connection flange and the antenna connec- manufacturer specifications that the recom-
tion flange; plus the fixed loss· of the radome if one mended median receive signal level for 960
is used, and its loss is not already included as part channel operation is -33 dBm. Since this
of the antenna gain figure. latter value is higher than the -34 dBm he
calculated, he tentatively enters -33 dBm in
In the system design stage, the exact wave- Item 27. It will be changed later to -34.1
guide layout is usually not known, so it is necessary dBm as a result of the final choices.

107
 MICROWAVE PATH DATA CAU;ULATION SHEET
CUSTOMER A.l.J'llA 1'11.l.U'ltl 1N K1;0~ ll',\_'I\
PROJECT NO x.x.xFREOUENCV ftl7"J\lllt
SYSTl:M \t.PllA rn llli'l ·\ EOPT 711A
LOAD ING • 11 ii dBruD l 'ltlO CHANNELS OF ,)h,\ J
I Sill: t\IJ'llA JJL ri\
- 2 -LATITUDE ;'1 1 ' 19•01~ 3J~ Si'Ol.,
:l l.ONGITUOF. ·~to-:;.~' -52" uLga"'' :rr~
-- - !.! I fl
•1 SITE ELEVATION F-t
F1
12(1
-
Ii TOWER HEIGHT
e rOWER f\IPE
80
SS - !J.lj(i
Gll~hll
7 AZIMUTH Ff10MT1WE NORT11 152°11 1m2°11
8 PATH LENGnt Milos ~a.;5
KMS l!l. 'l t
II PATH ATTl!NUATION l4 1.!i
10 RIG ID WAVEGU IDE 1Vlll37 Ft lCKl ~5
11 FLEXIBLE WAVE!GUIOE FL ,. r.
12 WAVEGUIDE LOSS dll
·•
2.5 LO
13 CONNECTOn LOSS dB II.Li fl,;;
\4 CTf1Cl.ll..llTOR OR HYBfl!O LOSS dB -
15 RAOOME LOSS, TYPE" dS O.:tu tl.Su
16 TOTAL FIXED LOSSES dB 3.5 .!.O
17 TOTAL LOSSES dB 117.U
18 PARABOLA HEIGfiT FL 1U lS
19 PARABOLA 0 11\METER Ft Ill h
20 REFLECTOR HEIGHT F<, ~.in
21' REl'LECTOR SIZE, TYPE .. Ft. IOd!iC -
22 PARABOLA·REFL SEP. Fl. !.!au
23 ANTENNA SYSTEM GAIN dB lll,O 41.9
24 TOTAL GAINS dB fl.•1,Jl
2ll Nl!T PATH LOSS <IEI tJ!lJ
28 TRANSMITTER POWER dBm 1llJl,(l
Z7 MEO. RECclVcO POWER 1±2 dB) dl!m ~~·I.!
28 RECEIVER NOISEIMRE-SHDLD dBm
29 TI-IEORETICAL RF C1N RAr!O d9
30 PRACTICAL THRESHO L0(65clElmcOldBm NIJ
J l FADE MARGIN !TO PRAC. THRES.1 dB 1~.I)
32 RtiUABILITY. SPACIN'G .. +io.
33 PROFILE NUMBER I
H .Heutilld. r f...:i ll•flrt • • "f - ftfK1;1111n..11 ~1t't!t1llv
. .·~F
U1~l• ffti,
Fk4t, l~ - ~~·~ .:i $(1..1 ,. p ....n, h' 0 - ~ i•
Fmq Ot:.erany 1"4 - Ntlt\ DW9tlt•~
1n111u11tt1 fll"' fl•1\.11m1 Mu• 1t11 n.~ .. 11ut~ OtWilJlruld F'..dlnn tiu l~ J
NOTES:

Englni!itl" ll.FJV. Onuo: llf lfh'I

Flgur" 29. Micrt1wav<> Pallt Datu Qt1nullltlu11 Shioet

108
4. From the manufacturer specifications, he Radome loss, Item 15, will of course depend
determines that the transmitter has a mini- on the type, as discussed elsewhere. The value
mum output power of +28 dBm, and this is of 0.5 dB for an unheated radome is typical-in
entered in Item 26. this band.

5. By subtracting Item 27 from Item 26 (algebra- 9. He adds up the fixed losses and enters them in
ically) he determines a maximum allowable Item 16; adds the 5.5 dB total fixed losses to
value of 61 dB .for the net path loss, and the 141.5 dB path attenuation of Item 9, and
tentatively enters 61 dB in Item 25. then enters the result, 147.0 dB, in Item 17.

6. By subtracting the tentative 61 dB in Item 25 10. He now subtracts the tentative value of 61 dB
from the 141.5 dB in Item 9, he determines of Item 25 from the 147.0 dB total losses of
that the total antenna gains, minus the fixed Item 17, and obtains a value of 86.0 dB as a
losses, must be at least 80.5 dB, in order to tentative value of the required total gains;
produce the desired value of net path loss. entering this value temporarily in Item 24.

'7 At this point, if he has not already done so, he 11. He divides 86.0 by two to obtain a prelimi-
will make a tentative selection of the type of nary value of 43.0 dB as the required antenna
antenna systems to be used. If other consider- gain at each end of the path. (It is usually,
ations are not controlling, the choice will though not always, most economical to have
probably be based on the best combination, the antenna gains divided about equally.)
considering gain-efficiency and economics.
However, frequency congestion or other con- 12. He determines that a gain of 43.0 dB at 6175
siderations might have precluded the use of a MHz will require at least a 10' parabolic
periscope system, or dictated the choice of antenna. In this case he enters the gain figure
some specific antenna arrangements. as taken from Table I, 43.0 dB, as the gain of
the Alpha antenna in Item 23, and enters 10'
We assume in this case, that the choice is a in the Alpha column for Item 19.
direct radiating parabola at Alpha, mounted at
the top of the tower, and a periscope antenna 13. By subtracting this 43.0 dB from the tentative
system at Beta. 86.0 dB of Item 24, he finds that 43.0 dB gain
will be needed from the antenna system at the
8. Having chosen the antenna system, he must other end. From Figure 27, using the -0. 7 dB
then make a reasonably close estimate of the gain factor and the 1. 09 dB distance factor for
amount of waveguide required, and all other the 6.175 band, he determines that a 12' x 17'
applicable fixed loss items. In this case he reflector would be needed to meet the 43.0
chooses WR137 rigid waveguide, and enters dB true gain requirement.
the estimated lengths in Item 10. He also
enters estimated lengths of flexible guide, for At an apparent (chart) distance of 230 x 1.09
connecting to equipment and antenna, in Item == 251', a 6' dish and either a C.R. or a C.E.
11. He calculates waveguide losses, using 2.0 reflector would give an apparent (chart) gain
dB per 100 feet for the rigid and 0.1 dB per of about 44.5 dB, or a true gain at 6.175 GHz
foot (a typical value) for the flex, and enters of 44.5 0.7 = 43.8, somewhat better than
the total waveguide losses in Item 12. the objective. If the requirements were deemed
absolute, this would be his probable choice.
"Connector loss", Item 13, is a catchall item However, in this case we assume that the engi-
for small losses associated with pressure win- neer for some reason does not want to use the
dows, bends and flanges. The value of 0.5 dB very large and heavy 12' x 17' reflector. In-
per end shown here, is. a safe, probably stead he examines the next lower size, a 10' x
conservative, estimate for most.·, waveguide 15', and determines that at the apparent dis-
runs. tance of 251' a 6' dish and a 10' x 15' C.E.
reflector will give an apparent gain of about
In this case there are no circulators or hybrids 42.6 dB, or a true gain of 41.9 dB at 6.175
external to the equipment, so no entry is GHz. After·entering this value in Item 23 and
made in Item 14. carrying out the necessary calculations, he

109
bility, even on a non.redundant basis. But in order 8760 hotirs long, and the most widely used way of
to meet the extraordinarily stringent objectives expressing propagation reliability is in terms of the
imposed by the need for extremely high-reliability unavailability or outage ratio, considered over a
long haul systems, some form of redundant or period of a year. Since fading phenomena in
standby equipment is required. microwave:JJYstems generally follow a yearly cycle,
the statistics for one year can be expected to be
Frequency diversity systems or space diversity generally representative of those for any other year,
systems with hot.standby transmitters each provide and this parameter is thus a good measure of long
essentially 100% redundancy for the microwave tenn reliability. (In some cases it is also useful or
equipment, and 1-for-N or 2-for-N multiline sys- desirable to look at U on a short term basis, for
tems provide essentially 100% redundancy which is example, the worst month or the worst hour of the
shared among the working channels. year), Another easy-to·understand way of specify-
ing reliability is by the number of hours of
Systems of this kind, with standby as well as downtime or outage per year. Thus we have:
working channels operating continuously' and
equipped with monitor, alarm, and automatic
transfer facilities, provide the basic elements for U = Downtime in hours
8760
ultra-high reliability. Equally important in achiev-
ing such reliability are the kind and quality of the
maintenance given to ·the system. For example, an outage or downtime of .876
hours (about 53 minutes) per year would give
These techniques for engineering and opera-
ting microwave systems to achieve extremely high
reliabilities are well-known and well-developed, and ·876 = 10- 4 = .0001
u = 8760
they can be applied with confidence based on the
demonstrated effectiveness of such techniques on
existing systems. which corresponds to an annual "availability" A of
.9999, or 99.99%; the term availability in reliability
But the techniques of making a priori predic· engineering circles has the same meaning as the
tions of the reliability performance of proposed term 'reliability' as commonly used by microwave
new systems have been less well-developed and have engineers.
played little part in the developments leading to
highly reliable systems. Most of these developed As discussed in an earlier section, per hop
methods have been empirical, as a result of accumu- reliability objectives of 99.9999% are not
lated experience. uncommon for modern long-haul systems. This
would require a value of U of .000001, correspond-
Section IV·C-(11) provided means for calcula- ing to .00876 hours or about 32 seconds per year.
ting the probability of a propagation outage for a Where these objectives include all sources of out-
microwave path, as a function of a number of age; it means that equipment outages also must be
pertinent parameters. The calculations were deve- held to comparable levels.
loped in tenns of a parameter "U", called "unavail·
ability'', also referred to as the probability of (Note: It is worth mentioning that al-
outage. though it has only recently been recog-
nized, CCJR objectives for allowable
This unavailability parameter is simply the short term noise not to be exceeded for
ratio, defined over any given period of time, of the specified very small percentages of time,
outage, or "downtime" to the total, or "down· do not include the effects of outages due
time" + "uptime". Thus; to equipment failure, but only the per-
formance during those periods of time
when the equipment is in operating
U =Down.fune = Down·time condition. The problem of total reliabil-
Total.Time Down·time + Uptime ity or availability has only recently come
under study by CCIR and is in a prelimi·
The most natural period of interest in connec- nary stage.)
tion with microwave systems is the year, which is

112
 Reliability engineering techniques have been corresponding to an "availability" of 99.99%.
developed for calculating, a priori, the probability Mathematically we could bring this up to the
of successful operation of a component, unit, or 99. 9999% level by reducing the M'ITR to . 01
system over any given time period, as a function of hours, that is, about 36 seconds, but in practice this
the number of components involved and their is an impossibility. In fact, when one considers that
failure rates, the latter being assumed to be microwave systems consist in general of a number
constant with time ("Early failures" and wear-out of unattended stations spac~ a considerable dis-
failures are excluded). Source data for failure rates tance apart, and that failures can occur at any hour
is usually some- document such as MIL HDBK of day or night, week-ends and holidays included, it
217-A, or some comparable industry data. seems highly optimistic even to assume a value as
low as one hour for the "mean time to repair",
By starting with some basic source data, and including travel time, time to diagnose the trouble,
making a number of assumptions, it is possible to make repairs or change out units, and get the
calculate for each unit or item of equipment system back in service. Even two hours will be an
comprising a microwave system a parameter "mean overly optimistic assumption in areas where re-
time between failures", abbreviated as MTBF, peater sites are remote or difficult of access.
usually expressed in hours. To the degree that the
calculated MTBF is valid, it represents the average If one must assume a relatively long average
period of time the unit will operate without failure, repair time, such as an hour or more, the only way
considered over an indefinitely long period of time. to achieve an extremely low value of U is to
(Actual field data on measured MTBF's are of greatly increase the denominator of the equations,
course much preferable, but are difficult to obtain the MTBF.
with high reliability equipments because failure
rates are so low). The relationship is very simple. In order to get an
availability of 99.9999% we must have a U of
If the MTBF of the total equipment compris- .000001, or 10-6 and the MTBF must be 1,000,000
ing a microwave hop is known, and if another times the MTTR. If the repair time is 1 hour, the
parameter called "mean time to repair", abbrevia· MTBF must be 1,000,000 hours, and if the repair
ted MTTR, is known or can be assumed, the time is 2 hours, the MTBF must be 2,000,000
equipment unavailability or outage ratio for the hours.
hop is given by:
These are truly staggering figures. Converted
to years, the MTBF of 2,000,000 hours means that
MTTR
U = MTTR + MTBF (29) on the auerage there will be one failure on the hop
every 228 years. Surprisingly enough, it is possible,
if certain requisites are met, to show calculated per
In high reliability systems MTBF >> MTIR, hop MTBF's of this order of magnitude, by the use
and the following ' approximation, which greatly of redundancy in the form of 100% operational
simplifies the mathematics, is quite accurate: standby. The requisites are: high (but not astrono-
mical) basic reliability in the equipment comprising
each side of the redundant pair; monitor, alarm and
U= MTTR (30) switching facilities which detect and report any
MTBF
failures and automatically switch to the good side if
the other side has failed; a sparing and maintenance
To illustrate, suppose that the MTBF of the program which results in relatively quick repairs of
hop equipment is 10,000 hours, that is, on the all "minor" or one-side failures, in order to keep
average a little less than one failure per year, and the time during which the path is operating
that the MTTR, that is, the average period of non-redundantly as low as possible. (The "redun-
outage after such a failure, is 1 hour. We then have: dancy improvement factor'', somewhat similar to
the diversity improvement factors, is essentially the
ratio of total time over a given period to the
1
u = 10 000 =.0001 non-redundant time during that period.)
'

113
 The following equation gives the calculated
MTBF of a fully redundant block (for example, a
one-way frequency diversity hop) in terms of the The calculations can be formally extended to
MTBF of the total equipment comprising one provide a means of calculating the availability for a
complete side of the redundant block, and the redundant block (in terms of its time complement,
mean time to repair and restore a one-side failure: the unavail~bility or outage ratio U), as follows:

Mz
m=-- (33)
2 T1

where m is the MTBF of the redundant block where Ur is the outage ratio for the redundant
M is the MTBF of one complete side block
T1 is the mean time to repair and m, Mand T 1 are as in (31) and
restore a one-side failure. T 2 is the mean time to repair and restore
the sYStem after a both-side failure (an
actual system outage).
As an example, consider a hop with redundant
equipment having a one-side MTBF of M = 10,000
hours, or 104 hours, and assume a value of 10 T 2 is simply the mean time to get one or the other
hours for T 1 • We then have: side repaired and back in service, and thus is a
somewhat complicated parameter.
108
m= = 5,000,000 hours A calculation approach which is simple and
20
convenient mathematically is to assume each of the
two one-side failures which cause the system outage
as the MTBF of the redundant block. is repaired independently, as if the other did not
exist, and that the repair time for each is T 1 • Under
The "redundancy improvement" is given by: this assumption, it can be shown that:

M T~
Ired= 2 Ti (32) (34)

which in this case would be 10,000/20 or 500 to 1. giving:

(Caution: This analysis excludes any

equipment outside the fully redundant
portion, and also assumes that switching
(~) (33A)

is perfect and that there is no degree of

commonality in the joining and splitting
devices. In practical situations these Although the above assumption is a convenient
other effects usually come into play and one, it is unrealistic when applied to real systems,
may reduce the true overall MTBF by an where a true system outage generates much more
order of magnitude or more, below that pressure to make a quick repair and get the system
calculated by the above equations. The back in operation.
analysis also is based on an assumption
that failures on the two sides are random If, instead of a "robot repairman" assumption
and are completely independent and un- as above, we consider a real life situation where the
correlated, an assumption which may not maintenance man will immediately be aware when
always be correct. For these and other a "both side" failure has occurred and will then
similar reasons reliability calculations of assess the situation and act to repair the side which
this type should be viewed with consider- can be restored in the shortest time, it can be
able caution). shown that T 2 can be derived from the following:

14
L
 transmitters and one for receivers. In this
(35) case the calculations would be made
separately for each of the redundant
blocks, and the resulting Ur(transmit)
where T 2 and T 1 are as defined in (33) and and Ur(receive) added together to get
T 3 is the "mean time to repair and Ur( total)·
restore one of the two one-side
failures causing an outage", using all
available resources and maximum
effort to reduce travel time, but also Although the derivations of "availability"
assuming that the two failures oc- calculation methods (through the complementary
curred simultaneously or that at the parameter unavailability or U) are formally and
time of the second failure no start mathematically correct, there are some very serious
had been made on repairing the first drawbacks when one attempts to use this parameter
failure. as a measure of the reliability performance, with
respect to equipment, of a highly reliable redun-
giving: dant system.

One basic requirement which must be met if

the U parameter is to be useful is that the period of
interest must be sufficiently long as to provide a
(33B) reasonably good statistical sample of events (each
individual outage constituting an event).
(Note that if the "robot repairman" assumption is
made, T 3 becomes equal to T 1 and 33B reduces to In considering propagation outages, over a
33A, as it should). period of a year there might be perhaps two-
thousand individual one-side events each lasting
Carrying on with the previous example, as- perhaps 3 or 4 seconds on the average (one side
sume M = 10,000hours,T 1 = 10 hours, and further fade below threshold), and with appropriate diver-
assume that T 3 = 3 hours. sity perhaps 10 individual both-side events each
lasting perhaps 2 seconds (both sides simultane-
The simple assumption of (33A) would give: ously faded below threshold), giving an "annual
outage" of 20 seconds. Thus the period of a year is
2 long enough to get a reasonable statistical sample,
Ur= ( 10)
10
4 = 10- 6 = .000001 and calculated annual outages in this range could
exist on a real system so that the calculated values
could be tested and measured in the field. So the
or an "availability" of 99.9999%. calculated U or the annual outage is a good
parameter in this case.
The "real life" assumption of (33B) would
give: But in the case of the equipment example
32 discussed above, an entirely different situation
2 (lOx 3--)
2 exists. The number of events is very small, and the
51
Ur= 108 = 108 = .00000051 length of each event is very large. If the MTBF, as
calculated in the example, is 5,000,000 hours, there
will be on the average, over a sufficiently long time,
or an availability of 99.999949%. about 1 failure every 570 years. Even if the hop
were to be operated for a thousand years, we would
(Note: in a one-way frequency diversity have only a modest statistical sample of about 2
hop there is only one redundant ,Block. "events". For periods shorter than a millenium, U
But in a hot standby system, or a hot would have little meaning, and for periods of a year
standby transmitter-space diversity re- or even of the entire useful life of a microwave hop
ceiver system, there are two separate and ( 15 to 20 years) it would have essentially no
independent redundant blocks, one for meaning at all.

115
 Looking at it another way, if the mean time and (37) by
between failures is 570 years, we will have - on the
average - one 570th of a failure every year.
Mathematically if it takes 5 hours to repair one R(8760) = 1 8760/m (37A)
failure, it will take
5 ~0 hours to repair one 570th
of a failure. Five 570ths of an hour amount to For our previous example, with an m of
about 32 seconds, confirming the previously calcu- 5,000,000 hours, (37A) gives a probability of
lated value of annual outage corresponding to this .99825, or 99.825%, that the hop will operate
example. without failure for a period of a year, under the
assumed conditions.
Though mathematically acceptable, fractional
failures cannot exist in real life, and as a result This is perhaps the best way of expressing
neither availability, unavailability, or annual outage equipment relutbility in such circumstances. Al-
is a suitable measure for equipment reliabilities in though neither the R parameter nor the m para-
this range. These quantities are useful and meaning- meter from which it is derived can be tested against
ful with respect to propagation reliability, but - as field experience (because even the full expected life
shown above - have little or no value with respect of the equipment is too short a time frame for it),
to equipment reliability. If one observed such an the two quantities M and T 1 in the expression (31)
equipment over the course of a year, there would which gives the value of m are testable. Data taken
be a very high probability of no outages at all. But over one hop for several years or over a number of
in any year in which an outage did occur, the hops for one year on the number of one-side
unavailability would be extremely high and in fact failures and the average time taken to repair them
would use up all the outages allowable for a 570 can be directly checked against the calculated
year period. There is thus no way at all of checking estimates, and can be used in (31) and (37) instead
such calculations in the field. of the a priori calculated values. In this way an
indirect check on the m and R parameters can be
What Alternatives? made.

The value of m as calculated from (31), It is clear also that propagation reliability and
preferably divided by 8760 to give the "mean time equipment reliability are completely different in
between failures, in years" is a good measure of character and should be treated separately rather
reliability for a redundant block. than lumped together. Propagation reliability is
well and usefully described either by an availability
Another possibility is to use the following parameter or by an annual outage parameter, but
equation to calculate the probability that the equipment reliability is not.
redundant block will operate without failure over a
period of time t. The complete reliability parameter describing
such a hop would be in two parts, a "U" or
availability parameter for propagation and an "R"
R(t) = e-t/m (36) or probability of no outage for a year as the
equipment parameter.

For a period of a year, this is: 4. Power Reliability

Considerations

R(8760) = e-'-8760/m (37) The reliability of the power source supplying

the equipment, is an extremely important factor in
overall reliability. Systems operat ing directly from
When m is very much greater than t, (36) is a primary AC power source will be subject to an
accurately given by: outage whenever the power fails, even for a few
seconds. Even in areas with highly reliable primary
power, this is ordinarily not adequate to meet
R(t) = 1 t/m (36A) normal system reliability standards. Consequently,

116
almost all microwave systems requiring high relia- obtain the total noise. Again, we use the
bility are arranged with some provision for locally curves of Figure 23B. The intrinsic +
generated standby power, on a "no break" basis~ intermod noise of 20 dBrncO or -70
The most satisfactory, and the most commonly dBmOp can be converted to pWpO using
used method, is to operate the microwave equip- Table E, and is found to be 100 pWpO.
ment from a storage battery plant, which is
continuously charged or "floated" to maintain it at The thermal noise is read for a receive
full capacity. The battery itself will take care of all level of -39.1 dBm instead of -34.1
short outages, and a standby generating plant is dBm, and is also found to be approxi-
provided to switch on in case of longer outages. mately 20 dBrncO or 100 pWpO.

C. Noise Performance Calculations The total noise for the hop is then 200.0
pWpO.
1. Microwave Noise
We can again refer to Table E to find that
Just as in the case of reliability, the starting this is 23.0 dBrncO; about 1.5 dB higher
point for system noise performance calculations is noise than calculated for the same system
to calculate the noise for each individual hop, then using the North American method.
use these results to calculate the system noise.
This serves to illustrate why systems
We will first calculate the noise performance engineered using the CCIR approach
for the hop of Figure 29 by the North American often must be provided with several dB
method, then by the CCIR method as used inter- higher median signal levels, in order to be
nationally. able to meet noise requirements under an
assumed condition of a 5 dB fade. The
North American Method extra dB are often very expensive to
implement.
In the North American method, the noise
is calculated for the condition of an Although curves such as Figure 23B are useful
unfaded signal and busy hour loading. and simple to use, they are not essential to noise
From a curve such as Figure 23B (which calculations. An equally accurate calculation can be
is appropriate for the particular equip- made by calculating the thermal noise from the
ment used in this example), the total known system parameters, using Equation (22),
noise can be read directly as a function and adding in the intrinsic + intermodulation noise,
of the received signal strength. In this which must be obtained from the manufacturer's
case it is seen to be at approximately specifications.
21.5 dBrncO for a received signal of
-34.1 dBm. Or, one could read separately In either the North American approach or the
the intrinsic plus intermodulation noise CCIR approach, the estimated microwave-
as 20 dBrncO and the terminal noise at contributed noise for a multihop system is obtained
-34.1 dBm input as 15 dBrncO, and by adding up the . individual hop noises on a power
combine the two noises on a power basis. This is particularly easy to do when noises are
basis to obtain 21.2 dBrncO, approxi- given in pWpO, since they can be added directly.
mately the same result, using Table G. When the individual noises are expressed in dBrncO
or dBaO, it is necessary to combine them two by
CCIR Method two, using Table G, and continue the process until
all the powers have been included. If all hops have
In the CCIR method, it is common the same noise power, the noise power of an N-hop
practice to; (1) show the intermodulation system will be 10 log1 oN dB higher than the per
and thermal noises separately, (2) m.ake hop noise power, or N times the per hop power in
the thermal noise calculation With the picowatts.
signal faded by approximately 5 dB, to
simulate the "any hour" requirement, Power addition of noise powers on a multihop
and (3) show the noise values in pWpO, system is based on two conditions; (1) that the
which can then be added directly to equipment design is such that the odd-order inter-

117
modulation products, some of which tend to add Echo distortion noise is calculated for each
on a voltage rather than a power basis, are very end of each path separately, and in multihop
much lower than the even-order intermodulation systems, all of these noises are added on a power
products, and (2), that in very long systems, additive basis, to the other system noises.
provisions are made to break up the baseband
pattern at intervals of about 10 hops (most 3. Multiplex Noise
commonly by random supergroup and group inter-
connections at the sectionalizing point in high- This is normally simply taken from the manu-
density telephone systems, or by similar intercon- facturer specifications, and added in with the other
nections or by filter sectionalizing in industrial system noise contributors. For illustrative purposes,
systems). If these conditions are met, it is con- consider a loaded multiplex noise contribution of
sidered that the system noise will be essentially 23 dBrncO, or 200 pWpO per channel.
power additive. Note that if either of these two
conditions is not met, the assumption of power 4 Total Noise Estimates
addition of multi-hop noise is not necessarily
correct. Depending on the relative conditions, the North American Method
power in such cases can be expected to combine on
a basis somewhere between power and voltage Radio equipment noise, 21.0 dBrncO
addition. busy hour loading
Echo distortion noise, 10.0 dBnrcO
2. Echo Distortion Noise busy hour loading
Multiplex noise, busy 23.0 dBrncO
For illustrative purposes, assume a value of 28 hour loading
dB equipment return loss, and a value of 26 dB for Total noise for complete trunk 25.3 dBrncO
the lumped waveguide-antenna return loss. From
this data, and a knowledge that the waveguide at This value is some 4.7 dB better thah the
Alpha is 100' long (approximately 2 dB loss), and objective given in Table H for 0 - 50 mile intertoll
that at Beta is 25' long (approximately 0.5 dB loss), trunks.
we can use Figure 24 to obtain an estimated value
of echo distortion noise. CCIR Method

Alpha: Noise = 70.5 - 28 - 26 -4 Equipment noise, busy 200.0 pWpO

= 12.5 dBrncO = 18.0 pWpO hour loading ( 5 dB faded)
Beta: Noise= 58.5 - 28 - 26 - 1 Echo distortion noise 10.0 pWpO
= 3.5 dBmcO = 2.2 pWpO Total microwave noise 210.0 pWpO
Total Noise
= 13.0 dBrncO = 20.2 pWpO CCIR allowance for the microwave noise (does
not include multiplex) would be approximately 3 x
The 13.0 dBrncO is the estimated echo noise 50 + 200 = 350 pWpO. (For paths less than 50
in the top channel of a system without emphasis. If kilometers, as this one just is, the noise allowance is
the emphasis is used, as it normally would be, the treated as if the path were 50 kilometers.)
echo noise would be reduced by some 3 dB, to
about 10.0 dBnrcO. The calculated noise is approximately 2 dB
better than the objective.
Adding the echo noise to the 21 dBrncO radio
equipment noise contribution, would increase the In specifying, listing and calculating noises
latter by slightly less than 0.5 dB. Though such an from a great many sources, which are assumed to
increase would be of little significance in a one-hop be additive on a power basis, the picowatt is a very
system, the accumulation of a number of such convenient noise unit, since the total noise is
contributions in a long system would be significant. simply the arithmetic sum of the individual noises.

Echo noise can be reduced, dB for dB, by On the other hand, the logarithmic noise units
improving either the equipment or the antenna are much more meaningful as to the actual effects
system return losses, and of course, the noise will of noise changes, and a logarithmic form is the only
increase if the return losses decrease. convenient form to use in system measurements

18
and maintenance. The North American approach is but reverts to some logarithmic form, such as the
to use units in dB form for both purposes, simply dBmOp, for measurements and maintenance usage.
tolerating the slight inconvenience in adding powers There are advantages and disadvantages to both
expressed that way. The CCIR method generally approaches.
uses picowatts for specifications and calculations,

AN IMPORTANT POST SCRIPT ABOUT THE PROPAGATION CALCULATIONS

As stated on Page 55, the methods of calculating propagation outages used in this
book are based on previously reported work by W. T. Barnett and Arvids Vigants of
Bell Telephone Laboratories.
At the June, 1970 International Communications Conference in San Francisco
Mr. Barnett gave an updating report on his work, based on the continuing study and
analysis which has gone pn in the past year. Based on this further study, Barnett
now proposes a modification in the frequency term in the equation describing
non-diversity fading. The modification changes the frequency term in Equation
(l IB) from (f/4) 1 • 5 to (f/4).
The effect of this modification is to make the calculated outage a linearly
increasing rather than an exponentially increasing function of frequency. Outages
calculated according to the. original equations, as used in this book, can be
multiplied by ( 4/f) 0 · 5 to convert them to outages in accordance with the modified
formula. The value of this modifying factor is: 2 GHz 1.4; 4.0 GHz 1.0; 5.0 GHz
0.9; 6.2 GHz 0.8; 6.7 GHz 0.77; 7.8 GHz 0.72; 8.7 GHz 0.68; 9.5 GHz 0.65; 11.2
GHz 0.60; 12.4 GHz 0.57.
As can be seen, the maximum change resulting from the modification is limited
to about 40% difference in the calculated outage, and for the bands of most interest
- those from 4GHz up - the outages calculated by the original methods are more
conservative (greater indicated outage) than the modified version. However, we
considered it neces8ary to modify the methods proposed with this printing.
Consequently, the following changes have been made in the book itself:

In Equation (1 IB) which appears on Page 59, the frequency term has been changed
from (f/4)1.s to (f/4).
In Equation (12) which appears on Page 60 and again in Appendix I on Page A2,
the frequency term has been changed from f 1 • 5 to f, and the
constant factor from 1.25 to 2.5.
In the metric version of Equation (12), which appears in Appendix II on Page B2,
the frequency term has been changed from f l. 5 to f, and the
constant factor from 3.0 to 6.0.

It is emphasized that the experimental and theoretical studies are continuing, and
other modifications may very well be reported at some future date.

NOTE:
It is important to note that graphs, formulas and methods for calculating outages
throughout the book are all for one way outage. To calculate two way outages it is
necessary to double the .calculated multipath and equipment outages. Outages due
to rain or to non-selective fading do not have to be doubled since they occur simul-
taneously in both directions of transmission.

119
 APPENDIX I
USEFUL FORMULAS AND EQUATIONS

fext Reference
Page Number

F.arth Curvature

d 1 x·d2
h=--- 12
1.SK

h (K = =) = 0 (lA) 12

lB) 12

h (K = 2/3) = d 1 d2 lC) 12

h (K = 1)"" .67 d 1 d2 (10) 12

h in feet. d's in miles

Reflection Point Relations

h1 d1 h2 d2
For K = 4/3; -=- (2C) 17
d1 2 d2 2

h1 h2
For K = 2/3; d1 :-
d2 (2B) 17
d1 d2

h1
For K = oo; d1 =n D where n "' h
l
+h
2
(2A) 17

h in feet, d and D in miles

Path Attenuation

Ad.B = 96.6 + 20 logio FQHz + 20 logio Drniles (3) 35

Fresnel Zones

1st zone; F 1 =72.1 y'~

F"GHzf> (4A) 38

~
nth zone; Fn = F1 JU= 12.1v FGfuD (4C) 38

F 1 in feet d and D in miles

Al
 Text Reference
Page Number

Fictitious Earth Radius

K = __fil (9B) 44
157 + dN
dh

dN
dh is . N um"ts per kil omet er
. gradien t m

Rcl:Ommenucd Clt-ar:mn• lri tenu

Heavy-route, or highest reliability systems: 51

At least 0.3F 1 at K = 2/3 and at least l .OF 1 at K = 4/3,

whichever requires the greater heights. (In areas of
very difficult propagation , it may be necessary al~o to
ensure a clearance of at least grazing at K =1/2).

All criteria should be evaluated along entire path.

Light-route, or medium reliability systems 51

At least 0.6F 1 + 10 feet at K = 1.0

Vertical Diversity Spacing For Reflective Paths

2.2 x 10 3 D
or (IOA) 59
FGHz x ht
(see Text)
1.3 x 10 3 D lOB) 59
FGHz x ht

h's in feet, Din miles

Fading Outages and Diversity Improvement Factors

Unctp=axbx 2.5xl0- 6 xfxD 3 xio-F/10 (12) 60

Undp
13) 60
I

A2
 Text Reference
Page Number

Fading Outages and Diversity Improvement Factors (Continued)'

Ifd(4) = 1/2 x [ ~J x toF/10 (14A) 60

lfd(6) = 1/4 x [ ~f J x 10 F/10 (14B) 60

lfd(7·8) = 1/8 x [ ~J x 10F/lO (14C) 60

lfd(ll-12) = 1/12 x [ ~ J x 10F/lO (14D) 60

ICBO"' 100 (1 S) 61

7.0x.:10-s xfxs 2 xloF/10

rso = 0
(16) 61

lhyb = ISD (17) 61

k2 = I ( 18) 61
10F/lO

Noise Threshold

N = -114 + 10 log1Q B (IF) MHz+ FctB (20) 68

FM Improvement Threshold

TFM = -104 + 10 log10 B (IF) MHz + FctB (21 68

Noise Units Correlation

dBrncO = 10 log10 pWpO = dBaO + 6 =dBmOp + 90 = 88 - N~ 69

. flat
(Precise: dBrncO = 10101no pWpO + 0.8 = dBaO + 6.8 = dBmOp + 90.8 = 88.3 s .) 67
Nflat

A3
 Text Reference
Page Number

Thermal Noise In Derived Channel

dBrncO -C - 48.1 + FdB

Af
= 20101 .0 fch (22A) 68

t:,f
dBaO"" -C 54.l + FdB 20 log10 ·fch (22B) 68

s
N dB, flat= C + 136.1 - FdB + 20 logio fch
6f
(22C) 68
t:,f
-C - 48.6 + F - 20 log-f-
pWpO = logio- 1 (220) 68
10

Video Noise

N1r:s (unweighted, unemph) = C FdB + 118 (22E) 70

~:s (EIA, emph, EIA Color wtg) =C FdB + 126.5 (22F) 70

Noise Loading

CCIR P= -15 + 10 logioN) dBmO when; N = 240 or more (23A) 73

CCIR P ~ (-1 + 4 log10N) dBmO when; N = 12 to 240 (23B) 73

Bell P = (-16+10 logioN) dBmO (23C) 73

Military P= ·10 + 10 logioN) dBmO (230) 73

Parabola Gain

(24) 90

GctB = 20 log10Btt + 20 logia FGHz + 7.5 25) 90

A4
 Text Reference
Page Number

3-dB Beamwidth

70 (26) Ql
<f> ~ r . for parabola

<f> ~ r -~? ~ for elliptical reflector 99

52
<f> ~ F W for rectangular reflector
. GHz ft

2-Way Free-Space Billboard Gain

GdB = 22.2 + 40 log10 FGHz + 20 logioAsqft + 20 log10 cos cc (27) 100

Approximate Near Zone Boundary

dft = 2 FGHz B2 ft (28) 100

AS
 APPENDIX II
USEFUL FORMULAS AND EQUATIONS IN METRIC FORM
In this section we provide metric equivalents
of those formuf.as arid equations of Appendix I
which involve units of length expressed in feet or
miles. The symbols used are identical to those used
in the English-unit versions except that those units
which were in feet are now in meters, and those
which were in miles are now in kilometers. In short,
all h's are in meters and all d's in kilometers.

We also provide in this section suggested

methods of adapting some of the English-unit
charts for use with the equivalent metric units.

We have omitted from this section those

equations which do not involve units of length, or
which are identical in the two systems.
Text Reference
Page Nwnber
F.arth Curvature (Metric)

12

12

dJ d,
h(K = 4/ 3) =- - 12
17
d, d,
h(K =2/3) = 8:5 12

h in meters, d's in kilometers

Reflection Point Relations (Metric)

h1 d, h2 d2
For K ::::i 4/3:
d, 17 = -. -- 17

h, d1 h2 d2
For K = 2/3: = 17
d, 8.5

h's in meters, d's in kilometers

Path Attenuation (Metric)

ActB = 92.4 + 20 logio F GHz.+ 20 log10 DKMS 35

Bl
 Text Reference
Page Number

Fresnel Zones (Metric)

d d2
1st zone FI = 17 .3
J I
FGHzD
38

nth zone: 38

F in meters, d's and D in kilometers

Vertical Diversity Spacing for Reflective Path (Metric)

Lili2 = 127 x D or 59
FGHz x ht '
75x D
59

d1 2
(See t ext) 59
17

h's in meters , d and Din kilometers

Fading Outa_ges and Diversity (Metric)

Undp =ax bx 6.0 x 10- 1 x f x D3 x lo- F/10 60

i.2 x 10- 3 x f x s2 x 10F110

61

f in GHz, s in meters

D in KMS, F in dB

The other equations in this section are unchanged

Parabola Gain (Metric)

GdB = 20 log10 B + 20 log10 FaHz + 17.8 90

B is in meters

82
 Text Reference
Page Number
3-dB Beamwidth (Metric)

22 f or parab o la
A.,...,
'I'"" FaHz B 91

cp ~ F~~z B for elliptical reflector 99

16
cp ~ FGHz W for rectangular reflector 99

cp in degrees, B and W in meters

2-Way Free-Space Billboard Gain (Metric)

GdB = 42.9 + 40 log10 FGHz + 20 log10 A+ 20 log10 cos cc

A is in square meters

Approximate Near Zone Boundary (Metric)

dmtrs = 6.6FGHz B2

B is in meters

B3
 Suggestions for use of Figures

Figure 3: kilometers, and subtracting 4.2 dB from the atten·

Earth Curvature for Various Values of K. uation reading.

The generating equation is Figure 15:

The 1st Fresnel Zone radius chart can be used by
d2 considering the D and the d's to be in kilometers,
h= and dividing the value read on the F scale by 4.17
12.75 K
to obtain F in meters.

where h is in meters and d in kilometers. The multiplying factors of Tables Bl and B2 can
then be applied to convert the readings for fre-
If the distances on the d scale are considered to quency bands other than 6. 7 GHz, or for higher
represent kilometers rather than miles, the value zones.
read on the "departure" scale must be multiplied
by 0.118 to obtain h in meters. Figures 21 and 22:
Convert the distances shown in miles to kilometers
Figure 4: by multiplying by 1.609. The charts can then be
Though the curves of Figure 4 were designed for read directly.
use with miles, feet, and 10-division-per-inch rec-
tangular graph paper, with a basic scale of 1" Figure 24:
horizontal = 2 miles, 1" vertical= 100', it turns out The best way to use this chart is to convert
that by good fortune they can also be used with waveguide length in meters to feet by multiplying
kilometers, meters, and 10-division-per-centimeter by 3.28, then enter the chart with the reading in
paper, with a basic scale of 1 cm horizontal = 1 feet.
kilometer, 1 cm vertical= 7 .5 meters, and also with
a scale of 1 cm horizontal = 2 kilometers, 1 cm Figure 25:
vertical = 30 meters. The dimensions shown in feet can be converted to
meters by multiplying by 0.3048. Areas shown in
A very slight error is incurred, amounting to about acres can be converted to square meters by multi-
one part in 400 in the corresponding elevation plying by 4047.
readings, but it is considerably lower than the
accuracy with which the charts themselves can be Figure 27:
read so is inconsequential. Since these charts are for specific sizes of standard
reflectors and antennas dimensioned in feet, they
Alternatives are use of the direct calculation could not be directly used for metric-dimensioned
methods described in the text, using the metric reflectors and antennas.
versions of (lB), (lC) or (lD), as required, or to
use ( 1) or the metric generating equation for Figure Figure 28A:
3 to construct metric templates with other scale This chart is also for specific sizes of reflector
values. dimensioned in feet, and could not be used directly
for metric-dimensioned reflectors.
Figure 7:
The reflection point charts can be used directly Figures 28B, C, D:
using These charts are dimensionless, and require only
8.5 hi 8.5 h2 that all dimensions be in the same units.
X= D2 and Y = D2

Inverse Position Azimuth and Path Distance Calcu-

where the h's are in meters and the D's in lations. The method produces distances in both
kilometers. kilometers and feet, so can be used in either set of
units.
Figure 13:
The free-space attenuation chart can be used
directly by considering D to be the path length in

B4
 APPENDIX Ill
USEFUL TABLES AND FIGURES
r

Table C. Excess Attenuation Due To Atmospheric

Absorption. P-51
PATH ATTEl'ilUATION - dB
LENGTH
MILES 2-4-6 GHz 8GHz 10 GHz 12GHz 14GHz
20 0.20 0.26 0.32 0.38 0.48
40 0.40 0.52 0.64 0.76 0.96
60 0.60 0.78 0.96 1.14 1.44
80 0.80 1.04 1.28 1.52 1.92
-
100 1.00 1.30 1.60 1.90 2.40

Table D. Relationship Between System Reliability And Outage Time

OUTAGE OUTAGE TIME PER

RELIABILITY TIME DAY
MONTH
% %
YEAR (Avg.) (Avg.)

0 100 8760 hours 720 hours 24 hours

50 50 4380 hours 360 hours 12 hours
80 20 1752 hours 144 hours 4.8 hours
90 10 876 hours 72 hours 2.4 hours
95 5 438 hours 36 hours 1.2 hours
98 2 175 hours 14 hours 29 minutes
99 1 88 hours 7 hours 14.4 minutes
99.9 0.1 8.8 hours 43 minutes 1.44 minutes
99.99 0.01 53 minutes 4.3 minutes 8.6 seconds
99.. 999 0.001 5.3 minutes 26 seconds 0.86 seconds
99.9999 0.0001 32 seconds 2.6 seconds 0.086 seconds

Cl
 Table F. Standard CCIR 20 log10 M/fch Factol"S For Top Slot P-71
SYSTEM TOP WITHOUT WITH
CHANNELS SLOT EMPHASIS EMPHASIS

120 534 kHz -5.62 dB -1.B~fdB ( 120 channel emphasis)

300 1248 kHz - 12.9 dB ;_9.2 dB (300 channel emphasis)

420" 1722 kHz - 15.7 dB -12.0 dB (420 channel emphasis)

600 2438 kHz - 18.7 dB -15.0 dB (600 channel emphasis)

960 3886 kH:z -22.BdB -19.1 dB (960 channel emphasis)

1200 5340 kHz - 28.5 dB -24.8 dB (1200 channel emphasis)

NOTE : 200 kHz rms per channel deviation for all except 1200 channel system, which is
140 kH z rms per channel deviation.
"Not a CCI R Standard, but widely used in U.S.A. industrial systems.

Table H. Typical U.S.A. Noise Objectives

TYPE OF TRUNK
TRUNK TOLL CONNECTING•
INTERTOLL• DIRECT*
LENG TH OR TANDEM
dBrncO dBrncO dBmcO
IN MILES

0-50 30 32 35
51-100 31 33 36
101-200 33 35 38
201-400 35 37 40
401-1000 37 39 42
1001-1500 38 40 43
1501-2500 41 43 46
2501-4000 43 45 47
*SEE NOTE ON PAGE 80
Table I. Antenna Gains for Estimating Purposes P-92
Plana Polarized Parabolic Antennas. (DP's, HP's and Cron-band somewhat lower)

Gain Relative To Isotropic - dB

Diameter
in feet 2GHz 4GHz 6GHz 7·GHz 8 GHz 11 GHz 13GHz

4 25.5 35.2 35.9 37.0 40.3 41.3

6 29.0 35.0 38.7 39.4 40.6 43.8 44.8
8. 31.5 37.3 41.1 41.9 43.1 46.0 47.3
10 33.5 39.3 43.0 43.9 45.2 47.7 48.5
12 40.8 44.6 45.5 46.7
15 42.6 46.0 46.9 48.7

Horn Reflector Antennas

8X8 (Std) 39.4 43.0 47.4

L 6 (Circ) 35.7 39.4 43 .8

C2
Table E. Noise Unit Comparison Otart. P-69

dBrncO dBaO pWpO dBmOp S/NdB dBrncO dBaO pWpO dBmOp S/NdB

0 -6 1.0 -90 88 34 28 2520 -56 54

1 -5 1.3 -89 87 35 29 3162 -55 53
2 --4 1.6 -88 86 36 30 3981 -54 52
3 -3 2.0 -87 85 37 31 5012 -53 51
4 -2 2.5 - 86 84 38 32 6310 -52 50
5 -1 3.2 -85 83 39 33 7943 -51 49
6 0 4.0 - 84 82 40 34 10,000 -50 48
7 1 5.0 - 83 81 41 35 12,500 -49 47
8 2 6.3 -82 BO 42 36 15,850 --48 46
9 3 7.9 - 81 79 43 37 19,950 -47 45
10 4 10.0 -80 78 44 38 25,200 --46 44
11 6 12.6 - 79 77 45 39 31,620 -45 43
12 6 15.8 -78 76 46 40 39,810 -44 42
13 7 20.0 - 77 75 47 41 50, 120 -43 41
14 8 25.2 - 76 74 48 42 63, 100 -42 40
15 9 31.6 - 75 73 49 43 79.430 -41 39
16 10 39.8 - 74 72 50 44 100,000 -40 38
17 11 50.1 - 73 71 51 45 125,900 -39 37
18 12 63.1 - 72 70 52 46 158,500 -38 36
19 13 79.4 -71 69 53 47 199,500 -37 35
20 14 100 -70 68 54 48 252,000 -36 34
21 15 126 -69 67 55 49 316.200 -35 33
22 16 158 -68 66 56 50 398,100 -34 32
23 17 200 -67 65 57 51 501,200 -33 31
24 18 252 -66 64 58 52 631,000 -32 30
25 19 316 -65 63 59 53 794,300 -31 29
26 20 398 -64 62 60 54 1,000,000 -30 28
27 21 501 -63 61 61 55 1,259,000 -29 27
28 22 631 -62 60 62 56 1,585,000 -28 26
29 23 794 -61 59 63 57 1,995,000 - 27 25
30 24 1000 -60 58 64 58 2,520,000 -26 24
31 25 1259 -59 57 65 59 3, 162,000 -25 23
32 26 1586 -68 56 66 60 3,981,000 -24 22
33 27 1995 -57 55

Table E shows the relationship between five commonly used units for expressing noise
in a voice band channel. In the first four columns, the units represent weighted noise at a
point of zero relative level. In the fifth column the "S" represents a tone at zero relative
level, and the "N" represents unweighted noise in a 3 kHz voice channel, therefore, S/N
is the dB ratio of test tone to noise. '

The table is based on the following commonly used correlation formulas, which include
some slig!"lt round-offs for convenience. Correlations for Columns 2, 3 and 4 are valid for
all types of noise. All other correlations are valid for white noise, but not necessarily for
other types. ;

dBrncO = 10 10910 pWpO = dBaO + 6 = dBmOp + 90 = 88 - S/N

C3
Tahk t: Summarion Or S11h1uc1ion Of ' uo-Coherenr l'n\\c~

This tlLl can bl...,,. d tot J!Ulf'1 •• 9 tht> fl"',..,

Cot I Col 2 Col3
of'"'° non eo11c..111 llgll•l1 ewr.-J '" 118
t:: rm If r::urt oho lie ull)(J for fl(IWW< 1Ub1r.:1ion

'•- "11 ~...,.,.,1 two powonwho.ir

.,.,.,...,Ion
Ulc Of
litgOr
ft P in Ill Cll1SI I'I 11 laictn M
r
1
tf'!O NO f)OWWn.
0.0 3.010 3.010
0.2 7.911 3.111
04 2.815 3.71!i
fo;um t w o - calcut.t• '• - P&>o loco1D 0.6 2.n1 3.311
""' lftlltlng •.t.... "' Columr\ I, then arid ltw 08 2.629 3Ull
Cl>flapor!tl'f!ll v.We In C:O..mn 2 IO P•
tn ubu.1" r:.. '"° daht!!d :ur11.
1.0
L2
:7 5311
1451
3b'lll
3.MI
1~ 23£U 3 7GG
To ••btruc 1 un• puVYWJ hvm lnO\hlr• , , . , 1B 228'1 3.Bli"
Ille latgo:r onc-"' P1 ..,a11>~ 1m11!Jrr""" 1.8 2200 .. IOlll
• "• 11 It 11 w1tl11n 3 dB ol P.i '" Pu 2-0 2 124 4 124
Iii 11 It more rh.ln 3 dB boll°" Pal 2..:Z 2048 ~ 248
24 1.11?4 4 374
1,. the f1nt czse,, cat.culah! P1 P,f lu<-at., 28 I ;1)()2 4!i02
tho tnultmg .,....., In Cok11n11 2, th1111
7.8 1;1132 4 U32
IUblr.tet .... Cl.HIW¥JOl .... lf'A v.daa '" 30 I 76-1 A 764
C<llurnn 3 lrum P1 IO cl>ll•n P11, tho "37 I 6911 4 808
tti~ ...ut.od ren-..:ulCWf 3.4 I 635 5.0l!t
3b 1.573 5 113
In th• i.ecor1d c"" c1lculott P1 Ph l..c:ilt 3.8 1.613 5 313
c~c r.sult!f)Q v.•h1e In Coh.1tnn J, ll\dt'I a.ibtr~t
4.0 145S 5 ·~r.
th• et>no.~nondlnv vJtlu.- "' Onlu1nl'\ 7 hom 4.2 1.399 6.5!19
P1 10 l>blnln P., 1lu1 Ul,.11 od rt"m1tndrr
4~ 1.345 Ii 116
4.0 1.293 5 8!13
\Vhttn rnof'e th.,, 'WQ pcrf'lfl ;101 lo be turnrmird 4.8 1.241 6 Oo47
ortubttt(lrttf 1111111111tn c..1n tlf!I u,_.
so I 193 0 103
52 I 1'18 ll.3411
54 I 100 ll.bOO
5.6 , :J!>tj 06&8
To add • 10 0 tlOmO to •8 1 d!lmll !i.ll 1 01~ 68U
100 87•13 6.0 01173 8973
1 3 111 Col111'"' I Wit be!- I ' .,..i 6.5 0.811 7 371
I 4 Ill II•• _,.,._, lfUft'I Column ~ II
7.0 Q790 7790
1:1 ~5I2371/2 • 2 "' 7.S 0710 8710
SoP,• I 100• 241• • 1741dllm0 8.0 OGJG 86311
8.5 0.574 1un•
b.i"WI• SubUoct1on 9.0 0.515 e !il!i
9.5 0.461 9001
To!llbtf"ICI 150dBm from 10.0d9m0 100 0 414 10 414
-10.0 (-1110) •Ii, treatUlf 10.0 ft llJ) 0.331 11.331
PA vcl 15 0., P11 wo10<.lllt 5 In 120 0.266 12260
cotumn 3 .. "''Y ,_ to 6 03~. to ... 130 0.216 13.2111
IUbttael 1M COtfnoondint v•lua tn 14 0 0 170 14 170
Column 2. I SIS lrom 10 0 1a obt••n P1 15 0 0 135 15 135
SoP0 • 100 16»• 11Gll'O\INl«ll 16.0 0 108
110 OJl8G "' 1186
17 108
180 0008 11068
19.0 OOSA Ill 05ol
200 Olll3 2004)

-
250 DOIG 25016

-
30.0 0 004
0.000
:JO O().I

C4
 P-13

•U
35
-

IJ
r-=
if§.... -· - - ~
5
20 10 100 )00 300 1000
DEPARTURE FROM A LEVEL TllNGEl't I IN l<EET • •1
18

14 ...
t!

~ l
I0 I

Agnrc 7 \ l'oinl or l<cOccuon ()11 O\'tr· \\J lcr \lictOWUYI! Poth

C6
 ,___ _ o _ _ _,
"' < "' h lift .... d« In mom
I I
TO USE h1 / h2 /.
co"11'\JfE ><• /o2 & v. ;..ro'
Q.1 ;n;i~f.-lfiltl~fi;H; R ellld 'f IMm dtarl for Poif,.t x, v 1n1tf'PO'•tlnt
11_.......v
C.•<Ul11• u1 • no & "2 • o <11

0 08 12 1• 18 18 2.0
 ,,
t

. t

. ...._.._
••I·~~

.. I
fl lS 30

1ua He :en 1~01 otei

 FRESN EL ZONE NUMBERS - 1 2 3 4 ~ 6
.1n ...-------.-- - - -l: -------.-----+----'-...,-----"T'---"---.----.
,,___+ Ol1wu_c11D11"4fon11--- -:
,

tlJ
u
<I'.
Q. 10
"'ww
a::
u.
::E
0
a:: ~IJ
u.
CXl

"'

•Hl ..__ _ _..,,.-:-------;-----------~-----~---~----.....- - '

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
CLEARANCE
R = Reflection Coefficien t
FIRST FRESNEL ZONE

Figure 14. Behavior of Attenuation vs. Path Oearance for Various

Types of Obstruction
 p.39

.....to;
!;
si5
<
"'-
w

-
n
0
z
~
....
w
2
~
..."'
I-

..."'or

T01'M.PAil1 LENGll! 11•"11LES

figure IS. First :esnel Zone Radius (6.175 GHz

ruble 82. \luhtpt,m1 Factor Fur l>ctt>rmmtn~ Fn when F, b 11.nown IFn.a F, nl 1'-10
--
n v n n I '" n n v n n Vn n Vn
1 1 000 18 4 000 31 6 568 46 6.782 61 1810
2 I 414 17 .. 123 32 5857 47 6 856 82 7.874
3 1.732 t8 .: 243 33 6 746 48 6928 63 1911
4 2000 19 4 350 34 6831 49 1000 04 B.000
5 2238 20 4 477 35 5 9tll 50 7 071 65 8062
6 2 "49 21 J 583 36 6.000 51 I 141
1 2648 '22 4 690 37 6.083 51 1211
8 2828 23 4 796 38 6 1&4 53 7 290
9 3000 24 41199 J9 8245 54 7348
10 3162 2!i 5000 40 6325 55 7.416
11 3317 20 5099 41 11403 56 7483
12 3.4&4 21 5 llMI 42 B.'81 57 7550
13 3608 28 5 291 43 ll.557 58 7 616
14 3 74:t :>9 5 385 44 6633 69 7 681
15 3.873 30 5 477 4& 8.708 60 7 746

TB\lle RI. Mulliplying Fuctur<. Milch C1n Be

l.;sed Tu ConH'rl F""11CI Zon~ Rrulil
C:ilculntoo Fur 6 175 Cllz Tn Otha
Bnnd-. l'-11
BANO CENTER MULTIPLY
GHz FREQUENCY BY
I 8&0 I 090 t 920 1 793
I !JOO 2.110 2 ~50 1 735
2 11 0 2.130 2 145 1 697
2 100 -2. 180
2 130 2.150 ' 165 1.688
2180-2200
2 460 - 2500 2 475 1590
3.700 4 200 3.960 1250
.. 400 - 5.000 •1 700 I 14B
6925 - B.426 6 r76 I 000
6.675-6 875 6125 0 !IS82
0 875 - 7, 2!I 7.000 0.!13.92
7 12S - 8.400 7 4:17 D,.!)112
7.7SO 08926
8.063 0.8'161
10 700 - I 1.700 11.200 0.?4;z.s
12.200 12.100 12.460 0.7043
12100 - 12.950 12.826 0.&9;!9
1'2.700-13150 12975 06899

Cll
 P-47
z
z
< ">rr:
zi::t>
~g~ i-
--.a
...4 -a::
ct 'O ~ z
<
a:
>
"
w
~!>
~
a:U~ :r m
rr:u - >- a
!C 0 > "'
cg·0> ~ > !>
a:
400
-~~8
~-
u.... ~~~ w
::r
rr:
w
>
_,
0
u

20

0.01 '---.L..l..L.-.....1.-....L---M:....i..--....L--'-..J...-i..-.1-.1----1..---J.-....L-~-I
O.Ql 0.02 0.04 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 4 6 8 10
RAINFALL RATE IN INCHES PER HOUR
[Rate in mm/hr • 2 5.4 • (rate ln Inches per houri J

Figure 17. Rain Attenuation vs Rainfall Rate (Theoretical, after Ryde and Ryde)

Cl2
 1149

N(JTE TrM .mall dntlllll nMH ltlll~I •rru>ttlal d.ttJt ouwidld lly
Pldl.~ Norm-ti ll•ll ''" I .,, ,,.,

H G

E
 1'·48

-"'
::;;

""t>'
·~
6
f::
<{
:J
z
w

~
II 1

I 0~

/f--;--f'-+--1
Jr'--_,__..._
/
8 10 20 30 40 60 !IO 100
FREQUENCY GHz

Attenuation in rainfall intensity of: A, 0.25 mm/hr (drizzle) - .01 In/hr

8, 1.0 mm/hr (light rain) - .04 In/hr
C, ~.O mm/hr (moderate rain) - . 16 in/hr
D, 16 mm/hr (hoavy rain) -.64 in/hr
E, 100 mm/hr (very heavy rain)- 4.0 In/hr

Attenuation in fog or cloud: F, 0.032 gmfm' (visibility greater than 600 meters)
G, 0.32 gm/m' (visibility about 120 meters)
H, 2.3 gmfm' (visibility aboul ;io meter9)

"Aun dB/mile= 1.61 x (Attn in dB/km)

figure I !I. Altenwition Due To Preciplta!lon (after cx:IR)

Cl3
R"1rOOYC.t9 DY Pttmlttlon IUIE Trtnuc.-Uon Papw No. 51· l2-l6 (Hat.haw11y and Ev.ans)

P-50

~ 5 1---1--t-~
::i
0
:c
:!: ~ l--i-,-1--'I._+-~·-...,...,.- <---·~ --·#t
uJ
::E
1-
uJ J l~:.,.,+.~-~---~--+·-~~-...,,.,..J:~.:/---...,~~.,;f.~i:.f..lii/~:+tll::!-V!J....l~q...--1
C>
g
0 1 1---1-

7 8 9 10 15 20 25 30 36 40 46 60 60
PATH LENGTH IN MILES

Figure 20. Expecled Outage Time l.n Hows Per Year vs. Pllth Length in Miles For Various Attas
of the United States. (Based on 11 GHz paths with 40 dB fade margin ; for l3 GHz
paths, reduce path lengths by 3 0%. For 4S d B fade margin, decrease outage time by
15%; for JS dB fade margin , increase ii by 25%).

CJ S
 I• 10
f <-y 6 7 CUr
- - NonOl.cnl ty
- - - CO Vfftiul
SpicJ! 0iv«f11t y

5
I • 10

w
\\
<.:>
...c \

I\\II
::J
...00
>
':; I x 10 •
ID
~
0
a:
\
~
\\
\
\\
\
\ 1
I • 10 ' \
\\
'
\~
\ r.
\
~
\
\
\
1 • 10"" \
:ID 16 30 lS 40 4!",
FADE MARGIN IN <lB

I 111111<' 1 1 Ou1ai;c l'rubll11b1y' I adc \lnrgln lor 6.7 GHz pa1h;, nr """''u' IA!nJ lh ,
\•cnge l ttraHI anti Olmnte {allt!r Vlgi:m11> & BnmNl I

Cl6
 1
10

j
I ., .....
6. 7 GHt Poth

10 ~

10 ·•

10
5 10

l•1gure 2l Outnge f>robab11l1y \'S l'rtlh Lclng1h fur 11 6.7 GHz Pn1h "'lb 40 dU hide Mnritin

Cl7
 llO

liO

• H++H

Cll!
 P·7u

1
.,,"'
...
"'
~...
w
z
z
<
13
<C
w
~
; I
-30 ~ 60
•

50

-';11 no

l
30
r,... ,.,..

- 70
I i

ifl:
0
-70 GO -6CI 30 20
FIECEIVER INPUT IN iJBm

hgurc HO Typi.:al Rec:eh-er Nui,e Cum: fu11 Slnl 1/t' 96') Ch.11111cl Sy~rcm 10 dll
Noise Agun:; WO kH1 De"fa rinn: CCIR tmph:l'i;..-; I-I.Ii dUmO l..u3tl .

Cl9
 ..!l- ' - - --
't
60 i -30

-
tJ
0
v...u CCI" ~"" lttO~ ..,. " JtJ1n&.:D ' Jltm(ki~
•ta.i~t U....., WI lhrdilnmOa• a81•1a.r11tttt11f • ,...., '"""' ~
11uJ1n11 1n11•v•• .._. ~or•t•nuw ... .-9QU•om111n1 ...,..,,~
tend lwlce tf•• .,.........,...
Ila

c.,,,.....,..._.,111d11JfM'T'fJnwk Wnti~Utrwo~l ldMI.

l't•IWii..Jfl 1111W.-.1~t;llf 1~tty MP'll!t~\'J.Od m.t
ft tWI*' ....... ~~IC.~"'* ft:llf t'9 r...,_
·40

-45

40
1(1
 P.94

-
GM.
12'
c;,,.,.
tx10f'

-10.I
nu._...~_.

flac1or

r.o

-··
- - - - Cwvod. Elllinio"I 1C EI
---
----- Cur••tl AccU01~IAI IC llJ
Fl.It E hlrl'l!ll IF ~ I
715
or.
•7
e 11~
-- ''
•I
- 111
3 ll
I tO
I ti
I O'l
6.Tlb
7.0 I 0• 116
1437
. 09A.t
~ 81
1.0
11 ,
" t!>
10
....15

• 8.9
a-4
JIO
54
48
trua r.. ,, • 0.-t G."1
• Gfatat

l'ut Dsat • Ot.-1 Obi.

0 bat ,_~

~ .117 0...10...
"'..
..,.,..3n
:i:
13
.."'.,, l I
 - - -
CUM!d Ell•PtlCll
Cul'Wd Recta"!Jl)thr
- - - - - - fll11 Elh1IUC11
e.,...
Qi.IJ

.,
U2
1 I!
..tll!i
e 11a
•I
•tu•
IQ.8
SI g
••
3. 1
-
OtoWo<a

350
:s u
1m
I·~
- 0 I I Oii
0 71!1
10
un
I
•
0•
DI ,.,
1lil

41
AO
IL?
12A5
141•
. .,
• A5
1

• di
I.Ji

'~
&I
GO
Sii

r.... c.m 0,1u1 Goal,.

• \4 F<1t'ltlf
C>wt~
True Oi• • CMt f ...
c..i .-n1u r.-. o-....
p,ft f.:IOI
'

~37 -
<
t.'

iS CAUTI(m Us• uat~ lll>CS~

0 31'
.... -=t•un i,...1-i~ tor 11111rJ1 o•"""
the" II ni; Gilt

35

+j DU I !iO 200 300 500 £!(1Q 700 8DO

01$ 'INC£: lSEPARAl10~1 Iii f"EET &.77.& til11 !>ANO
 .P-96

43
B""d Gain Ofnonce
GHr FflCtOr Ftotor

1.92 - 10.8 3.50

42 2.15 - 9.9 3.13
3.95 - 4.6 1.70
4.7 - 3.1 1.43
6.175 - 0.1 1.09
0 41 6.725
z 7.0 + 0.4 .96
.,< 7.437
8.0
•+ 0.9
1.5
.91
.84
:r 40 11 .2
12.45
+ 4.5
• 6.4
.60
.54
<:>
.........,
14.8 • 6.9 .46

..; 39
True Gain .• Q\art Gtin
G F-K.-or

CD
True Dist. . btst.
Q\art Oi11.
Fact.

8..,
0
z 3a . Trus Dist
• Dist. Factor

• Curved Elliptical IC.E.)

CAUTION : Use gain ll>d dimnce
c:orroelion f..:tors fat band• olher - Curved Rec1a~lar IC.A.)
1Nn 8.725 GHz. - Flat Elllptlcal CF.E.)
. ':"f!Hmn I I II ! 111 111111 14-' w .. ... HH!ttlllllflfftftfllll 1lllHliB!FlF!
eo 10 ac 100 ioo :iw 300 sou eoo 100 eoo 1000
DISTANCE !SEPARATION) IN FEET - 6.725 GHz BAND

Figure 27C. Periscope Gain Curves for l O'xlS' Reflectors

 ..... Om9"CI
44 mo FacrD1
9 l50
1 1.13
9 'IO
•J
'•
7
Oil
0
•,0
1 ,,,-- 2
4
~­
/ ~

___
/ / -1 °''
G
01mJ_f..._!!.!
'J",.~
/./
/

Cu•vl'J El• J>t.Clll IC.£ I

CAUTION U"'!}<I" •Jll,..h1nc:a
- - - - C...•Yod~llQIM IC.A,
CUfl"tlClN)" filCtD".$ ttit bllf'd•dtnet
man tl. 7:1f> GHI - - - - - - ~IIJ l!llpt.i(;al If e,1

80 100 300 600 700 000 100

for
 llllCLUDEll t!O~IZUNTAL ..N\lLE.1 P-101
Ill ll!1 !IO fC1 Jll 110
!J(r' ~IUO\Jf'lj1•vi:;11, IU l2
II" I ~ l 4o · 61'1 1 oo I 100 1~0 I 4b0 , J •1 5 e / •e 11I1a
l~
j~~~~~.~"T!lr"==T"il'-r-~~r=--r---r-~ ~~..--1~ r~~
40H1t1r ---
l9' 40 • .a,_____
::_w
1 ;,a 30 • ~"·----
30 x 4(>,...._-'i~.
I 94
JD x 32.....--...:.:.:.
2.6o
1 02 ~~ ,l( 30.- - - -
20 ... :i:?r---._:
Z50
10X74; -- - -
19-1
16 x 14r,--- - -
1.5ll 16 i2Qr - - -
J 10
t 34
14
•er:-- - -
12 l~ r:----
168 !0)( 16:-----

HI
II tor----
110

1
,.._"_... _Soi fl
2-.. • tW'innt.e ,.,,,.., c...,...
l • W...t""""' ""'
 r-102
9.----.-
6

, IJ

0 Tll IJ.2 03 0.4 06 l.li ~& l s G 7 e t 10

 P-1()J

Curtw ,,1~ ocrt W.lh ........ w be ~ ••

tH fie-~~ f'ftfll w•-... ,,..,...,
•w--1
'fa~ ul ,_.,...,la) W.t ~ Ptl! .,.,...
Qiidn ~I f.-"1111' - at tfri tiif'°ft

11
ff ii ~""
h.dllf'l · -
f'.*ti'~•n~
~ 11 tffo:ltw. ¥N .al t'te ~ OI l!W' .,_ •
_ ................w .. ...,.11 .-.
,__,
f f111 ....... 1115Ull llltl'i co flll..~iJ' ~

NO fl AM fl'MmlOllll ,...,,e bit,.., "4Tftl vm11

I •
01 0.2 ll 3 04 I5 20 '.10 7 8 9 10
 '1 4 1 IQ 20 4()

.?:!

L Jl I) ~pP.J Uflc
 Systems Engineering Memorandum

This memorandum describes a method for making distance, a degree of accuracy more than adequate
accurate calculations of the true azimuths, at each for path calculation purposes. Also, since the FCC's
end of a path, and the path distance, for microwave program takes the same approach, it should give
paths whose end coordinates (latitudes and longi- results identical to that program, and thus avoid
tudes) are accurately known. having them change the applied for azimuths and
distances.
The method is an adaptation from the "Inverse
Position Computation" on page 14 of "Special Note that the log Am factor is_!tlways negative, the
Publication No. 8", Coast and Geodetic Survey; characteristic in all cases being 8.
Formulas and Tables for the Computation of
Geodetic Positions. Factors (log B and log A) from Calculations are best made using six-place logarithm
certain tables in that publication are used in the tables, though five-place .tables will give reasonably
computation. The tables list these factors for every accurate results.
minute of latitude from 0° to 72°, but this degree
of accuracy is not needed for these calculations. Since the method takes into account the oblateness
Following the FCC approach, we have extracted of the earth, it gives more precise values than an
from the table only those values of log B and log A uncorrected great-circle calculation method. (For
corresponding to integral degrees of latitude from paths longer than about 75 miles, the great-circle
0° to 72°, and the necessary values are given in the method should be used.)
attached Table "Extracts From Special Publication
No. 8," so the publication itself is not required. Two calculation work sheets are included, one a
blank which can be used to make reproductions,
The listed values are log Am and log Bm/Am. Log and the other with a sample calculation to illustrate
Bm alone is not used in our computation, so it is the method.
not listed in the table. The subscript 'm' indicates
that the values are taken for the average latitude of NOTE: The method will fail when the two stations
the path, the nearest value listed in the table being have exactly the same longitude. In this case, one
the one selected. station will have an azimuth of 0° and the other an
azimuth of 180°. For the distance calculation, log
The errors introduced by using these factors to the Smeters will be equal to log /J,. cpsec minus log Am
nearest degree, rather than to the nearest minute of minus log Bm/Am. Also, when the two stations
latitude, will not exceed a few seconds in azimuth have exactly the same latitude, angle w is equal to
and substantially less than a tenth of a mile in 0° and need not be calculated.

C29
 Inv.,... l'oidtlan Artmurh •od 1'111h Diston~ Chlru!Jlrlott 511""1

-~SVILJ.tf _,--/IP ' ()/' Bf ?J '?Lw

NA/i'te"fa" .}.3 71 ()_L" 8/. .JP •ff"
; ' ~1
i!I! ca 1.3 'ft?"

oll111111h 0.1.:ut.tluu• ot.w..,., C'olcul1dlu11>

log B111/ Am 111 .CIOt:OeP loi.t M'1I i:i1n P- Pl/8JIO "dd I
l<i« c"" ~n 9.PITIJ>'O odd IW<l~" ZJ.{/~8{,

l"i A>.,oc Z. 9Zll.86 llJll Am Ill

Z.13.SP~
B._~T 1ub1.
I
IC>R &>..,., J~o717%0rl
fi!07 74 A!ln. IOj!'. ( OI W
f.~U7f)§J
.1Q 'P

f'7;?10J/
toe t.-O~ w • 1"11 !lmtn 4. , 6_t.3Zr.. o.ubt.

'l'hen w •

Calculate (slide rule adeqiate)

~~ //" Smtn
log . .000621
<-.?f'.!.!7t7
/. /'.?7t:T~
I add
,f.~f'ZI-

c - ~~ (sin .Pm)
1
/.3 5"7
11
log Smiles

4}3. f7?
= (- -) x '!>59 SmJ1..
2

• 2...:.. ff.~:

Uoe wand C to calculate azlm1dh1 Jrom folloWing

table: 90° 00'00"
±w +t:.Z /? //
Casel Northern Hemispbe.re ±C - 3 71
Sta E north or Sta w
Az at Wis 90°-w-C Ai at W• /72°.!!. .'.LZ.
A% at Eis 270° -w+ C
270° 00' 00"

' °""' 2
Northern Hemisphere
± .... +o.t 17 II
Sta E south or Sta w
Azat Wis 90° + w- c
AutEIJ 270° + w .... c
x Az·at E •
., c + 2. Zi.
3JJZ 0 IP' OP

Case3 Southern Ramisphere Path length ~ miles 47.ff kms

Sta E north or Sta w
Ai at Wis 90° - w+C
(1) Log Bm/ Am & log Am from attacllod tabh
AzatEis 270° -w - C for tabula!Ald la.titude naaretd. to lf>m·
Case 4 Soutbern Hemisphere
Sta Eaoutb or Sta w
Ax at Wis 9o• +w+C
Ai at Ei& 270° • w -C

C30
fn,nw PtM11Jon At11nu1tl and P11h Do1:ance Uti:ul211on Sheet

St•IJ"'1 l\~t
. . .. •
&u!Uotl £:..it • • •
lllflrr•nr11.

4'm ~1m1U~r ~-!!--

~.,,..
: • " .. . .
µlmutlt ~ l< u~1 Uo"" Oiituncie CaintblluCL,.

foe Dm/•\mtll loSCQl•m

,~
lut1cOOOm add 1<14'~

I•t•bt
,.,. .....
loc llA•oc 1"11 Am fl I
IOIM.a.
loc ool w ~
llubL
IOI l>mtn tuhc..

• ..
Then w •
--
Calcul.a"' (af"1i.nd¥ Mlt'fJll,..,.)
- •- - limt.r•
IUI! .000821
~..,,,,*' I aid

c - 6;· (WI !lmJ 11,,; tlnuhw

- f~I
. "
limn"'

U..
• -- - "

o. ond C to Q&i.& ulate atlmulh• lrutn lt1ltuwrn1

tabk OU" 00' 00"
' w
CW I Sonhom UomlljllUor~ • (1
SI.I It north or !'I.a II
•
.U 11 Wll llO -w-c
.\» •I >;It 270 -w . ,.
Al. l l II -
- - "
210" Oil' ~O"
(Mr~ Sonhrm lltrm•Pb""'
in.. II 1outn ol Su\\
•w
.l.C
.\:al Wll. 90' • w-t
• ' "
At I.I f. (I 270" • w H' A:.lll. & -

Palh lenllh _
----
tnllJ • _ km•
~" SIA £ north u I Sta II
....,oll1rm llemllph""'

Al •t W It U0 -w•C
11

111 Loe But Arn • ltJK Acn tnnn ut111~·h~ C.tilt•,.

AJll f. ii 270' w-C ror :ahul.11..S l.allludo "mftl IO Om

'~ ·· !I0\11.h""' Mf'1rulpl•""'

S... f; •on 01 o! SI.a IV
\ulWh tlO• v.· t C
"'oJ. & ... 270 4 "' - C'.

CJ
 Latitude Latitude
(degrees) log Am Log Bm/Am (degrees) l og Am LogBmfAm

00
-8.509727 .002949 37
-8.509194 .001884
01 726 .002949 38 169 .001834
02 725 .002946 39 144 .001784
03 723 .002941 40 118 .001733
04 - 719 .002935 41 093 .001683
05 715 .002927 42 066 .001 631
06 711 .002917 43 - 042 .001580
07 705 .002906 44 8.509016 .001529
08 698 .002893 45 8.508990 .001 477
09 691 .002878. 46 965 .001426
10 682 .002861 47 939 .001374
11 673 .002843 48 913 .001323
12 663 .002823 49 888 .001272
13 652 .002801 50 862 .001221
14 641 .002778 51 837 .001170
15 628 .002753 52 812 .001120
16 615 .002726 53 787 .001071
17 601 .002698 54 762 .001021
18 586 .002669 55 738 .000973
19 571 .002638 56 714 .000925
20 555 .002606 57 690 .000877
21 538 .002572 58 667 .000830
22 520 .002537 59 644 .000784
23 502 .002501 60 621 .000739
24 483 .002463 61 599 .000695
25 464 .002424 62 578 .000652
26 444 .002384 63 557 .000610
27 423 .002343 64 536 .000568
28 402 .002301 65 516 .000528
29 381 .002258 66 496 .000489
30 359 .002214 67 478 .000452
31 336 .002169 68 4 59 .000415
32 313 .002 123 69 442 .000380
33 290 .002077 70 425 .000346
34 267 .002029 71 409 .000313
35 243 .001981 72 393 .000282
36 21 8 .001933

Computation Factors Extracted From Special Publication No. 8

C32