Earth System Processes

The most primitive material?
Volatiles will be lost easily from a meteorite as due

to lowest condensation temperature.
Assuming that condensation from the solar nebula continued

without disturbance at low temperatures, the most primitive
should contain abundance of volatile elements in the same
proportion as in the Sun.
A comparison of the compositions of the different meteorite

group reveals an overall similarity in the abundances of
elements found in high-temperature early condensates and
increasingly diverse concentration of the more volatile
elements.
Thus C-chondrites appear to be have been least affected by processes
after their formation.
This conclusion is borne out when their elemental compositions
are compared with those of the solar photosphere, outer layer
of the SUN.
The correlation for most elements is very good-
Li and B are depleted in the solar compositions relative to

C-chondrites as they are used up in nuclear fusion reactions
in the SUN.
C and N are relatively depleted in C-chondrites because

They are amongst the most volatile elements.
Overall, it gives remarkable match between carbonaceous

chondrites and Sun, gives confidence to take it as primordial
material of the Solar System.
The composition of Earth layers
Seismic investigations suggest a two fold division into a dense core

and an overlying mantle.
-Earth crust- 0.4 % of the Earth mass
Mantle – 68%
Which meteorite will give the best indications of the composition

of planetary layers?
Earth is a differentiated planetary body, so the differentiated

meteorite will give the best indications of the compositions
of planetary layers.
The likely compositions of the core and mantle should now be
fairly obvious-
Core- dense alloy of Iron and Nickel
Mantle- silicates composition- achondrite-rich in Mg.
How can we test these ideas?
Fortunatly volcanic and tectonic processes brings out mantle

rocks analogue to some meteorites..direct comparison possible
but no such sample of core, so comparison between core

and mantle is less direct.
The Earth’s mantle-
Accidental fragments of rocks- xenoliths
distinctive because of green colour contrast with the grey
black colour of the host volcanic rocks.
Termed as peridotites, rich in minerals olivine and pyroxene
silicates rich in magnesium and iron.
Laboratory measurements of the density of peridotite

(about 3200 kg m−3), and their P-wave speeds
(approximately 8.0 km s−1), are a close match for the
measured properties of the upper mantle.
Ophiolites- obducted oceanic crust- sedimentary rocks overlie

rocks of basaltic composition, overlie peridotite.
Following accretion, a deep terrestrial magma ocean…
Siderophile elements (Fe-Ni) to the core, leaving behind the

early (primitive) silicate mantle/ BSE (bulk silicate Earth).
From the primitive silicate earth, the crust (continental and

oceanic) was extracted from the early primitive mantle.
Direct comparisons between peridotite and carbonaceous
chondrite are less easy because the mantle represents the
silicate residue after core formation.
However, some camparison of element ratio is used, here
Mg/Si against Al/Si in both meteorite and mantle samples used.
Peridotite shows a negative trend and reveals that composition
of mantle is not constant – Mantle is heterogeneous
The cause of this variation are indicated by the position of basalts

and komatiites lies on the extension of the peridotite.
Basaltic magma is derived from the mantle by a process known as
partial melting.
Average meteoritic composition define a positive trend, in contrast

to peridotites. Although the origin of variation remains unclear,
the intersection of the positive meteorites trend with the terrestrial
array has been used to define the composition of the primitive
mantle.
Although Chondritic Earth model has been used as a standard
for many decades, it is established that the bulk silicate Earth
does not have a composition represented by any meteoritic
group and so not directly comparable with the solar photosphere.
Only class of meteorite that do fall on the terrestrial array are an

unusual group of meteorites designated CV
Other elements can be investigated in a similar way,
relative to CI meteorite.
The abundances of the different elements are all normalised to that
of Mg, and it shows that elements such as aluminium (Al), calcium (Ca)
and uranium (U) retain the same relative abundances in the
Earth’s mantle as they have in CI meteorites and hence the Sun.
Relative to CI meteorites, the Earth’s mantle is depleted in

volatile elements and this may in part explain the difference
between the estimated bulk composition of the Earth and
the different meteorite classes....
Earth has lost a greater proportion of its volatile components

compared with meteorites.
Basic geochemical and cosmochemical properties
Three major phases- 1. metal
2. Silicate and
3. Sulfide in meteorites and other natural
Materials.
Elements that are found in the metallic phase of a

natural system are referred to as siderophiles (from the Greek, sideros,
meaning iron and philos, meaning like or love – literally iron-loving).
They contrast with those

elements that preferentially bond with oxygen, especially in silicate
or oxide structures, which are known as lithophiles (from the Greek
Lithos meaning stone).
There is also a subgroup of lithophile elements that tend to
be gaseous at the Earth’s surface, notably H, C, N, O and the
noble gases, that are referred to as atmophiles.
A third major grouping refers to elements that frequently occur

bound with sulfur and these are known as chalcophiles (from
the Greek khailos, meaning copper, an element commonly
found as a sulfide).
Electronegativity (E)- the ability of an atom to attract electrons
and so form a negatively charged ion.
Lithophiles- E <1.6; forming positive ions that bond with negative

oxygen ions.
Chalcophile- 1.6 < E < 2.0; they more readily form covalent bonds
with elements such as S.
Siderophile- 2.0 < E < 2.4; most readily form metallic bonds.
Elements with E >2.4, such as O, N and the halogen elements, F,

Cl, Br and I, readily attract electrons to form negative ions and
form ionic bonds with the lithophile elements with low E
In the case distribution coefficient is between molten metallic
iron and solid silicate minerals.
The convention is for the numerator (Ci ) to be allocated to the

liquid a and Ci the denominator (b ) to be allocated to the solid b.
Thus, a lithophile element will have a D value of <1
and a siderophile element will have a D value of >1.
In these systems elements that partition into a solid phase are said
to be compatible, whereas those that are excluded and
concentrate in the silicate liquid are said to be incompatible.
Core formation involved the gravitational separation of
molten metallic iron from silicate melt or solid crystals.
By analogy with iron meteorites, which are considered to be

representative of the cores of small planetary bodies, this
iron selectively removes a number of other elements that,
because of their chemical properties, bond more easily with
iron than they do with silicates; W is one of these so-called
siderophile elements
Elements on the right are increasingly siderophile. Clearly, the more
siderophile elements are more depleted in the Earth’s mantle
Present-day composition of the Earth’s mantle may be similar to that
of some C-chondrites. The ratios of refractory lithophile elements
(e.g. Ca, Al, Mg, U, Th and rare earth elements) in the mantle are
similar to those in chondritic meteorites generally, indicating a close
link with primordial (solar) abundances.
But the mantle is depleted in both volatile and siderophile elements.
The latter are now presumably concentrated in the core, whereas

the volatile elements were probably lost during accretion or even
earlier during condensation from the solar nebula. The important
result, however, is that the abundances of elements within the
mantle are controlled systematically by their geochemical and
cosmochemical properties.

Earth System Processes

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The most primitive material?

Volatiles will be lost easily from a meteorite as due

Assuming that condensation from the solar nebula continued

A comparison of the compositions of the different meteorite

Li and B are depleted in the solar compositions relative to

C and N are relatively depleted in C-chondrites because

Overall, it gives remarkable match between carbonaceous

Seismic investigations suggest a two fold division into a dense core

Which meteorite will give the best indications of the composition

Earth is a differentiated planetary body, so the differentiated

How can we test these ideas?

Fortunatly volcanic and tectonic processes brings out mantle

but no such sample of core, so comparison between core

Laboratory measurements of the density of peridotite

Ophiolites- obducted oceanic crust- sedimentary rocks overlie

Siderophile elements (Fe-Ni) to the core, leaving behind the

From the primitive silicate earth, the crust (continental and

The cause of this variation are indicated by the position of basalts

Average meteoritic composition define a positive trend, in contrast

Only class of meteorite that do fall on the terrestrial array are an

Relative to CI meteorites, the Earth’s mantle is depleted in

Earth has lost a greater proportion of its volatile components

Elements that are found in the metallic phase of a

They contrast with those

A third major grouping refers to elements that frequently occur

Lithophiles- E <1.6; forming positive ions that bond with negative

Elements with E >2.4, such as O, N and the halogen elements, F,

The convention is for the numerator (Ci ) to be allocated to the

By analogy with iron meteorites, which are considered to be

But the mantle is depleted in both volatile and siderophile elements.

The latter are now presumably concentrated in the core, whereas

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