ZJCHI

STORYNOTES
I
NTRODUCTI
ON
WhatisHistory?
Hist
oryr
eferst owhathappenedi nt hepast.I
tisarecordofpeopl e’
sli
ves,behavi
ours
andacti
vi
ties;theirgl
ori
es,successes,fai
l
uresandcruelt
ies.I
thelpsust ounderstand
whatishappeni ngaroundusandhel psustoprepar
ef orthefutureastoday’ssociet
y
hasbeenshapedbydeci sionsoft hepast.Theseactivi
ti
esaret heoneswhi chbr i
ng
changet
ot hepast .Knowingaboutthepasthelpsustoav oidmistakesandunderstand
howwear elivi
ng.

Envi
ronmentofhistory
Theenv i
ronmentisv it
albecausethroughthatpeopl
ebehav ei ncertai
nways.The
envi
ronmentaff
ectswhatpeopleeat,wearandtheshel
tertheybuil
d.Theref
oret
heway
peoplet
rytocontr
ol t
heenvi
ronmentdetermi
nesthei
rcourseofhistor
y.

FactorsofProduction
Producti
onisanactofpr oduci
nggoodsori tems.Ther ear
ethreefactorsofpr oducti
on
whichareland,labourandwealth;theseareregardedasagent sofpr oducti
on.I fl
and
andweal t
har easharedequall
yt here’
slesschanceofconf l
ictbutift her
ei sunequal
di
stri
buti
onconf l
ictoccur
samonggr oupsortr
ibes,thi
sconfl
i
ctisusual l
yreferredtoas
tr
ouble.Peopl
emaket hei
rownhistorythr
oughpr oduct
ionandstruggl
e.

StagesofHistori
caldevel
opment
 Stage1:Pri
mitiv
ecommuni sm
I
nt hisstagepr opert
ywasequal l
yshar
ed bythecommuni
tyand wor
kwasdone
toget
her.Food,wealt
handotheri
temswereshar
edbyt
hecommuni
ty.

 Stage2: Slav
ery
I
nt hi sstagepeoplehadgainedcont
rolov
erthepoorandweakerpeopl
e.Sl
aves
Performedt asksl
i
keproduci
ngandthesewereal
sofor
cedt
odowhatt hei
rmast
ers
want ed.

 Stage3:Feudal
i
sm
I
nt hi
sstageagri
cult
urewasthemai
nmeansofproducti
on.Landwasownedbyaf
ew
peopleknownaslandl
ordsandt
hemajor
it
ywor
kedforthelandl
ords.

 St
age4:Capitali
sm
I
nt hi
sstageowner shi
pofmeansofproduct
ionwasinthehandsofafew peopl
e.
Wealt
hwaspr oducedbymachinesandwor
ker
sworkedinFact
ori
esandmi
nes.Ther
e
wasunequaldistr
ibuti
onofweal
th.

Stage5:Soci
ali
sm
Accordi
ngtoKar lMar
xthi
swast
hehi
ghestst
ageofdev
elopmentandi
nthi
sst
age

ZJCNOTESPage1
 equal
it
ywillber
est
oredandweal
thwi
l
lbeshar
edequal
l
yandi
twi
l
lal
sobeownedby
thegover
nment.

Hist
oricalev i
dence
 Oralt
raditi
on
Thesear enar r
atedbyelderstotheyoung.Usual
lytheyareint
erv
iewedandinf
ormat
ion
i
spassedf rom onegenerat
iontoanotherthr
oughthewor dofmouth.
Advantages
 Easytogeti nformati
on.
 Easytounder stand.
 Youcanaskquest ions.
 Ever
ymemberoft hesocietycanhaveaccesstotheinfor
mat i
onbecausei
tcanbeused
evenbyi l
li
teratepeopleandbythepoor.
 Youcangetnamesandl anguageofallpeopl
einvol
ved

Disadvantages
 I
nf or
mat i
oncanbeeasi l
yfor
gott
enbecauseitdependsonmemory.
 Thenar ratorcanal somakedeliberateli
esei
thertomakethestor
yint
erest
ing ort
o
tarni
shot herpeople’si
mage.
 Theremi ghtbeal otofexagger
ation,bi
asordi
l
utionofi
nfor
mati
on.

 Wr i
tt
enrecords
Thesearef act
swrit
tenbypeopleoft
hepast.Thesefact
scanbefoundinli
brar
iesor
archi
ves.I
nformat
ioncanbegroupedi
ntopr
imaryandsecondar
yev
idence.

 Pri
maryevi
dence
Thesearediari
es,l
ett
ersorj
ustinf
ormati
onwr
it
tenbyact
ualdur
esse.
g.Rul
ersand
Admini
str
atorswhowroteof
fi
cial
let
ter
s.

 Secondar yev
idence
Thisinformati
oni sfoundi
npubl i
shedbooksanditisananal y
sisofpri
maryevi
dence.
Thereforeaper sonwhoanal yses,st
udiesorwrit
eshistori
calinfor
mati
oniscal
leda
hi
storian.Ahistori
ansearchesforfactsaboutpasteventsandt hesef
actsar
ecall
ed
evi
dences.

Advant
ages
 I
nformati
oncanbest
oredforalongti
me.
 I
nformati
oncoul
dbefrom act
ualdur
ess.

Disadvantages
 Onlytheli
teratecanuset hissource.
 Onemaywr itewronginformat i
on.
 9Youcannotaskquest i
ons.
 Recordsmaygetl ost
.
 I
nformationcanbedi storted,exagger
atedorf
orci
blyi
mpl
i
ed.
 I
tcanbedest roy
edbyf ir
e.

ZJCNOTESPage2
 I
tbeaf
fect
edbyweat
herhazar
dssuchasf
loodsandcy
lones

 Archaeol ogy
Thi si sasci ent i
f i
cwayofst udy i
ngr emai ns,object sandar t
efactsoft hepaste. g.
pot tery,hoesandj ewel lery.Thesear tefactsoft hepastar edugoutf rom t hegroundat
histor i
calsi t
essuchasGr eatZi mbabwe,KhamiandOl dBul awayomonument s.They
telluswhatpeopl eat e,howt heyobt ainedt heirfood,howt heydr essedandequi pment
theyused.Dat esar eobt ainedt hr oughasci entifi
cwayofdat i
ngcal l
edCar bonDating.
Adv ant ages
 Itismor er eliablet hant heot hert wosour cesasi tcannotbedi stort
edorf orcibly
i
mpl iedasonewi llbedeal ingwi t htheor i
ginal remai nsorobjects.
 Itgi vesusacl earpi ct ureoft heeconomi cact i
vit
iesofpeopl ewhol ivedt housandof
year sbef oreany onecoul dwr ite.
 Itrev ealsorshowsuswhatt ool sused, ani mal skeptandhunt edwhatf oodpeopl eat e.
Disadv antage
 Themet hodi sexpensi v ei.
e.Car bonDat ing.
 Itneedsski l
ledpeopl et of i
ndt heinformat i
onordi scovertheobj ectf r
om ahi storical
site.
 Ifnotcar efulinfor mat ionofdi fferentgroupsofpeopl emaybemi xedup.
 Obj ectsorr emai nsmaybedest r
oyedt hereforehi st
oryofapar ti
culargr oupi slost
forev er.
 Itcannott elluspeopl e’ snamest r
aditi
on,song,cul turesbecausei tdeal swi t
hphy sical
andnotor alissues
A.D.–Anno- Domi no( Af terDeat h) .
BC.–Bef oreChr ist.
Evol ution

Fir
stpeopl eandt heirev olvement s/development s
Africawast hecr adl
eofmanki nd,i tist houghtt hatthef ir
stpeopl eemer gedont he
Africancont inentandev olvedov eral ongper iodoft imei nt
oHomoSapi enSapi en(The
scienti
ficnamef orpeopl east heyar etoday )
.Ev oluti
oni sapr ocessofchangef r
om
animals( apes)t ohumanbei ngs( HomoSapi enSapi en)ov eral ongperiodoft i
me.
Char l
esDar winist hemanwhopr oposedt het heor yofev olution.Hear guedt hatman
evolvedf rom animal s.Inthet heoryofev ol ution, Charl
esDar wi nar guesthatdiffer
ences
existbetweent hesamegr oupsofani mal si fexposedt odiff
er entenv i
ronment s.Withi
n
thedi f
ferentenv i
ronment s,someani malsmaydi eandsomesur vi
vethoset hatsurviv
e
producedescendant swhi char edi f
ferentf rom t heor i
ginalspeci es.Theseani malsthen
spreadoutt oreplacet heseor igi
nal species.

Ev olution
Africai sregardedast hecr adleofmankind,soi tisbelievedthatthefir
stpeople
emer gedont heAf r
icancontinent
.Sever
alarchaeol
ogistsfoundmanydi scoveri
esof
skelet alremai ns i
n Afri
ca and among them wer e DrLouis and MaryLeakywho
discov eredsev eralskul
lsatOl duvaiGor
geinTanzani a.I
n1959t heLeaky’
sf ounda
ZJCNOTESPage3
 skul
lwi
thl
argegr
indi
ngt
eet
hwhi
chwasanexampl
eofanAust
ral
opi
thecusRobust
us.

Homi nids
Thesewer ecr eat
ureswhi chwer emor eli
kehumansthanapes.Theyli
vedonearth
mil
lionsofyearsago.Theywer enotapesormonkey sandneit
herweretheyhuman.
Thesehomi ni
dsbecameext i
nct.Theywer ebel
i
evedtoli
veinEaster
nandSouthern
Afr
ica.Remai nsoft hesehomi ni
dshadbeenf oundcover
edindri
edlakesandthese
hi
storicalr
emainsareal soknownasf ossi
l
s.

 Romapit
hecus
I
tistheancestorofal
lapesandhumanbei
ngs,theyli
vedmi
ll
ionsofyear
sago.I
twas
notanape,homini
dorhumanbeingbutadi
ff
erentcr
eatur
eal
ltoget
her
.

 Austral
opit
hecus
I
tliv
edmi ll
ionsofy earsago.Thesewer esmallcreat
urest hatwhenf ul
l
ygrownl ooked
l
ikea12y earoldandcoul dn’
twalkupr ight
.Theyaretwot ypeswhi chwere:
 Austral
opit
hecusRobust us
I
twassomet i
mescal ledt henutcr ackerasitwasabl etocr unchandgr i
ndhardf ood
l
ikenutsasi thadlargegr i
ndingteeth.Itwasalsocall
edZinj at
hropus.
 Austral
opit
hecusGr acili
s
Thesehadsmal lteethofaboutt hesamesi zeandi thadnospeci al
i
sedtasksli
ket he
Robustus.Itateallsortsoff oodl i
kehumanbei ngsoft odayeat .TheAustr
alopi
thecus
didnotmaket oolsbutusedt hei
rteeth.

 HomoHabi l
is(Skil
ful man)
Survi
ved ov erthe ear lySt
one Age per
iod.Itwas t
he f i
rsthomini
dtot al
k usi
ng
l
anguages,t ouset oolsandthesetool
swer ecal
ledOldwansast heywerefoundat
OlduvaiGorge.Habi linespr
obabl
ygotmeatbyScav enging,theywait
edforli
onsand
hyenastof eastont hemeattheywould’
vekil
ledandatether emai
ns.Meatformeda
smallpartoftheirdiet.

 HomoEr ectus
Thewor der ectmeanst owalkupright
.Theyusedhandaxesandcleav
erstochopdown
tr
ees,br anchesandf ordi
gging.Peoplewereabletomaketoolseasi
lyandthi
speri
od
wasr eferredtoast heearl
ySt oneAge.TheHomoer ectusl
earnedtousefir
etodri
ve
animalsaway ,prot
ectthei
rshelteratni
ght,
tocookandkeepthem war
m.

 HomoSapi en
Theysurv
iveddur
ingt
hemi
ddl
eStoneAgeper
iod.Theyusedf
lext
ool
sforcut
ti
ngmeat
,
scr
appingskinsandmaki
ngti
psofweapons.Theyusedgl uetosti
ckapoleona

ZJCNOTESPage4
 woodenhandl
e.Agreateruseoffi
rewasnot
iced.Theybegant
obui
l
dshel
teratt
hei
r
campsmadefrom br
anches,st
onesanddr
ygr
ass.

 HomoSapien(Neandert
hal
s)
Theysur
viv
edduringthemiddl
eStoneAgeperi
od.Theyl
ookedaftert
hesick,
buri
edthe
deadandbeli
evedinli
feaf
terdeat
h.Theydr
oveanimalsovercl
i
ffsasgroups,t
rapped,
ki
ll
edandsharedmeatequall
y.

 HomoSapi enSapiens
Thepeopl eoftodayarecalledHomoSapi enSapien.Theycont i
nuedwit
hthemi ddle
StoneAgeperiodbutdev el
opedfut
ureStoneAgetools.Futur
echangesarenot
iceddue
toenv i
ronmentalchangesthatisthereasonwhypeopl ediff
erbecauseofdiff
erent
envir
onments.

Effectsoftoolmaking
Toolmaki ngaf f
ectedpeople’
sl i
vesposi ti
vel
ybymaki ngpr oductioneasi er.Itwas
easierbecausetheyusedt hetoolsforgat heri
ngfoode. g.frui
tsandi nsects.Thisalso
broughtcommuni cati
on and theirlanguage progressed and t his was wher e earl
y
l
anguageemer ged.Thet r
ansi
ti
onf r
om col l
ecti
ngtohunt i
ngest abl
ishedani mpor t
ant
basef orthef ut
urehumandev el
opment .Byt hispeoplel earnthow t otakecar eof
themselves.Thestrugglef
orsurv i
valhel
pedt hehumandev elopmenti ncrease.

Earlyagri
cul
ture.
Itisav er
ybighelpi
nghandi ntheprocessofdev elopment.Inthisstagepeoplebegan
todomest i
cateanimalsandtobreedthey oungonesoft heanimal.Someoft hemaj or
cropswhichwer efi
rstgrowninAfr
icae.g.Taffwhichwasf i
rstgrowninEthi
opia.Tools
ofagr i
cul
tur
esuchashoeswer eused.Somegotmor elandt hanother
sresulti
ngi n
slaver
yandsomeoft hepeoplegainedcont r
olov erothers.Inthisthefir
stcl ass
societ
iesbegantoemer ge.

ZJCNOTESPage5
 EGYPTANDKUSH

InEgy pttwogr eatciv i

li
sedgroupsexi stedwhi chwer eEgy pti
ansandKushi ans.TheNi l
e
RiverinEgy ptisthel ongestri
v erinAf ri
ca.Ithast wogr eattribut ari
eswhi char etheBlue
Nileandt heWhi teNi l
e.TheNi lewast hecent r
eofl if
et hr ought r
ade,t ransportand
agricult
ure.Theear l
ypeopleoft heNilehadt ol earntounder st andt herivertocont r
olit
s
fl
oodi ng.Dam wal lswer ebuilttost opt hewat erfrom fl
oodingt hev il
lages.Canal swere
alsobui lttohel pwat errunt hrought hef i
elds.Tocal culat et hisEgy ptiansneeded
accuratemeasur ement stheref oretheydev elopedear lyf or msofmat hemat i
csand
Geomet r
ywhi cht heycal l
edGeomet ri
cs.Egy ptianscameupwi ththreeseasonswhi ch
theycal l
edAr ket(thet i
mef orpl anti
ng), Peret( t
het i
mef orhar vesti
ng)andShemou( t
he
ti
mewhent heNi l
er i
verfl
ooded) .Day swer ecount edbyphasesoft hemooncal l
ed
mont hs.Thef l
oodcy cl
estartedaf terev ery365day sandeachmont hhad30day sand
thatleftthem with5ext r
aday swhi cht heycal ledHer youRenepet .

Egypti
anwriti
ng
Themostv i
talstepst oci
v i
l
isat
ionwer ethei nventi
onofEgy pti
anwr i
ti
ng.TheEgyptians
adoptedapictur
ewayofwr i
ti
ngcall
edHy rogly
phics.Themosti mpor t
antrecor
dsoft he
Egypti
answhi chhav ecomedownt ousar eonpapy rus( paper).Atfi
rstEgyptians
curvedthei
rwr i
ti
ngonst onese.g.ont hewal lsofEgy pti
ant ombsandt emples.They
l
earnthowt omakepaperf rom papyrusr eedswhi chgrewf reel
yont heNilebanks.Ink
wasmadebymi xi
ng sootand v egetabledy e.TheEgy ptian handwri
ti
ng iscal l
ed
Hier
oglyphi
cswhi chmeanspi ctur
ewr i
tingorsacr edcarvi
ngs.

Whol earnttowrit
e?
 Pharaohsandt hei
radvisers.
 Pri
estslearntt
ointer
pretsacredwr i
ting.
 Scri
besast heyworkedi nciv
ilser
vicesandwedpr of
essional
wri
ter
s.
 Sonsofr i
chmanl ear
ntt owriteaspar toft
hei
reducati
on.

Whatdi dtheywr i
te?
 Theykeptr ecordsoftheirever
y daybusiness.
 Playsandst ori
esofal lki
ndsmost lyaboutthegods.
 Lett
ersofst atebusinesstoforeigncountri
esorper sonallet
ters.
 Booksofmedi ci
ne,si gnsandmor albasedonr eli
gionpr act
isesaswellassocial
questions.
 Scri
bes wer e presenti nfiel
ds t orecordt he size ofthe harvestso t
hatpr
oper
text
/recordcouldbeassessed.
 From thisideamoder nmandev el
opedwr it
ingf orcommuni cati
onandEgypti
anwr
it
ing
hasthusmadeagr eatcontr
ibutiontoourpr esentcivi
li
sat
ion.

ZJCNOTESPage6
 Agricul
tur
e
Cropssuchaswheat ,barl
eyandsorghum weregrown.Thei
rfoodwasmadeupof
breadandf i
shf
rom theNil
e.Theykeptalotofsheepandgoatsbutf
ew catt
le.Thei
r
animalsweremainl
yforpayi
ngtaxest
othePharaoh.Theyal
sogrewfl
exwhichhelped
them tomakecl
oth.

Shaduf
Itwasl i
keaseesaw,abucketwasf astenedt ooneendt oapol eandaheavystonet o
theotherside.Thepolet
hensupportsthecr ossbeam layeredacr
osstoshortwooden
posts.Whent hebucketi
sdippedint
ot heriver,aheavyst oneact
sasacent reweight
andt hebucketcanr i
seeasil
yandt i
ppedi ntothei r
ri
gat i
oncharet
s.Todaywehav e
i
rri
gationinmostofourcount r
ybutthei deawasbor rowedf r
om Egyptandasy ears
passedbyEgy pti
angrewcropsasaresultoftheirr
igat
ionsy st
em.

Pyrami ds
Pyrami dswer et hemi ghti
esttombsofal lbuil
tbyt hePhar aohsfort heirburi
als.
Togethert herewer e80py ramidswhi chwerebuil
tneartheNil
e.Thef i
rstpyramidwas
buil
tforPhar aohZhozaandi twasdesignedbyanAr chit
ect
/Imhotep.Itwasmadeout
ofat ombl ayeredoutofdiff
erentlev
elsandthisgaveanimpressionofstepsandi twas
gi
vent henameHer oe.Thelargestwasbui l
tforPhar
aohKhuf uandi tstandsatGaza
neart heci tyofCairo,itt
ookmanyy earstobuil
dandmanymenwer er equi
redforthe
construction.Py r
ami dswerebuil
tduringtheseasonofShemouwer enowor kwasdone
i
nt hef i
elds.

Egyptianbel i
ef s
 Theybel i
evedi nlifeaf t
erdeat handl ookedf orwardtothesameki ndoflif
ewhi chthey
werel i
v i
ngonear thi nthenextwor l
d.
 Thebookoft hedeadwasl i
st ed2si nswhi chamanhadt oav oidwhi chwerecheating
andki l
ling.
 TheEgy pti
ansbel iev edthesoul l
eftthebodyt obejudgedbyOsi ri
stheunder wor
ldgod.
 Thehear toft hedeadwaspl acedonahugescal eandwei ghedagai nstit
ssins,guilt
y
soulswer eatoncedev ouredbyt hej ackalheadedgodAnubi sbutgoodsoul sentered
thewor ldoft hedeadandt hecompanygods.
 Thesoult hathadbeenj udgedwor thofet ernall
if
ecoul dev ent
uallyenterthebodybut
onlyifitwaspr operlypr eservedandl aidinat omb.
 There- entryoft hesoul i
nt othebodyexpl ainedwhyEgy pti
anspr eservedthebodyoft he
dead( mummi fi
ed).
 Forkingsandr ichman,t hepr eservi
ngpr ocessoft hebodywoul dlastover2mont hs,
vit
alorganswer efirstremov edandst oredi nAlaboJarswhi lstthebodyi t
selfwasdried

ZJCNOTESPage7
 andt
reat
edwi
thspi
cesofessence.

NB:MuchofEgy pt
iancult
ure,wri
ti
ngandwaslostandot
herpoi
ntchangedunderthe
rul
e oft he Gr
eeks,howev er
,the Gr
eeks l
ear
ntmorefrom Egypt
ian ar
ts,r
eli
gion,
archi
tect
ureandscience.

Egypti
angods
Horus–Theskygod, hi
seyeswer et
hemoonandt hesun.
Ptah–Hei nventedtheart
s,thegodofthecapi
tal
menu.
Hathor–Shewast hegoddessofbeauty.
Osir
is–Hewasagodoft heunderworl
d.
Rechoral
chty(Ra)–Hewast hesungod.

 Thewor dPhar aohcamef rom Per -

auwhi chmeansgr eathouseofl eader .
 Pharaohwast heheadofst ateandhi ghpr iest;hegov ernedwi tht heassi stanceof
Adv i
sor
s, Gener alsandPr iests.
 ThePhar aohwasseenasagodanddi fferentf rom otherhumans.
 Womenpl ayedav eryimpor t
antr ul
ei nt hest at
eand4womenbecamephar aohs
themselves.
 Meansofpr oduct i
onanddi stri
but i
onofweal thwasi nthehandsoft hePhar aoh.
 Buil
dingoft het empl eandmi ningwer estat ebusi nesses.
 Mostpeopl ewer epeasantf ar mer swhowor kedandl ivedonl andwhi chbelongedt ot he
Pharaoh.
 Landwasgi venaspay mentt othepr i
est,of f
icialsandsol diers.
 Landwhi chwasownedcoul dbepassedf rom par entstot heirchil
dren.
 Thosewhowor kedf orthePhar aohwer epai di nregulargi ft
sl i
kegr ain,fi
shandot her
thi
ngs.
 Therewer eal socr aftedpeopl ewhower ei nvolvedaspot tersandscul ptors.
 Thesur v
iv aloft heeconomyoft hesoci et ydependedupont hegr owt handdi stri
bution
ofland.
 Peasantf armer sgr ewwheatandbar l
ey.
 Breadandbeerwasmadef rom gr ainaswel lasv eget ablesandf ruitswer ethest aple
food.
 Landwast oowetf orcat tl
er aisingt heref ortheymai nl
ykeptsheepandgoat s.
 Glasseswer emadef rom sand.

Egypt
ianl
aw
 Menandwomenwer eequalbef
oret
hel
awinrelat
iont
oroy
aldeci
sions,
legalpr
act
ises
andpenal
ti
es.
 Theyhadequalr
ight
stopropert
yaswel
lasj
ust
ice.

ZJCNOTESPage8
 Afamilywasconsti
tut
edofmother
,fat
herandchi
l
dren.
 Astr
ictcodeofethi
cswaskept
.

I
mpor tanteventsi
nEgypt
ianhist
ory
Hi
stori
cal evi
dencewasobtai
nedfrom
 Oralt
raditi
on.
 Writ
tenrecords.
 Ar
chaeol ogy.

Ahist ori
ancalledManet hosor tedt
hekingsintodynast
ies.Adynastyi
sali
neoffamil
y
rul
ers.Hedi vi
dedtheper iodsinto3kingdoms.
 Theol dkingdom (2750-2200BC)
 Themi ddl
ekingdom (2150- 1800BC)
 Thenewki ngdom (1580-1100BC)
Thei ntermediatewast heper iodbetweendy nast
iesandnor ecor
dswerekeptduri
ng
thi
sper iodbetweencivilwar sandforei
gninv
asions(Darkages).

Theol dkingdom
Thef i
rstphar
aohwasMeneswhouni tedl owerandUpperEgy pt.Hewasal eaderf
rom
st nd
thesout handhi scapitalwasMemphi s.The1 and2 dy nast
iesworkedhardin
Unitingasocietydur i
ngt hethir
ddy nast ythefirstpyramidwasbui l
tforPharaohZozer
atSakkar a;pyr
ami dswer eburi
alplacesf orPhar aohs.PharaohZozerwast hefounder
oft het hir
ddy nasty;hispy r
amidwast heonl yonewi t
hsteppedsides.Threemor e
pyrami dswerebui ltduringthef ourt
hdy nastyandt hesehadsmoot hsides.Pharaoh
Khuf u’swasthegr eatestandisoneoft hewonder soft heworld.

Themi ddlekingdom
t
h
PharaohMent huhotepoft he11 dy nastywor kedhardtoreunit
eEgy ptonceagain.His
successorsext endedt hepowerov erther i
chNubi aattheSaut é.Dur ingthi
speri
od
th
Pharaohsputt heirsonsascor erulers.Dur
ingt he13 dynastythePhar aohsweremor e
concerned aboutt he souththatt he northern def
ences became weak.Gr oups of
i
nvadersf rom Asiabegant oenterthecount r
yandt heseforei
gni nv
ader swereknown
asHy ksos.Ther ulersThebesfoughtawarofl iber
ati
onagainsttheHy ksosandthi
swar
l
astedf or50y ears.

Thenewkingdom
Betweenthe18th and20th dy
nastiesEgyptbecamepower fulagain.Pharaohsofthat
ti
mewer eAmenhot epI,ThutmoseIandQueenHat shepsutI.theystrengthenedand
att
endedexter
nalaf fair
ssuchasbui l
dingtemples.Duri
ngThut moseI I
I’
sr ei
gnEgypt
becameani mperialistpowerrul
ingovercitystat
esofPal est
ine,Syri
aandLebanon.

ZJCNOTESPage9
Duringther eignofAmenhot epII
Iheconcentr
atedmainlyont hei nt
ernalashewas
mor ei
nterestedincul
tureathomethanabr
oad.Duri
nghisrei
gnat empleatLuxorinthe
val
leyofkingswasasi ghtofoneofthemostimportantofal
lar chaeologi
calfi
ndi
ngs,
t
h
themummi fiedbodyofTut ankhamenwasf oundin1922oft he18 dy nast
y.Great
i
mpor tantEgy pt
ianev
idencewasfoundi
nhistomb.

ZJCNOTESPage10
 THEEARLYPEOPLEOFCENTRALANDSOUTHERNAFRI
CA

THESAN
TheSanwer et hef irstknowni nhabitantsofCent r
alandSout her nAf r
ica.Theywer e
hunt er-gather slivi
ngi nhi ghl
ymobi li
sedgr oupsbet ween20- 50peopl eei therf ollowi ng
gamear oundt hecount ryorl i
vingincl oser hy t
hm wi t
ht hel andandi tsseasonsor
mai ntainingamor eset t
ledlifedependi ngonseal s,shell
f i
sh,cr ayfi
sh,bi rdsandf ruits
forf ood.TheSanshav eleftal asti
ngr ecordoft heirliv
est hroughat housandpai ntings.
Thesehunt er -
gather ershav est i
llsurvivebuti nsmal lnumber si ntheKal ahar ideser t
.
Thei rphy sicalappear ancei ssmal linstructure,browni ncol ourandt heyhav euni que
clickl anguages.TheSanwer est oneagepeopl esot heydi dnotusemet al
ssot heir
weaponswer emadeofwood,st oneandbones.Theydi dnotdomest i
cateani mal sand
cul t
ivatecr ops.Nopot terywasmadei nsteadt heyusedost ri
cheggshel lsf orst oring
andhol dingl iquids.TheSanwer enomadsast heywer eal waysont hemov ei nsear ch
ofgameandpl antf oodsot heydi dnotbui l
dper manentshel ter ,theypr eferredr ock
shel t
erf ort empor ar yshelter.Achi efcont roll
edt heirresourcesonbehal foft hegr oup
backi nthedaybef orethear rivalofshelter.Anumberoff ishboneswer ef oundi ncav es
andt hisindi catest hattheywer eaccompl ishedf i
sher men.Sl i
ver sofbonesandwood
shar penedateachendwer eusedt ohookf ishwhi chwer eal socaughtbymeansoft i
dal
trapmadef rom wal l
sconst ructedbyr iverSanda.

Socialandcul turallife
 TheSanhadnosenseofowner ship.
 Disputeswer esol vedbyagr oupknownasaconsensus.
 Thest at usofwomenwasr elativel
yequal .
 TheSanofbot hsexwor emanyor nament smadeofseed,ber ri
es,shellandsmal l
pi
ecesst uckt ogetherasneckl acesandbr acelets.
 Theyusedost ri
chandt or
t oi
seshel lst
ocar ryandst orewat er
.
 Mov ementt odi f
ferentcampsi teswasor ganisedbyagr oup.
 Thei rli
f estylewaspr imit
ivecommuni sm.
 TheSanmenwer er esponsi blef orhunt i
ngandf i
shing,t heywentonl onghunt i
ngtri
ps
andt heywoul dgat herHor diaGor didniandchewt hebi t
termi racleplanttosupressthei
r
appet i
te.
 Thewomendi dmostoft hegat heringofpl antsandt hati ncl
udedwi l
df r
uitandberri
es
aswel l asl eaves, stemsbul bs, corms, androotofav ar i
et yofpl ants.
 Theywer ev erygoodhunt ersthatknewt heway soft heani malst heyhunted.
 TheSanhadt odev isemanydi fferenthunt i
ngt rapsi nt hef orm ofpar t
scov eredby
l
eav eswhi chwasanot herwayoft rappingtheani mals.
 Anot herwaywasext racti
ngpoi sonwhi chwast henusedt ohunt .
 Themeatwascookedf reshorsmokedanddr iedf orl ateruse,onl ysmal lquanti
ti
es
ZJCNOTESPage11
 wer epr eservedt hi
swaybecausei thadt obecarri
edwhent hegroupmov edt othenext
place.
 Clothingwasl ightforeasymov ement ,menwor eli
neskirt
swi t
hashortski
ni nfrontti
ed
ont hewai st,andt heyal sousedski ncloaksandbl anket
st okeepthemsel veswar m
especi all
yint emper atecli
mat es.
 Leatherwor kwascommonandl eat herwasmadei nt
oNedbagf orcar
ryi
ngf ood, st
ri
ng
bagswer ewov enf r
om gr eatfi
bre.
Rockpai nti
ngs
Theypai nted onr ocksand i n cav ewallsand engraved oneggshell
s.Theser ock
painti
ngshav egi venusal otont heirli
festyl
e.Theserockpainti
ngsshowt hatt heSan
wer etunedt ot heirenv i
ronment .
Sanbel i
efs
 Theypai dtri
but etot hechief.
 Theybel i
evedi nGod.
 Theel andwasconsi deredt hemostspi ri
tualani
mal.
 Thet aughtt heirchildrenthroughor altr
adit
ion.

THEKHOI KHOI
Theot herear l
yinhabi tantsofCent ralandSout hernAf ri
cawer et heKhoi sanher dersor
Khoi Khoi.Theear l
yEur opeanscal ledt hesepeopl ethe“ Hot t
ent ots”meani ngst ammer s.
Theexactor iginoft hesepeopl eisst i
l
lbei ngdebat edbyhi stor i
ans.Theol dtheorywas
theKhoiKhoimi gr at edf rom EastAf ricawi t
ht heirlivestockandset tledi nSout her n
Afri
cabutr ecenthi st oricalevidencehasshowni tisnott rue.I tisbeingar guedt hatt he
Khoi Khoi wer eamongt heor i
ginalinhabi t antsoft hear ea.Iti salsoknownt hatsomeof
theSanpeopl eadapt edt ot hechangesi nt heirenv i
ronmentandbegant odomest icate
animalspr obablyabout2000y earsago.TheKhoiKhoiwasor igi
natedf rom past or al
cult
ureandl anguagewasf ound.Theexactpl aceofor i
gi noft hesepeopl eisst il
l
debated and somesayt heyor iginated f rom t henor t
her n placeofBul away o and
migratedt oEastAf r i
cawi ththeirli
v estocki nSout hernAf ri
ca.Howev er,recentev i
dence
arguest hatt heywer eamongt heor igi
nali nhabi t
ants.Itisal soknownt hatsomeoft he
sanadopt edchangei nt heenv ironmentandbegant odomest i
cateani mal s.
Economi csy stem
 Majoreconomi csy st em wasbasedonl ifesty l
eandpr oduction.
 Theyr aisedl onghor nedcat tl
eandf att ailedsheepandgoat s;cattl
ewer easy mbolof
wealthandpr esti
ge.Thei rwayofl ifewasor ganisedar oundt heirlivestockt herefort hey
mov edf rom pl acet opl acedur ingdi ff
er entseasonsi nsear chofpast ur eandwat erf or
theanimal s.
 Animal swer ekeptf ormeat ,
mi lkandbl ood.
 Husbandr yofsheep,goat sandcat tl
epr ov i
dedast ablebal anceddi etandal lowedt he
rel
atedKhoi Khoi peopl et oli
vei nlargegr oupst hanthepr ev i
ousi nhabi t
ant s.

ZJCNOTESPage12
 Ast imewentonKhoi sanbegant ogr owcr opsandav ar i
etyofot herpl ants.
 Liket heSanbot hsexeswer ei nv olvedi nt heeconomi cact ivit
ies.
 Apar tf rom her dingani mal smensomet imeshunt edwi ldani mal sf ormeatandski nf or
clothing.
 Womenmi lkedcowsandgoat s, gat her edr oot sandber ri
esandal somadepot tery .
 TheKhoi Khoi i
ndust rywasmor edev elopedt hant hatoft heSan.
 Thei rt echnol ogyi ncl udedcar vingsofshal low di shes,bonei v oryandsmel t
ingand
smi thingofi ron.
 Tradi ngofsomeoft heset imeswasdev elopedwi thtradersf rom t heFarEastwhoof t
en
camet ot hesout hoft heeastcoastofAf rica.
 Theyal soext ract edsal tfrom t hesal tmi neralspr i
ngst hroughev apor ationinsoapst one
dishes.
Pol i
ticalandSoci alor gani sat ion
 Thev il
lageset tl
ementwasr elat i
v elyl argeof tenwel l
ov erhunt edper sons.
 Theydi dnotl i
vei ncav esbecauseoft heirlargenumber s.
 Theybui l
tdomeshapedhut sf rom y oungbr anches.
 Theycov eredt hem wi thmat sf rom r eedsandsomet imeswi thani mal skins.
 Hut swer ear rangedi naci rcleanddomest i
cani mal swer eof tenkr aaledov erni
ght
withint heci rcle.
 Eachv ill
ageconsi st edofmemberoft hesamecl anandagr oupofmal edescendant sof
apar ti
cularancest orwi ththei rwi vesandchi ldren.
 They oungpeopl ewer ei niti
at edatadul t
hoodatabout18y earsandmar ri
agecoul dtake
placeaf tert hecer emony .
 Thegr oom pai dl obol ai nt hef or m ofanoxf ort heweddi ngf east .
 Aftert hemar riageahutwasbui ltfort hecoupl eneart hebr ide’smot her’shut.
 Unliket heSant heKhoi sancommuni tyhadmor eor ganisedsy stem ofaut horit
y.
 Eachv ill
agehadaheadman, itwasaher editaryposi ti
onpassedt ot heel destsonoft he
foundi ngancest orf orev erygener at i
on.
 Headmanmadedeci sionssuchaswhenandwher etomov e.
 Theyal soact edasmedi atorsorj udgesi ncr i
mi nal andci vi
l di
sput es.
 Seni orpeopl ehadmor epr i
vilegest hant hej uni orse.g.t heyl i
vedi nhousest ot her i
ght
oft heel derwhi l
stj uni or sliv
edt ot hel eftside.
 Eachf ami l
yhadt hei rownhut ;howev er,chi ldrenwhower eol derl i
vedwi t
ht heirage
group.
 TheKhoi sanwer epol y gamous( mor et hanonewi f
e).
 Sev eral vil
lageswer euni tedi ntoal ar geruni tcal ledat ri
be.
 Tribeshadaki nshi pbaseandwer emadeupofanumberofl inkedcl answi t
ha
Seni orityofoneoft hecl ansbei ngr ecogni sed.
 Theheadoft heseni orcl anwasr ecogni sedast hechiefoft hetribe.

ZJCNOTESPage13
 Theext entofthet ri
ballandwasnotdef i
nedbyexactboundar i
esbutref
erencetoland
Tokaywat erhole.
 Tri
balchiefscont r
oll
edout sideaccesstotheirresour
ces.
Reli
giousbel i
efs
 TheKhoi sanbelievedinasupr emebeing.
 Theybel i
evedinspi r
it
sofnat ural
for
cesespeciall
yofwat erandrain.
 They gav e specialsi gnif
icance tot he moon whi ch they vi
ewed as a physical
magnificati
onoft heSupr emeBei ngassoci
atedwi thheaven.
 Thetimeofanewandf ullmoonwasaspeci aloccasionfordanci
ng.

ZJCNOTESPage14
 THEI
RONAGESOCI
ETI
ES

TRANSI TIONFROM THELATESTONEAGE

 Politi
calchanges
 Permanentset tlementswer eestabl i
shed.Ther ewasal otoffoodsopeopleabandoned
theideaofmov ingfrom placetoplacei nsear choffood.
 Vil
lagecommuni t
ieswer ecr eated.Thi sledt oformat i
onofcl assesi.
e.chiefsand
subjects,r
ichandpoor .
 Popul at
ionincrease.Ast heeconomyi mprov edpeopl egotenoughf oodtostoreforthe
nextseason.Peopl ebecameheal thyduet obal anceddi etthusleadi
ngtopopul ati
on
i
ncr ease.
 Rivalsamongstv i
ll
ages.Vi l
lagesfoughtt ocont rolresourcesandweakerv i
l
lageswer e
dest r
oyedbyst r
ongerones.Thi sl edtocr eat i
onofar miesasawayofsecur i
ngl and,
cattleandgrain.

 Deci
sionswer
emadebyasmal
landpower
ful
groupcal
l
edaconsensus.

 Economi cChanges
 Thenew i ronuser sdi d notcompl etelybr eakawaywi t ht hepastSt oneAgeand
cont i
nuedt ohuntandgat hert osupplementt heirfood.
 Howev er ,theybegant omi nemi neral
scopper ,gold,si l
v erandi ronor ewer emi ned.
Hoesandaxeswer ev i
talformi ningashoeswer eusedt odigf ormi neral
sandaxesf or
cuttingt reest ousef ort hef urnace.Bef oreI ronAget hesemi neral
swer eignor edand
regar dedascol ourfulrocks.Gol dandcopperwer epr ocessedi ntoj ewell
er yandI r
on
wasusedt omaket ools.Thesewer eusedf ori nter
nalandext ernaltrade,ext ernal
lywi th
Swahi l
i,Chi neseandOmanont heIndianOceancoast .
 Bant uf ar mer sbegant opaymor eattentiont ofarmi ngal thoughagr icult
urei sbel i
eved
tohav ebeguni nthelateSt oneAge.Av ariet yofcr opswer egr owne. g.mi l
let,sorghum
andpumpki ns.Thesebecamet hemai nsour ceoff oodt houghhunt ingandgat heri
ng
wer est illdonebutonasmal lscale.
 Theykeptcat t
le,sheepandgoat s.Goat sandsheepwer eki l
ledf ormeatbutcat tl
ewer e
vit
alasi twasconsi deredasasy mbolofweal t
h.Theywer eki l
ledonspeci aloccasi ons
e.g.deat hs, rai
nmaki ngcer emoni esandbi rths.
 Thiswasmai nlydonebywomenandpot ter ywasdecor ated,i twasusedf orst ori
ng
grain, wat erandmi l
k.
 Theyst artedpay ingt r
ibutet ot her uli
ngcl assasasi gnofr espectbyt hesubj ects.
Tribut ecoul dbei nthef orm ofcr ops,iront ool s,minerals,cat tl
eandl abour.
 Theyt radedi nternal
lyandext ernall
y,theytradedwi t
hf oreigner sf r
om Per siaandAr abia.
Theyt r
adedgol dandi voryandsomet i
mescopperf orcl ot h,si l
kandgl assbeads.
Internal l
yt heyexchangedsur plusgoods,sur pl
usgr aincoul dbeexchangesf ori r
on
tools, pot sandl iv
estock.

ZJCNOTESPage15
 SocialChanges
 Theear l
yagepeopl eabandonedli
vingi
ncav esandbegant oli
veinpoleanddaggahuts.
 Therewasdi vi
sionofl abourwhichindicatedspecial
isat
ionofj obs.Menwentf or
mini
ngasi twasdanger ousandwomenconcent r
atedonhousehol dchores.
 Special
isati
onl edt oexchangeofgoodsamongstnei ghboursespeciall
yinti
mesof
cr
isi
se. g.blacksmi t
hcouldexchangeaxesandhoesf orcattl
e,sheepandgoats.
 Gapsbet weendi ffer
entclassesbr
oadened.

 Chi
efdomsemer
ged.

 Polygamywaswi delypracti
sed.Itwasv it
alforsocialstat
usofaper sonbecausethe
mor ewivesonehadt hemor eonewasr espected.Thisalsomeantalotoflabourint
he
fi
eldsandagoodcr opy i
eld.
 Theboychi l
dwasv aluedmor ecompar edtot hegir
lchildbecauseheperpetuatedt
he
familyname.
 Lobolawaswi despreadanditwasi ntheform ofcat
tle,
hoes,beadsandlabour.
 Theybeliev
edinli
feafterdeathther
efortheyburi
edthedeadwi ththei
rbel
ongings.

Impactoft hechanges
 Foodwasnowi nabundance.
 Hunt i
ngbecameef f
ect i
veduetonewi rontools.
 Tradebecamev eryimpor t
ant.
 Mor eper manentset tlementswerebui l
tthereforpeopl
estay edatoneplaceforal ong
ti
me.
 Exploitati
onofwomenandchi l
drenbymenandal soexpl
oitati
onofmenbyot herman
began.
 Displacementofear l
ierSaninhabit
ants.
 Format ionofchiefdoms/ stat
es.
 Tributewasi nt
roducedwher ebysubj ectswoul dpayorgi
v eat okenofappreci
ationto
theirruler
s.
Bant uMi grati
on
Bant uar epeopl ewhospoker el
atedlanguages.Theyoriginatedfrom Sudan( Benue
crossr egion)andarebet weenCamer oonandNi geri
a.

Mi
grati
on–Themov ementofagroupofpeoplefr
om oner
egi
ont
oanot
herandt
hey
movedwit
hthei
rli
vestock(
cat
tl
e,sheepandgoat
s).

ReasonsforMigrat
ion
 Populat
ionPressur
e– Aspopul
ati
oni
ncr
eased,t
heBant
uwer
efor
cedt
omov
eto
spaci
ousareas.

ZJCNOTESPage16
 BadCl i
mat i
cCondi ti
ons–Somear easwer etsetseandmal ariainfestede.g.Congo
Forests.Thesear easbecameunf avourableandthereforetheymi gr
ated.
 LandExhaust ion–Thel andbecameexhaust edandt heBantumi gratedinsearchof
fer
til
el ands.
 Polit
icalAnd Soci alPr oblems – Successi on di
sput es and civi
lwar s were greatl
y
experienced.Some Bant u wererunning away f rom cr uelchiefs afterpracti
cing
witchcraft.MostBant ut herefor
emi gr
atedandmov edt oCentralandSout hernAfri
ca.
Therefore, i
tisrel
atedtoi ntr
oducti
onofI r
onAgehenceEar lyIr
onAge.

Results
 Int
roductionofnewf armingmethods.
 Settl
ement sbecamemor epermanent
.
 Newweapons/t oolsweremadeleadi
ngtobet t
erhunti
ngandfar
ming.
 Landprev iousl
yunoccupiedbecameoccupied.
 Special
izationofjobsresul
tedi
nfarmers,
mi ner
s,hunt
erset
c.
THELATESTONEAGEANDEARLYI RONAGE
TheEarlyIronAgei stheperi
odwhi chfoll
owedtheLat eStoneAge.Theear lybeganto
bepracticedinCent r
alAfr
icainAD300.TheBant uar eassociatedwit
ht heEarl
yI r
on
Age.Theyabsor bed San hunter
-gat
hers,theybr oughtwitht hem ir
on toolswhich
changedmodeofpr oducti
oni.e.Howpeopl eobtainednecessit
iesofli
fee.g.cl
othes,
foodhousingetc.TheI r
onAgewascal ledtherevol
ut i
onar
yperiodther
eforeitl
edtothe
formati
onofStates.

PoliticalChanges
 Permanentset tlementswer eest ablished.Ther ewasal otoff oodsopeopleabandoned
theideaofmov ingfrom placetopl acei nsear choffood.
 Vil
lagecommuni t
ieswer ecr eated.Thi sledt oformat i
onofcl assesi.
e.chiefsand
subject s,r
ichandpoor .
 Popul ationincrease.Ast heeconomyi mprov edpeopl egotenoughf oodtostoreforthe
nextseason.Peopl ebecameheal thyduet obal anceddi etthusl eadi
ngtopopul ati
on
i
ncr ease.
 Rivalsamongstv i
ll
ages.Vi l
lagesf oughtt ocont rolresourcesandweakerv i
ll
ageswer e
dest royedbyst r
ongerones.Thi sl edt ocr eat i
onofar miesasawayofsecur i
ngl and,
cattleandgr ain.
 Deci sionswer emadebyasmal l
andpower ful gr
oupaf t
err eachingaconsensus.

Economi
cChanges

Changeoft
ool
sandt
hei
rresul
ts

ZJCNOTESPage17
 LATESTONEAGE EARLYI
RONAGE

Thehand-axewasbl unt,di
ffi
cul
tt o use Hand axe was now light
erand sharper
when cut
ti
ng down trees f
oragricul
ture theref
oreit was easier t
o cl
ear large
andi
twasal soheav
y. piecesofl
andforagr
icult
ure

Usedthest
onetippedarr
ow forhunti
ng Usedi
ronti
ppedar
rowsforhunt
ingandi
t
andi
twasdi
ffi
cul
ttoki
ll
alotofani
mals. waseasiert
okil
lal
otofani
mals.

St
onekni
feswer
eusedf
orcut
ti
ngmeat
. I
ronkni
feswer
eusedf
orcut
ti
ngmeat
.

Mostpeopl ehadnof
oodt
ost
oref
ort
he Alotofpeopl ehadf
oodt
ost
oref
ort
he
nextseason. nextseason.

Far
mingwasdoneonasmal
lscal
e. Far
mingwasdoneonal
argescal
e.

Popul
ati
onwasst
abl
easf
oodwasscar
ce. Populat
ion incr
ease as f
ood was i
n
abundance.

Peopl
e could di e ear
ly because of Peoplecoul
dliv
elongerbecauset
heyat
e
di
seasesassoci
atedwi
thmalnut
ri
ti
on. abalanceddi
et.

Fi
shwascaughtusi
ngbasket
s. Fi
shcaughtusi
ngi
ronf
ishhooks.

 Mi ning
Itcameduet oirontechnology.Copper,gold,sil
verandironorewer emi ned.Hoesand
axeswer evit
alforminingashoeswer eusedt odigformi ner
alsandaxesf orcut
ti
ng
treest ouseforthefurnace.Befor
eIronAget hesemineralswereignoredandr egar
ded
ascol ourf
ulrocks.Goldandcopperwer epr ocessedintojewell
eryandIronwasusedt o
maket ools.Thesewer eusedf orinternalandext er
nalt r
ade,exter
nall
ywi thSwahil
i,
Chi neseandOmanont heIndianOceancoast .

 Cul
tiv
ati
on
Av ari
etyofcropsweregr
owne. g.mi
l
let
,sorghum andpumpkins.Thesebecamethe
mai
nsour ceoffoodt
houghhunt
ingandgather
ingwerest
il
ldonebut,onasmallscal
e.

 Past or
ali
sm
Theykeptcat t
le,sheepandgoats.Goatsandsheepwer
ekill
edf
ormeatbut,cat
tl
ewer
e
vi
talast heywer econsi
deredasasy mbolofwealt
h.Theywer
ekill
edonspecial
occasi
onse. g.deat
hs,
rai
nmaki ngcer
emoni
esandbir
ths.

ZJCNOTESPage18
 Pott
eryMaki
ng
Thi
swasmai nl
ydonebywomenandpot
ter
ywasdecor
ated,
itwasusedf
or
st
ori
nggrai
n,waterandmi
l
k.

 Tri
bute
I
twaspai dtotheruli
ngclassasasignofrespectbythesubj
ect
s.Tr
ibut
ecoul
dbei
n
thefor
m ofcrops,
irontool
s,mi
ner
als,cat
tl
eandlabour
.

SocialChanges
 Theear l
yIronAgepeopl eabandonedlivi
ngi ncavesandbegant oliv
einpoleanddagga
huts.
 Therewasdi vi
sionofl abourwhichindicatedspecial
isat
ionofj obs.Menwentf or
miningasi twasdanger ousandwomenconcent r
atedonhousehol dchores.
 Special
isati
onl edt oexchangeofgoodsamongstnei ghboursespeciall
yinti
mesof
cri
sise.g.blacksmi t
hcouldexchangeaxesandhoesf orcatt
le,sheepandgoats.
 Gapsbet weendi ffer
entclassesbr
oadened.

 Chi
efdomsemer
ged.

 Polygamywaswidelypr
acti
sed.I
twasvit
alforsocialst
atusofapersonbecauset
he
mor ewiv
esonehadthemor eonewasr
espected.Thisal
someantalotofl
abourint
he
fi
eldsandagoodcropyi
eld.

 Theboychi
l
dwasv
aluedmor
ecompar
edt
othegi
rlchi
l
dbecauseheper
pet
uat
edt
he
fami
l
yname.

 Lobol
awaswi
despr
eadandi
twasi
nthef
orm ofcat
tl
e,hoes,
beadsandl
abour
.

 Theybel
i
evedi
nli
feaf
terdeat
hther
efor
etheybur
iedt
hedeadwi
tht
hei
rbel
ongi
ngs.

Impactofchanges
 Foodwasnowi nabundance.
 Hunt i
ngbecameef f
ectiveduet onewir
ontools.
 Tradebecamev eryimpor t
ant.
 Mor epermanentsettl
ement swerebuil
tther
eforepeopl
estayedatoneplaceforalong
ti
me.
 Exploit
ati
onofwomenandchi ldr
enbymenandal soexploi
tati
onofmanbyot herman
began.
 Displacementofearl
ierSaninhabit
ant
s.
 Format i
onofchief
doms/ stat
es.
 Tributewasintr
oducedwher ebysubj
ectswouldpayorgiveat okenofappr
eciat
ionto

ZJCNOTESPage19
 thei
rrul
ers.
THEGREATZI MBABWESTATE

Iti
ssi t
uatedsout heastofMasv ingoandi sbel i
evedtohav ebeenbui l
tbytheShona
peoplearoundA. D.1200.Ourcount rytooki tsnamef rom t
her uinswhicharecomplex
andbeaut i
ful
.1200t o1500ADsawt her i
seofTheGr eatZi
mbabwe.I twasestabl
ished
onahi llandhadsev er
aloutl
yi
ngar eas.Gr eatZimbabwewasbel i
evedtohavebeen
buil
tbyt heKar angaoft heShonat ribe.Thewor dZimbabwecomesf rom t
heShona
word“ Dzi
mbadzamabwe” .Thewal lcov eri
ngTheGr eatZimbabwewasknownasThe
GreatEnclosure.OtherMadzimbabwear eChi svingo,Nhavayatumbare,Mapungubwe,
Naletal
e,Msimbi r
a,Manekweni,Tsindi,Khami etc.

Originsoft heSt ate

Iti
sbel i
ev edt hatt heki ngdom r oset oi nterconti
nent alt r
ade, t
hist heor yisr eferr
edt oas
thet r
adest i
mul ust heory.I ti
sar guedt hatt hest ateowesi tsor iginsf rom i t
scont r
olof
goldt r
ademi nedacr osst hewhol eoft heZi mbabwepl at eau.Ast r
ader spassedt hrough
thest atet heywer ef orcedt opayt ax.Themi l
itaryst rengt hoft heki ngdom enabl ed
them tof orcet ri
butar ykingdomst opayt ax.Otherhi stor i
ansal soar guedt hatthest ate
roseasar esul toft her uler’sabili
tytoaccumul ateandcont rolcat t
le.
Oneoft hesedev elopingI ronAgev i
l
lagesgr ewi ntot hebi ggestandst r
ongestst ateof
i
tst i
me.I thadapopul ationofmor et han10000peopl e.Thegr eatwal lsofst onewer ea
symbolofi ts power .The wal ls show t he dev eloped i nto a pr osper ous and wel l
organisedst at e.Thewal lswer ebui l
tf rom granitewhi chwascar ef ull
yf i
ttedandseti n
strai
ghtl i
nes.Thewal l
swer ebui l
tloosel ywi t
houtwat ert ohol dt hem t ogether.Stone
wal l
swer ebui ltt ofitintot hesystem ofdomest iclifeandhouseswer ebui lti
nsidethem.
Thebi rdscul pt uresf oundatGr eatZi mbabwehav ebecomet hesy mboloft hemoder n
stateofZi mbabweasar emi nderoft hecount r
y’slonghi story.

Fact
orsl
eadi
ngt
other
iseofGr
eatZi
mbabwe

 Str
ongArmy
GreatZi
mbabwehadalargepopul
ati
onwhichenabl
edi
ttofi
ghtanddef
eatenemi
es
thr
oughit
sarmy
.Thosewhoweredefeat
edwerei
ncor
por
atedi
ntot
hear
my .

 GoodAgr i
cul
tur
alandGrazingLands
Agri
cult
urewaswi del
ypracti
ced,cr
opssuchasmill
et,sor
ghum andmai zeweregrown
andfoodwasi nabundanceleadi
ngtothegrowt
hofthest at
e.Goodgrazingl
andledto
i
ncreaseofcattl
e,cat
tl
ewer ethendist
ri
but
edtothesubjectsthr
oughasy st
em call
ed
“Kur
onzera”andcouldalsobeusedt opayl
abour
ershiredtoconstr
uctthest
onewal l
s

ZJCNOTESPage20
 andthi
sbr
oughtt
hecommuni
tyt
oget
herast
hepoorandr
ichwer
ecat
eredf
ort
hus
l
eadi
ngtot
heri
se.

 EnoughMi
ner
alWeal
th

Theygotgoldfrom MapungubweandMapel a,ironandcopperwer ealsopl

enty
.Thi
s
f
acil
it
atedtr
adebetweenShonaandPor tugueseatSof al
a.Inter
nat
ionalt
radewas
t
hroughtheeastcoast.Traderswhopassedt hroughGreatZimbabwehadt opaytax;
t
axalsocamefrom t
ribut
arykingdomsl
eadingt oprosper
it
yofGr eatZi
mbabwe.

 Reli
giouscentre
I
tisbelievedtobeaHungwer eli
giousshr
ineasevidencebyt
heHungwesoap
Stonebirdfoundthere.However,somehistor
iansdisagr
eewi
tht
heideat
hatthe
Reli
gionledtotheriseofthestate.

Reasonsf orbuildingt heGr eatZimbabwe

 Asanexpr essi
onofpr ideandancest r
al achi
ev ement.
 Asar eli
giouscent re-t heShonawer ebel i
evedt obeconnect
edtoGod“ Mwari
”,whom
theywor shipedthroughancest ral
spir
it
s.
 Asat radingcentre-i tisbel i
evedthattheGr eatZimbabwewasbuil
tfortr
adeandother
economi cact i
vi
ties.Bui ldings,usedf orstoragepur posesarest
il
lthereaswellas
artef
actsf r
om thef areast ¸MiddleEastandChi na.

 Asaform ofshel t
er.
 Toref
lecttheking’spower.
 Forpr
estigi
ousr easons.
 Tocontrolsubj
ectsaswel l
ast
osepar
ateki
ngf
rom t
hecommonpeopl
e.
Forpr
ivacy

 Ast
heKing’scour
t
 Asafor
tressi
ntimesofwar
.

 Asanadmi
nist
rat
ivecent
re.

TheGr eatZimbabwe
 Iti
smadeofgr anit
est oneandthestoneswerecutintoal
mostthesamesi
zeand
arr
angedi nstr
aightl
ines.
 Nowat erorcementwasusedandt hi
siswhythebui
l
dingsar
euni
que.
 TheGr eatZi
mbabwehast womaincomplexes:
 Acropoli
s
 Temple

ZJCNOTESPage21
 Thet emplewasof tenrefer
redt oast hegr eatencl osure.
 Itwast hecentreofadmi ni
strati
on.
 Spir
itmedi umshel pedt hekinginmaki ngdecisions.
 TheAcr opoliswasmadeupofanumberofencl osur es.
 Thiswast heol destpartofGr eatZimbabwe.
 Thehi l
ltopwaspr obablyacent r
ef orr ai
nmaki ngcer emoni es,soapstonebirdswer e
foundandt hesebir dswereusedt oi nter
prett hev oiceoft heHungwe,( shi
riyamwar i
)
God’sbi r
d.
 Easternenclosurewaswher et hespiritualadvisorsoccupi ed.
 Sacredbi r
dswer ef oundindicati
ngthei mportanceoft hear eaasar el
igi
ouscent r
e.
 Theseni orwi veslivedatt he“ i
mbahur u”
,wher east hej uniorwivesliv
edatt hev all
ey
enclosures.Thiswassuggest edbypot sandor nament swhi chwerefoundthere,these
werel i
nkedt owomen.

Politi
calOr ganisation
 Theki ngwast heheadoft hestate
 Tsuper visedt rade,commandedt hear my,receivedtri
buteandj udgedallcasesthat
werebr oughtbef orehim.
 Chiefswer ebel owt heki
ngandhadt obesubmi ssi
ve,theseincl
udedprovinci
alchi
efs
anddi str
ictchief s.
 Theypai dt r
ibuteasl oyal
tytotheking.
 Theyal socol l
ect edtri
but
ef r
om thesubject
sandr ul
edtheirownareas.
 Vil
lagechi efsandv il
l
ageheadscont rol
ledvil
lages;theywer esubmissi
vet otheking
andpai dt r
ibute.
 Religi
ousl eader sconduct edreli
giousceremoni esandadv i
sedthekingwhenr ul
i
ng;
theywer epar toft hecouncil
.

ZJCNOTESPage22
 Economicacti
vi
ti
es
 Cult
ivat
ion
Theypracti
sedculti
vati
on-grew cr
opssuchasmi ll
et,sor
ghum,pumpki
ns,barl
ey,
wheatsoon.Mencl earedl
andforagr
icul
tur
eandhel pedwomenwhenhar vest
ing.
Womenandchi l
drendidmostoft
heworkinthefi
elds.

 Past
orali
sm
Theykeptcat
tl
e,sheep,andgoats.Cat
tl
ewer
er egardedasasymbolofwealth,they
werekil
ledonrareoccasionsforexampl
eduri
ngf uner
alsandstat
efunct
ions.The
i
mportanceofcatt
lewer ethatther
ewereusedt oobtainedmi
lk,meat,hides,for

ZJCNOTESPage23
 draughtpower ,topayl obola,
topaytri
but
eandt oobt ai
nmanur e.Catt
lecoul dbe
exchangedf orgrainandot herfoodst
uff
sintimesofdrought.Theycoul
dbeusedf or
payingLobola;manywi vesmeantmanychi l
drenandalotoflabourinthefi
elds.Goats
andsheeppr ovidedthem withmeat,hi
desandmanure.
Impor t
anceofcat tl
e
Thei mport
anceofcat tl
ewer e;
Toobt ai
nmi lk
Toobt ai
nmeat
Topayl obol
a
Toobt ai
nhides
Topayt ri
bute
Touseasdr aughtpower
Fortrade
Toobt ai
nmanur e

to
 Trade
GreatZimbabwewast hecentreoft r
ade.Internall
ytheyexchangedgrai
nfordif
ferent
i
temst heydi
dnothav ee. g.hoesandspear s.External
ly
,theytradedwit
htheChinese,
ArabsandSwahi l
i.Theyexpor t
edgrain,ir
ont ools,hi
des,basketsetci
nexchangef or
gl
assbeads,brassware,seashell
,cl
oth,sal
tetc.
 Mining
Thi
swasmai nl
ydonebymen.Theymi nedgold,copper,i
ronetc.Copperwasfoundin
Hurungwe and was used to make j ewel
l
ery.Gol d was found in Mapela and
Mapungubweandwasgott hroughshaf tandall
uvialmining,i
twasusedf ormaking
j
ewel l
eryandi
ronwasusedt
omaket ools.

 Hunti
ngandGather i
ng
Thi
sremainedpartoft hei
rdiet.Hunti
ngwasdonebymen,butonaverysmal
lscal
e.
Ani
malssuchasl eopards,l
i
ons,kudusandi mpal
aswerekil
ledf
orthei
rski
nsand
el
ephant
sforiv
ory.Womengat heredsmal
li
nsect
sandber
ri
es.

 Craftwork
Thiswasdonebybothmenandwomenespeci al
lyweavi
ng.Theyproducedcl
othwhi
ch
wascheap,butor
dinarypeopl
est
il
lworeanimalskin“Nhembe”.Potter
ymakingwas
vi
tal,pot
swer
emadef orst
ori
nggr
ain,
water
,milkandbeer.

 Tr
ibut
e

ZJCNOTESPage24
 Thi
swaspai
dbyt
hesubj
ect
stot
her
uli
ngcl
assi
nthef
orm ofgr
ain,
tool
sandcat
tl
e.

 Rai
ding
Nei
ghbouring st
ates werer
aided f
or cat
tl
e;gr
ain,and women.Women wer
e
i
ncorpor
atedint
othestat
e.

 Fi
shi
ng
I
ronf
ishhookswer
eusedf
orf
ishi
ng.Fi
shsuppl
ement
edt
hei
rdi
et.

SocialandRel igiousorgani sation

 Peoplewor shipedGodt hroughspi ritmediums.
 Spir
itmediumswer evitalforinst all
ationofnewchi efs.
 Thekinghi msel fconsultedGodt hroughspi r
itmedi umsespecial
lyi
ntimesofdrought.
 Theybelievedi nlif
eafterdeat handt heref
oretheybur i
edthedeadwi t
hthei
rbelongi
ngs.
 Beerwasbr ewedatt raditi
onal ceremoni es.
 Theywer enat ionalspir
itscal l
ed“ Mhondor o”andancest r
alspi
rit
scall
ed“Vadzi
mu” .
 Famili
esconsul t
edancest ral spirit
si nti
mesofi l
lnessandcr i
sis.
 Soapstonebi rdswer etheirr eli
gioussy mbolthereforeGreatZi
mbabwewast hespir
it
ual
headquartersoft heShonaancest ors.
 Peopleoft hesamet otem wer enotal l
owedt ogetmar ri
ed.
 Menhunt edont heirsparet i
meandwomenspeci ali
sedinchil
dbeari
ng.

Decli
neofGr eatZimbabwe
 Overpopulat
ion
 GreatZimbabwebecamet oobi gast at
ethatthekingl
ostcont
rolofthest
ate.Thi
sis
whyNy atsi
mbaMut ot
amov edawayf rom GreatZi
mbabwe.
 Thisalsoencourageddiseasesleadingtodeathofsomeandmi grat
ionofsome.With
theeverincr
easingpopulat
ionfarminglandbecameexhaust
ed.

 Civ
ilwars
Peoplewoul
dfi
ghtagai
nsteachot
heri
nti
mesofdr
oughtsoast
ogetf
ood.

 Successiondisputes
Wi t
ht i
mepeoplebegantofi
ghtf
orl
eader
shipandthosel
eader
sthatwer
eweakerhad
theirposi
ti
onstakenbyt
hosewhowerest
ronger
.Somewereevenfor
cedtomov
eaway
from GreatZi
mbabwe.

 Shor
tageofsalt
Thi
siswhyNy at
simbaMut
otamov
edawayf
rom Gr
eatZi
mbabwe.

ZJCNOTESPage25
 Landexhausti
on
Witht
heev eri
ncr
easi
ngpopul
ati
onf
armi
ngl
andbecameexhaust
ed.

 Shortageoffoodsuppl
ies,mineral
sandgrazi
ngl
ands
Short
ageoff oodsuppl
ies,mineral
sandgrazi
ngl
andsaffect
edt
radenegat
ivel
yleadi
ng
tothedownf al
loft
heeconomy .
 Thest at
ebecametoolargetobecontrol
l
edbyoneking.

 Outbr
eaksofepi
demi
cski
l
ledal
otofpeopl
e.

ZJCNOTESPage26
 THEMUTAPASTATE
THEMUTAPAEMPI RE
Itcanber ef
erredt oasMonomut apa,Munhumut apaandMwenemut apa.TheNameor
ti
tl
eMut apacamef r
om aShonav erbrootTapa.Histor
ianshaveusedot hermeanings
munhui nShonawhi chmeansper sonandwhencombi nedwithMut apameansaper son
who f or
cibl
yt akes someone’s pr oper
tyora ki dnapper.This name descr ibes t
he
strat
egyusedt oest abli
shhisempi re.Amongt hi
swast hedecl
ineifGr eatZimbabwe,
abandonedr esources,accessi
bil
i
tyt ofor
eigntr
adeandaweaknessoft hel ocalpeopl
e
attheDande.

Oral tr
aditi
onhasi tt hatsomet imei nthe15thcent uryacer tainNy at
simbaMut otasonof
Chibatamat osiofGr eatZi mbabwewassentbyhi sfathert osearchf orsaltintheDande
area.Hemov edf rom Gr eatZimbabwei nsear chofsal tandwasaccompani edbyhi s
sonMat ope, daught erNehandaandNy akatonjeav isi
tortot heGr eatZimbabwe.Mut ota
thedeci dedt otakeov erthear eaandmar kedt hebegi nningoft heMut apaEmpi re.The
Dandear eawasabandonedandhadel ephants,goldandsal t.Theav ail
abil
it
yoff ert
il
e
l
andandr ichpast ur ei ntheDandear eawasi mpor t
anti nt her i
seoft heempi re.The
weaknessf ragment edt heTongaandTav arawhof ailedt ojoinf orcesandr epelthe
Mut apaandpr esent edMut otawi thanoppor tunitytoconquerwi thease.Heest abli
shed
theMut apast atear ound1400ADandl at
ermov edhisCapi t
alf r
om Gr eatZimbabwet o
ChitakoHi llnearMtDar win.Af tertheconquestoft heent i
reDande,Mut otadiedand
wassucceededbyhi ssonMat opewhot henexpandedt hest at
ei ntoal argekingdom
whichsomesour cesdescr i
besasanempi re.Heexpandedt hear eat oMozambi que
andt ookcont roloff oreigntradingcoastal ongt heIndianOceancoastwhi chwasakey
tot rading.Thest at ewassai dt ohav e6pr ov i
ncesDande,Bar we,Pur a,Guruuswa,
Many i
kaandUt eve.

Factor
sleadingtot heri
se
 Successf
ulagricul
tureandpastor
ali
sm
Dandewasasui t
ableareaforagri
cul
tur
easitrecei
vedf av
our
abler
ainsandal
otof
ani
mal swerekeptduet ogoodgrazi
nglande.
g.cat
tl
e,sheepandgoat
s.

 Av ai
labi
li
tyofmineral
s
Richi ngoldandiron,thesecoul
dbeusedf
ormaki
ngj
ewel
l
eryandt
ool
srespect
ivel
y
andt huspromoti
ngt r
ade.

 Accessi
bil
it
yofthear
eatoint
ernat
ionalt
rade
Dandelayi
nt hear
eabet
weenIngombe,Il
edeandSwahi
l
itr
adecent
res.

ZJCNOTESPage27
 Presenceofpol
it
ical
lyambit
iousleaders
Theseleader
sbecameeffect
iveinleader
shi
pduet
othei
rst
rat
egi
cpl
anni
ng.

 Str
ongarmy
Couldr
aidandconquerot
hernear
byandweakerl
ocal
peopl
ee.
g.TongaandTav
ara.
 Decl
ineofGr
eatZi
mbabwe
Thisf orcedsomepeopl etomov eawayandsear chf orbetterareassince
Gr eatZi mbabwewasov er
populatedhenceriseofnewst atese. g.Mutapa.
Polit
icalor ganisati
on
 King
Hewast heov eral
lrul
er.Hewasal socommanderoft hear myofabout3000-5000
soldiers;Soldiersweretreatedbywi t
chdoctorsbeforeheadi ngf orabattl
ef ort
hem to
best rong.Her ecei
vedannualtribut
eandmadef inaldecisionsi npol
it
icalandjudi
ciar
y
mat ters.Heel ectedchi
efsbutfi
rstconsult
ednat i
onal spi
ri
ts.

 Counci
l(Dare)
Thecounciladvi
sedthekingwhenr
uli
ng.Thecouncili
ncludedPri
estoftheMwar
icult
,
counci
l
lors,bl
acksmiths,ar
mycommanders,sonsofpr ovinci
alchi
efs,ki
ng’
smother
,
queen’
smot her
,queenandking’
sbr
other
sandsist
ers.

 Provi
ncialChiefs
Provi
ncialchiefsruledpr ovi
ncessuchasGur uuswa,Mbi r
e,Many i
ka,
Barwe,Uteveet c.
Theposi t
ionofchi efswasher edi
taryandtheprovinci
alchiefswer eeit
herrel
ativ
esof
the king orf r
iends oft he ki
ng.Theycol l
ected the royalf i
re once a yearf r
om
Munhumut apaasasi gnofr espect.Theypai
dt r
ibutetotheki ng.Theygavet r
oopst o
thekingint i
mesofwar .Theydistr
ibutedl
andtodistri
ctchief
s.

 Distr
ictchi
efs
Thesewer eunderpr
ovinci
alchief
s.Theirposit
ionwasheredi
tary.Theypaidtr
ibut
et o
theking.Theyal
socoll
ectedtri
butefrom t
hesubject
sintheform ofivor
y,cat
tl
e,grai
n,
goldandl abour
.Theydistr
ibutedlandtot hepeopl
e.Theyal sotri
edcasesbr ought
beforethem.

 Vil
lagechi
efs
Thesewer eunderDist
ri
ctchi
efs;t
heydist
ribut
edlandt
ot hepeopleandtriedcases
broughtbefor
ethem.Theypaidtri
butet
ot hekingandal
sor ecei
vedt
ribut
ef r
om the
subject
s.Thei
rposi
ti
onwasheredit
ary
.

ZJCNOTESPage28
 Economi
cor
gani
sat
ion

 Cropcultiv
ati
on
They grew mi ll
et,sorghum and peas.They al so grew exoti
c cr
ops li
ke mai ze,
watermelons,tobacco,potatoesandcitr
usf r
uits.Theypracti
sedshift
ingcult
ivat
ion
wherebyapi eceofl andwasl ef
ttoli
efall
ow for2ormor ey earstogainit
sf ert
il
it
y
beforeanothercropwasgr own.
 Pastoral
ism
Theykeptcat t
le,sheepandgoat s.Cat
tl
ewer easy mbolofwealthandthosethathad
manycat tl
ehadmanywi ves.Theseani
malswerei mport
antf
orhides,meatandmi l
k.
 HuntingandGat heri
ng
ZJCNOTESPage29
 Hunt
ingwasdonebymenandwasanimport
antsour
ceofmeatandhi
des.Gat
her
ing
wasdonebywomenandt
heygat
her
edber
ri
es,root
sandi
nsect
s.

 Trade
Theypr act
isedbothint
ernalandexternaltr
ade.Internaltradeinvolvedbuyingand
sell
inggoodsamongt heMut apa.Theyexchangedsur pl
usgr ai
n,salt,cat
tl
eandiron
tool
s.Localpeopleknownas“ Vashambadzi”faci
l
itatedtrade.Tradingstati
onswere
Zumbo, Tet
eandSena.

 Mining
Theymi nedgold,sil
ver
,ir
onandcopper .Mi
ningwasdonedur
ingt
hedryseason.They
practi
sedshaftmi ni
ng.Gold,copperandsi
lverwer
eusedtomakejewel
leryandiron
wasusedt omakei rontool
s.

 Blacksmi
ths
Theymadet oolsf
oragr
icul
tur
eli
kehoesandaxesandt
heyal
somadeweaponsl
i
ke
spearsandarr
ows.

 Craft
wor k
Womenmadeav ari
etyofpot
swhichtheytr
adedtoearnvastamountsofwealt
hinthe
form ofgrai
n,goatsandsheep.TheMutapaalsomadebasketsandwoodcarv
ings.

 Fi
shi
ng
Fi
shsuppl
ement
edt
hei
rdi
et.

 Rai
ding
Nei
ghbouring st
ates werer
aided f
or cat
tl
e;gr
ain,and women.Women wer
e
i
ncorpor
atedint
othestat
e.

 Tri
but
e
Theki
ngrecei
vedannualt
ri
but
eint
hef
orm ofcat
tl
e,gol
d,i
vor
y,agr
icul
tur
alt
ool
sand
l
abour.

Soci
alOr ganisati
on
 TheMut apast atehadpeopl eofdif
fer
entdialect
se.g.Kar
anga,NdawuandZezuru.
 Therewasgenderawar enesswhenallocati
ngduties.
 Menwer epar toft hear myandhunt edwhi l
stwomenwer ei nv
olvedinhousehol
d
chor
ese. g.cooking,takingcareofchi
ldrenetc.
 Peopleofthesamet otem wer enotal
l
owedt omar r
yoneanot
her.
 Theypractisedintermarriages.
 Theybelievedi nlif
eaf terdeathandsot heyconsul t
edfamil
yspiri
ts,cl
anspi
ri
tsand
ZJCNOTESPage30
 nati
onal spi r i
ts,thiswasusual l
ydonei ntimesofwar , droughtandhar vest.
 Shonaal sobel ievedi nv ariousspi ri
tssuchasf ami lyancest ors,cl
anandNat i
onal
Spir
itscal ledMhondor os.
 Spir
itswer econsul tedt hroughspi ritmedi ums.
 Spir
itsappear edt hroughbr ewi ngbeerandsl aughteringcat tl
e.
 Beli
efsi nwi tchcraft
 Theypr act isedi ntermar riages
 Familyspi ritswer ebeliev edt ohel pf ami l
ymember sachi evethei
rambi ti
ons.
 Clanandnat ionalspi r
itsal soi nterv enedinpol it
icaldi sputes,successiondi sput
esand
i
nter-cl
andi sput es.
 Theybel iev edi nav engingspi ri
ts( Ngozi ).
 Theybel iev ed inGod t hecr eatorofmanki nd whom t heywor shiped throught hei
r
ancestor s.
 Theypr act isedpol ygamy .
 Theypr act isedkur onzer asy st
em orcat t
leloaningsy stem wherebyt hekingwoul dloan
hi
scat tlet ohi svassalchi ef sandt heyher dthecat t
leonhi sbehalfbutthev assal
swer e
notallowedt okillt
hecat tlebutt omi lk,obt
ai nmanur eandt ouset hecattl
easdr aught
power .
 Li
v i
ngi nv il
lagesaccor dingt olineages.
 Mutapawasr espect edasadi vi
ner uler.
 Kingconsul t edspi r
its/mhondor osi nt i
mesofcr isis,war ,famine


PORTUGUESEPENETRATI
ONOFTHEMUTAPA

 Duri
ngt he15thcenturyPortugalwassendi ngexplorati
onv oyagestocentr
al
Afr
ica.Oneoft heexpl or
ersVascoDaGamar eachedtheCapeofGoodHope.
Therefore,
thePortuguesewer ethefirstEuropeanst osett
leint heI
ndianOcean
coast.Theydiscoveredthesear out
et oIndiaandt radi
ngact i
vit
iesbet
ween
CentralAfr
icaandeastcoast .Theyinvesti
gat edthepresenceofgol datSofal
a
andKi l
wa.Thet wopor tswereusedt oacqui r
egol dandivoryfrom Mutapastat
e
andinexchangegotI ndi
anspicesfrom India.

THEPORTUGUESEWHOVI
SITEDMUTAPASTATE

 Ant
oni
oFer
nadez
,

ZJCNOTESPage31
  Gonzal
odaSi
l
vei
ra

 Fr
anci
scoBar
ret
o

 VascoHomen.

 DonaKat
ari
na

 Ant
oni
oCai
do

 Di
ogoMadei
ra

 Per
eir
a

 GasperBocar
ro.

REASONSFORPENETRATI
ON
 Tomakecont
actwit
hlegendar
yChr
ist
ianr
ulerPr
est
erJohn

 Tomi
negol
dandcont
rol
mini
ngofgol
d

 Tor
epl
aceSwahi
l
iast
radi
ngpar
tner
soft
heShona

 Cont
rol
trader
out
esi
ntot
hei
nter
ior

 Toest
abl
i
sht
radi
ngpost
s/t
radi
ngcent
res/
mar
ket
s/f
eir
as
 Tocheckt eadofI
hespr slam
 Tospr
eadChr
ist
iani
ty

 Tocont
rol
landi
ntheZambezi
val
l
eyf
oragr
icul
tur
alpur
poses

 Tocont
rol
theMut
apast
ateort
ocol
oni
set
heMut
apaSt
ate.

 Tosearchforthel
egendr
yPrest
erJohnort
omakecont
actwi
thl
egendar
y
Chr
ist
ianrulerPr
est
erJohn.

 Toav
enget
hedeat
hofGoncal
odaSi
l
vei
ra

 Todi
slodgeMosl
emsf
rom t
hei
nter
ior

 I
nvi
tat
ionbyGat
siRuser
e

ZJCNOTESPage32
 Dev
elopment
s

 Af t
erthedeat hofMat opetherewer equarrel
soverl
eader
ship.
 In1494Chi kuy oChi samar engubecameki ng;hewasthefirstkingt
ohaveaEuropean
visi
torcal
ledFer nandezaPor tuguesetrader.
 Fernandezgav et heki ngandgunpowderandMunhumut apawasabl et
oexpandhis
empi r
e.
 Af t
erthedeat hofChi kuy
oi n1530Neshangwebecameki ngandwassucceededby
ChivereNy asoroi n1550whocr ushedtheTav ar
ainther evoltandassymbolofthe
defeattookthei rtotem asNzou.
 Chiverediedin1560andhi seldestsonNegomoMapunzagut utookovert
hel
eadershi
p
andwasassi stedt ogov er
nbyMrChi uyu.

 ThePor t
uguesePriestswerepushed/encouragedtomov eintothei
nter
iort
oconv ert
Mut apaandhi speopletoChri
sti
ani
ty.Acatholiccal
l
edFrGoncaloDaSilv
erabecamea
greatf r
iendoft hekingandhi smot herandt heMusli
mt raders(
VaMweny e)were
anger edwhent hekingandhismot heragreedt obebapti
sed.In1561theVaMweny e
pl
ott edandki l
ledDaSi l
ver
aanddumpedhi sbodyi napond.FrGoncaloDaSi l
veir
a
deathgav ethePor t
ugueseachancet oat tackMutapaast heywereagainsttheir
contactwi t
htheMoor s.

TheI n1570t hePor tugueseki ngsentanar myt oMut apat oav engethedeat hofDa
Silv
eraandbecauset hePor tuguesedi dnotknow t hear easowel ltheywer eeasi l
y
defeatedeventhought heyhadsuper i
orweapons.1567Fr anciscoBar r
ettowassentby
thePor t
uguesetoinvadeMut apasoast oav enget hedeathofFrGoncal oDaSi lvei
raas
wellasdr i
vingawayMusl i
ms.Unf ortunatelyhedi edbef or einvadingast heyr eached
Mut apaduri
ngt herainyseasonandwer eaf fectedbydi seases.I n1574-Fat herVasco
FernandesHomem wassentt ogetherwith400men.Bef orer eachingMany i
ka,hef aced
resist
ancefrom Chitev e.Chit
ev eKingwasdef eat
ed,butt hePor tugueserealisedt hat
theareahadl i
tt
legolddeposi ts.Mostsol dierssentbythePor t
uguesef acedopposi tion
from theTongaandcoul dn’
tinvadeMut apa.For35y ear
st her ewaspeacei nMut apa.

In1607Munhumut apaGat siRusereaskedforPor t

uguesehel pt ofi
ghtar evoltforthe
l
eader shi
pi nreturnf orsi
lverminesatChikovaandot hermi nes.However,herefusedt o
tellthem thel ocati
onoft hesil
verminesandt hepeopl eofMut aparefusedbecause
theyhadseenandPr azeroandPortugueselandowner s.Asmor eandmor ePor tuguese
arriv
edt heyt ookmor el andandcat t
leandf or cedpeopl et owor kinthef ieldsand
formedt heirownpr ivatearmy.Theybecamewi ld,lawlessandnol ongerobey edthe
Munhumut apa.Por tuguesebeganr efusi
ngt opayt ri
butet oMut apa;Mutapast opped
trade witht hePor t
ugueseand ceased Por t
uguese pr oper t
iesand thePor tuguese
declaredwarbutl aterbegant opaytri
bute.ThenextMut apakaparari
dzet r
iedt oexpel
ZJCNOTESPage33
 thePortugueseaftertheyrefusedtopayt ri
butebuthewasov erpoweredandr
eplaced
byMav uraMhanduwhoagr eedtoservethePor t
ugueseandbecomeapuppetking.The
newr ul
ingMut apaMav urawasbapt i
sedt oPhil
ip.I
n1629Mav urasi
gnedanagr
eement
withthePor t
uguese,Portuguesehadfreedom to:
 Buil
dchur cheswhenev er
/wher ev
ertheywant ed.

 Tr
avel
toanypar
tofMut
apaast
rader
s.

 Dr
iveawayMusl
i
msf
rom Mut
apa.

 Mi
nei
nMut
apa.

ThePor
tugueseest
abl
i
shedTet
e,Sena,
Kil
wa,
Zumbo,
Sof
ala,
Quel
i
maneandLuanz
e.

Howt heytookoverMut apaState

 Mut apawasmadeav assalstatebyt hePortuguese;thePor t
uguesebegantodemand
tr
ibutef r
om vassalchiefs.
 Vassalchi efsrebell
ed agai nstt he Mutapa;Mut apa turned t
ot he Por
tuguese f
or
protecti
on.
 AtfirstPortuguesewant edanal l
i
ancewi t
ht heMut apasoast orepl
aceSwahi l
iand
Moort r
adersingol
d, sil
verandi vory;
theyal
sowant edt ospreadChri
sti
ani
ty.
 Moort r
adersconti
nuedt oest abli
shmor eroutesintot heinter
iorandthi
sinfl
uenced
Portugueset omakecont act
swi ththeint
eri
or.

 Howev
ert
heMut
apa:

 Lostt
her
ightt
ogi
veanygol
dbear
ingt
err
it
ori
est
oot
herwhi
tes.

 Hadt
opayt
ri
but
etot
hePor
tuguese.

 1652,MunhumutapaMavur
adiedandwassucceededbyDomi
ngos.Domi
ngoswas
assassi
nat
edandNyeny
edzit
ookover
.

 NyenyedziwassucceededbyNy akunembi r
i,Nyakunembir
iappeal
edt
oChangamire
Dombot oassisthi
minfi
ghti
ngt
hePor tuguese;t
ogethert
heydest
roy
edt
hePor
tuguese
powerandkil
ledmostofthePor
tuguese.

 NoPor
tuguesewer
eseeni
nMut
apaunt
ilcol
oni
sat
ionwhenBSACt
ookov
erMut
apa.

 Mut
apast
atewasnowunderChangami
reDombo,
Mut
apast
atewasdead.

ZJCNOTESPage34
  Decl ineorDemi seoft heMut apaSt at e
 Thef ollowi ngr easonscanbegi vent oaccountf ort hef alloft heMut apast ate:
 Soci al Fact orsorReasons
 Per sistentdr ought sf ur t
herweakenedt hest at esi ncet her ewer eout breaksof
epidemi csandmal nut riti
ondi seaseswhi chki l
ledal otpeopl et her ebycausi ng
depopul at i
onhenceweakeni ngt hest atemi li
t arily,pol iticall
y ,soci allyand
economi cal l
yt her ebycausi ngt hef all ofthest ate.Fal loft radewasal socaused
byper sist entdr ought swhi chcausedl owagr i
cul tur al product ivit
yhencel ess
cereal sandcat tl
et osuppor tandpr omot et radet herebycausi ngt hef all oft he
state.
 Economi cFact or sorReasons
 Theexhaust ionofmi ner alsl ikegol dcausedf alloft r
adeandaf fect edt he
economyandcauseddecl ineofMut apaSt ate.
 Shor tageofSal tandMi ner al saf fectedt r
adenegat ivel yhencecausi ngf allof
tradeandt heeconomyt her ebycausi ngt hedecl ineandf alloft hest at e.
 Por t
ugueseI nf l
uence-t heybr oughtChr istiani tywhi chdest roy edt het radi tional
reli
gi onoft heMut apapeopl e.
 Political Fact orsorr easons
 Thev astsi zeoft hest at emadecommuni cationandcont rol diffi
cul thencet he
statef all.
 Thesuccessi ont ot het hronebyweakl eader ssuchast heMukombwesand
Negomo.I nexper iencedl eader s-t her ewer ei nexper iencedl eader swhot ookov er
aftert hedeat hofMat ope( 1450)e. g.Ny ahumaandt hesef acedal otof
opposi tionandr ebel from t hei rsubj ect sandv assal chi efst her efor et hest ate
wasweakenedpol it
ical l
yandi tdecl ined.
 Civilwar sandSuccessi ondi sput es-t hi
swasduet opowerst ruggl ewi t
hi nt he
Mut apae. g.v assal chi efswhor oseagai nstt her uli
ngMut apa.Ny ahumawas
kill
edbyChangaandl aterChangawaski l
ledbyNy ahuma’ ssons.TheSt ate
becamepol i
ticallyweak.
 Rebel l
ionsbyv assal chief scauseder uptionofci vilwar sandt hedecl i
neoft he
state.
 Ref usal topayt ribut ebyv assal chi
ef scauseddi v i
sionsander upt ionofci vil wars
andt hedecl i
neoft hest ate.
 At t
acksbyMf ecanegr oupsf orexampl etheMut apaKandey aandMut apaDzeka
wer eat tackedbyt heNgoni thisweakenedt hest atepol iti
cal l
yandcausedi ts
demi se.
 Ndebel er aidsf ur therweakenedt hest atepol ili
ticallyandcausedt hedemi seof
thest ate.
 Thecomi ngofi mper i
al Eur opeanpower swhocompet edt ocont rol thest ate
causedt hedemi seoft hest ate.
 Por tuguesei nt erfer encef orexampl et hei nst allationofpuppetr uler slike
Mav hur aMhandeweakenedt hest at epol iti
cal l
yandcausedt hedownf al loft he
state.
 ThePor tugueseal sosuppl iedweaponst or i
v al chi efsandof teni nt erfer edi nci vi
l

ZJCNOTESPage35
 wars.
 Theri
seofChangamir
eDomboandtheRozviki
ngdom causedt
hedemi
seoft
he
st
atesincehebr
okeawayf
rom Mut
apaStat
e.

ZJCNOTESPage36
 THEROZVISTATE
TheRozv iki ngdom wasal soknownast heChangami restat e.TheSt at ei sbeliev edt o
hav eexistedbet ween1445and1695.Accor dingt oor alt raditi
onChangawhobr i
ef l
y
ruledtheRozv iint he1490swast hef ir
stt ouset het it
leChangami re.Changawasson
ofMat opeandasl avewi fe.Afterhi sdeat hhi ssonadopt edt het i
tleChangami reand
mov edt oGur uuswaar easout h-west ernZi mbabwe.TheChangami r
eSt ateappear edt o
hav edisappear edf or150y earsonl ytor e-emer gei nt he1680’ sasav eryst rongst ate
undert heleader shipofChangami reDombo.Hewasbel ievedt obeonceaher dsmanof
Munhumut apaMukombwe.Changami reDombowasal soknownt obeamagi cian.
Otherschool soft houghtbel i
evetheRozv i
originatedf r
om theTor waSt at e.Changami re
Domboconquer edt heKar angaandest abli
shedhi msel fintheBut wa/ Buchwaar ea, l
ater
he conquer ed t he Mut apa,Ut ev e and Many ika ar eas under t he l eadershi p of
Changami re’ssonNegomo.I nthe1670si tisbel ievedt ohav egat heredf ol
lower sand
declaredi ndependenceandwasf orcedt omov eawayf r
om t heMut apat owar dst he
southwestwer ehef ought ,conquer edandabsor bedt heTor waandKar angapeopl e
thenheest ablishedhi sownpower f
ulst ateandCapi talcalledDanamombe.Thest ate
adoptedt henameRozv ifr om theShonanameKur ozv a“Def raud”or“ Dest royers” ,soon
aftertheRozv iembar kedonaconquestpr ogram f rom sur roundi ngar easdef eat i
ngt he
Mut apa,Ut ev eandMany ika.Alltheconquer edpeopl ewer ef orcedt opayt ribute.The
th
statest r
etchedt oLi mpopo.I texistedupt ot he17 cent ur y.Changa’ sRozv iincluded
Changami re,Changami reDombo,Changami reNegomo,Changami reNechagadzi ke,
Changami re Nechapi ngur a, Changami re Rupandamanhanga, Changami re
Gumbor emv ura,Changami reChiri
samhur uandChangami r
eTor wechi pi/Tohwechi pi.

Mil
it
aryst r
engt h
 Changami r
eDombodef eatedthePor t
ugueseinmanybat t
lesbet ween1684- 1695.
 Changami r
eDombowassai dt ohav ehadspeci alpowersl i
kechangi ngthecol ourof
cat
tl
e, makingr ainandmaki ngsoldiersbrave,
howev er,t
hePor t
ugueset houghthewas
awizardormagi cian.Themayhav ebeenbecauseoft hecl evertri
cksheusedi nbat t
le.
 Hesoldierswoul dof t
enform ahalfcir
clearoundtheirenemy .
 Dombosol diersusedmanyki ndsofweaponsl i
kewoodencl ubs, assegai
s, spears,bow
andarrows, cowhi desasshieldsandRozv ioff
ici
alsusedguns.
 Mambor eceivedgunsf rom thePor tugueseast ri
butethereforet hehi ghestr anki
ng
Rozvioffi
cialshadguns.

Polit
icalOrganisat
ion
 Mambowasheadofst at
e,hist i
tlewasher edit
ary
,successi
onwascollat
eraland
chief
tainshi
pwaspassedf r
om fathertoson.
 Theki nghadt hedut yt
oinstal
lnewchi ef
s.
 Provinci
alandDi st
rictchi
efswerer esponsi
bleformaint
aini
ngpeaceandor
derinthei
r

ZJCNOTESPage37
 areas;theyal socollectedt ri
buteonbehal foftheki ng.
 Vassalchi ef
sal sopai dt r
ibutetot heki ngasasi gnofl oy al
ty,fail
uret opaytr
ibute
meantgr eatpunishmentbymi l
i
taryleader( Tumbar e).
 Tumbar et ookov erasl eaderwhenaki ngdi edunt i
lanewonewasel ected.
 Themambo wast hecommanderoft hear my ;hehad av erystrong armywhi ch
maintainedpeaceandsecur i
tyinthest ate.
 Thear mypossessedgunsacqui redf r
om Por t
ugueset hrought r
adet hereforet
heycould
rai
d nei ghbouring st at
eseasi ly.Itwas al so used t o punish rebell
iouschiefsand
subject
s.
 Themamboconduct edr eli
giouscer emoni eswi t
hthehel pofpr iest
s.
 TheKi ngwasadv isedbymi l
it
aryleader sandpr ovinci
algov ernorswhenr ul
i
ng.
 Hewasheadoft hej udiciaryandhemadesur etherewasf airness.
 Mambodi str
ibutedlandt opr ovincialchiefs.
 Headmanwasr esponsi bleforsuper vi
singhomest eads.

EconomicOrganisat
ion
 Cropcul
tiv
ati
on
They gr
ew mi l
let,sor
ghum and peas.They al
so gr
ew exoti
c crops l
i
ke maize,
water
melons,t
obacco,pot
atoesandci
tr
usfr
uit
s.Theypr
act
isedshi
ft
ingcul
ti
vat
ionand
burni
ngfarmi
ng.

 Past
orali
sm
Theyrear
edcat
tl
e,goat
sandsheep.Theygotmeat
,mi
l
kandhi
desf
rom t
hoseani
mal
s.

 Hunt
ingandGat
her
ing

Hunt
ingwasdonebymenandwasanimport
antsour
ceofmeatandhi
des.Gat
her
ing
wasdonebywomenandt
heygat
her
edber
ri
es,root
sandi
nsect
s.

 Tr
ade

Theypracti
sedint
ernalandexternalt
rade.Theyexchangedcatt
lef
orgraini
nti
mesof
draught
.Theyexportedgold,iv
ory,ir
on,copperandlead.Theyexchangedt
hesewi
th
cl
othes,beads,
seashel
ls,gunsandcandleswitht
hePor t
uguese.

 Mini
ng
Goldwast
hemainmi
ner
al,i
twasmi nedatBuchwa.Theyal
somi
nedcopper
,ir
onand
l
ead.Ir
onwasusedt
omanuf act
uretool
sandweapons.Copperwasusedt omake

ZJCNOTESPage38
 bangl
es.

 Tribute
Allsubject
sandPor
tuguesepai
dtr
ibute.Ataninst
all
ati
onofnewchief
sthechi
efwas
obligedtopayt
ri
but
easassignofall
igi
ancetheref
orethechi
efpai
dtri
but
etotheki
ng
annually

 Craf
twor
k
Theymadewoodcar
vingsandpot
ter
y.

 Bl
acksmi
thi
ng
Bl
acksmi
thsmadei
ront
ool
s.

 Fi
shi
ng
I
tsuppl
ement
edt
hei
rdi
et.

 Rai
ding

Theyrai
dedneighbour
ingst
atesf
orcat
tl
eandwomen.
Soci
alorgani
sati
on

 Peopl
ewer
eor
gani
sedi
ntohomest
eads.

 Al
i
nageheadensur
edgoodconduct
ionsofr
eli
giouscer
emoni
esandot
hercer
emoni
es.

 Therewassexualdivi
sionoflabour
;manhadsev er
alsoci
alduti
eswhi
chi
ncl
uded
herdi
ngcat
tl
e,bui
l
dinghouses,
makingtool
s,ski
nni
nganimal
setc.

 Femalesdidhouseholdchoressuchast aki
ngcar eofchi
l
dren,cooki
ng,gat
her
ing
fi
rewoodandwil
dfrui
ts,f
etchi
ngwaterandmakingpott
ery
.

 Homest
eadswer
erel
atedi
ntoMoy
otot
em.

 Theybel
i
evedi
n“Mwar
i”whom t
heywor
shi
pedt
hroughShonapr
iest
s

 Shonapr
iest
sli
nkedt
hel
i
vingandt
hedead.

 Theybel
i
evedmambodescendedf
rom God.

 Ancest
ralspi
ri
tswereal
sovit
al;t
her
ewer
eot
herspi
ri
tswhi
cht
heybel
i
evedt
oli
vei
n
mountai
nsandpoolsofwat
er.

 Theypract
isedto“kur
onzer
a”wher
ebythosewi
thoutcat
tleweregiv
enbyt
heki
ngt
o
useformanureandmilk,
butwer
enotal
l
owedtosellt
hem orki
l
lthem.

ZJCNOTESPage39
 Theysanganddancedoni
mpor
tantoccasi
onsl
i
keweddi
ngs,f
uner
alsandr
eli
gious
cer
emonies.

 Ter
ri
tor
ial
medi
umssol
vedsuccessi
ondi
sput
es.

 Spi
ri
tmedi
umsf
ormedmember
sofmambo’
scounci
landcoul
dmakedeci
sionsf
ort
he
st
ate.

Decl i
neoft heRozv iStat
e
 Civilwar swhi chwer ethenf oll
owedbysuccessi ondi sput eswhi chdisruptedot her
economi cactiviti
es.
 Droughtal socausedt hedecl i
neassomepeopl emov edt of avourablepar
tsoft hear ea
andi talsoweakenedt heireconomy .
 Somepeopl emov edt ofav our
ablepar t
softheareaandi talsoweakenedt heireconomy .
 Ov erpopulati
on-t hekingl ostcontrolandledtosomepol it
ical di
visi
ons.
 Attacks by Ngunigr oups r unning away from Mf ecane -t hey were attacked by
Zwangendabawhenhewasdef eatedbySoshangane.Theywer ealsoattackedand
i
ncor poratedi ntot heNdebel eState.
 Declinei nTr ade-t heylostcont rolint r
adewhichoncemadet hem v er
ypr osperous,
l
imi t
ed t echnol ogymade mi ning diffi
cul
tand elephantpopul ati
on was decr easing
rapidly.
 Comi ngofEur opeans-t heywer efinal
lydest
royedbyt heBSAC l edbyCeci lJohn
Rhodesi n1890.

ZJCNOTESPage40
 THENGUNISTATESOFSOUTHERNAFRI
CA

TheNgunipeopleli
vedi nfer
ti
lel
andalongtheeastcoastwhichisnow Sout
hAfr
ica.
TheywereBantupeopl ewhounder st
oodeachot her
’slanguageseventhought
hey
spokedi
ff
erentdial
ects.TheywereXhosa,Khumal
o,Zulu,Tembu,Mthet
hwaMpondo,
Ndwandwe,andothers.

Socialsy
stem
 Member sofonef ami
l
yl i
vedtogetherinafamil
ycompoundofscat
ter
edhomest
eads
buil
tinahalfcir
clewit
ht hecatt
lekraalbui
lti
nthesi
desofhi
ll
swiththehut
sfaci
ng
towardstheeast
.

 Thehomesteadhadupt
o1000hut
swi
tht
hemot
heroft
hehomest
eadl
i
vingi
nthe
cent
rehut
.

Economi csy stem

 Ngunipeopl ewerebothcult
ivatorsandpast urewhi chmeanst heycul t
ivatedaswel las
keepingwhol eherdsofcatt
leandgoat s.Cattlewer eherdedbysmal lsepar ategr oups
ofpeopleeachher dorgani
sedar oundar oyalclan
 Amongt heircropswer esorghum,kidneybeans,pumpki ns,mel ons,gour ds,mi l
l
etand
othergrains.Tobaccoandmai zewerecul ti
vatedlater.
 Cattl
epr ov i
dedmeat ,
hidesandmi lkwhichwer eimportantintheNguni diet.
 Cattl
ewer eal sousedtocarrygoods.
 Nguni womenmadecl aypotsforcookingandcar ry
ingwat er.
 TheNguni peoplewerehunters,thechiefwor eleopardskins.
 Women wor e copperand i r
on beads as j ewel l
ery;theyal so wor e ear r
ings,i v
ory
bracelet
s, shell
sfeat
hersandv ari
ousbut tons.
 Landwaspr opert
yoft hechiefdom andt heki nghadt hepowert odistr
ibutel andand
nobodycoul dbedepr i
vedoft hisimpor t
antmeansofpr oductionandcoul dnotbeso
hardast herewaspl entyofi
t.

Poli
ti
calsyst
em
 Thechiefwaspolit
ical
,mil
i
tary,j
udici
alandkingdom headtohelphi
speople.
 Hegav efi
naljudgementincourtcasesandcar r
iedoutrel
igi
ousrit
ual
sbutwasnota
di
ctator
.
 Hispowerwasapopul arassembl yandbyasy stem ofadvi
sorycounci
lswhichwas
madeupal li
mpor t
antdeci
sions,t
hissystem wascentral
i
sedbutloosel
yadmini
ster
ed.

Hi
stor
icalchangei
nNguni
land
Whydidthechangecomeatthet
ur he19thcent
noft ury
?

ZJCNOTESPage41
 TheNguni clansuddenlychangedandbeganf ighti
ngamongstt hemsel
ves.
 Thisfighti
ngwel dedtheZul unat i
onintothemostpower fulst
ateofitskindi
nAfri
ca.
 Somecl ai
mt hatthechangeswer ecausedbyt hecomi ngoft heEuropeansandbetter
fi
ghtingmet hods.
 Otherssuggestt hatthisoccurredasar esultoft hestrai
nscausedbyt hepopul
ati
on
growt handl andshortage.
 Thiscount rywasf er
ti
leandf reefrom diseases
 Naturalincreasei npopulati
onandshor tageofl and,t
hiscausedi nter
nalconf
li
ctsina
pastoralsocietyinneedofgr azinggrounds.
 Chiefsbegant oimprov etheirmet hodsofwar far
echangedf rom agameofski l
ltoa
seri
ousst ruggleforsurviv
al.

Dingisway ooft heMt hethwa

t
h
Int hel ate18 cent uryDi ngiswayor emov edhisbr ot
heraschi efandtookov erthe
l
eader shipoft heMt hethwacl an.Dingisway owasani nnov ati
vemanwhoi nt
roduced
revoluti
onar ymet hodsofwar faretoNguni land.Heabol ishedlongi ni
ti
ati
onceremonies
wer ey oung men and women oft he same age gr oup no l ongerhad t o at
tend
circumci si
onschool swer etheywer ei ni
ti
atedint
omanhoodandwomanhoodbyel ders.
InsteadDi ngisway otookt hey oungmani nt ohi
sar myi ngroupsoft hesameage.He
organisedt hem intomi li
taryuni t
scalledregimentssot heycoul dachievethei
rmanhood
ont hebat tlefiel
d.Di ngisway o’sarmyspar edpeoplet hedef eated.Bythetimeofhi s
Deat hin1818hedef eatedmanychi efsinNguni l
and.Hehadcr eatedanempi r
eunited
byhi sruleandbyhi sarmy .I
nt hiswayDi ngiswayocreatedast andingarmyinwhichhi s
soldierscouldst udyandpr acti
senewmet hodsoffighti
ng.

RiseofTshaka
Tshakawasbor nin1787.Hisf atherwasSenzangakhona,aZul uchiefandhi smother
wasNandi .SenzangakhonaandNandiwer enev erformal
lymar r
iedt her ef
orTshaka
grew upwi t
hhi smot heramongt heLangani ,Gwabeandf i
nallyMt het hwa.Tshaka
j
oinedtheMt hethwa’sageregimentandpr ovedt obev er
ybraveasar egi mentall
eader
.
HebecameDi ngiswayo’smil
it
aryadv isoratat enderage.WhenSenzangakhonadi edin
1816,Tshakasei zedtheZuluthrone;hewassuppor tedbyDi ngiswayoandbecamet he
Zuluchi
ef.Zulumeansr ai
norheav en.ZuluSt ateissaidtohav eorigi
nat edf r
om aman
call
edZulukaNt ombel awhoprobabl ywast heancestoroftheZul uclan.

Factor
sleadi
ngt otherise
 Compet i
ti
onforfer
ti
leland
InNgunil
andtherewaspopul at
ioni
ncreaseandatt hesamet i
meherdsalsoincreased,
peoplebegant ofi
ghtf orcontr
oloflandf orcul
ti
v at
ionofcropsaswel lasgr azi
ng
ani
mal s,
ther
eforeTshakaprovedtobev er
ypowerfulanddefeatedal
otofstateshence

ZJCNOTESPage42
 hi
sri
set
opower
.

 Competi
tionfort
radewithPor tuguese
Port
uguesewantedcat t
le,freshmeatandi vory.Thenumberofcat
tl
eastat
ehadthe
moreitwouldsupplymeatt othePor t
uguese.TheZuluhadal
otofcat
tl
eandcont
rol
l
ed
hunt
inggroundsforiv
ory,therefor
eTshakaemer gedaspowerf
ul.

 Mi
l
itar
ymet
hodsl
ear
ntbyTshakaf
rom Di
ngi
sway
o.

 Tshaka’
sambi ti
ouschar
acter
Tshakawast easedbyhispeersashegrewup,sohewasdet
ermi
nedt
opr
ovet
othem
thathecoul
dachi ev
esomethingi
nli
feandbecameachi
ef.

Mili
taryref
orms
 Assegai/Shortstabbi
ngspear
Tshakai nt
roducedtheassegai,whichencouragedhandt ohandfighti
ng;i
tmadesur e
thattheenemywaski ll
ed.Lossoft hi
sassegaimeanthar shpunishment/executi
on.
Anyst abatthebackwasconsi der
edcowardiceanditat
tractedpunishmentofdeat
h.

 Bar
e-foot
ed
Sol
dierswentt
owarbar
e-f
oot
edsoast
oincr
easespeed.

 Ageregi
ments
Sol
dier
s were or
gani
sed inregiment
s accor
ding t
ot hei
rages.Regi ment
s wer
e
di
sci
pli
nedandloy
altoTshaka,
theywer
etrai
nedtofi
ghteff
ect
ivel
yinbat
tl
es.

 Longshiel
ds
Longshiel
dswer edev
elopedandweremadeofcow hi des.Thefactthattheshi
elds
weretheheightofamanmadei tpossi
bletoshi
eldsol
dier
sfrom enemies;Theshi
eld
wasalsousedtohookawayenemiesshi
elds.

 Discouragementofear lymar ri
ages
Earlymar r
iageswer edi scouragedasonecoul dnotfightwellthi
nki
ngofthefamily
home,Howev er
,sol di
erswho di spl
ayed ski
llbykil
li
ng a lotofenemieslat
ergot
beauti
fulwomenr aideddur ingwar .Rai
dedmenwer eincorporat
edint
otheZuluar
my ,
somet i
mes t heyf oughtf ort ot
aldest r
ucti
on bykil
li
ng men,women and chil
dren.
Thereforenosoldierwasal lowedt omarrybeforef
ort
y.

 Banningofci
rcumcisi
on
Tshaka banned the syst
em ofci
rcumci
sion as i
tpr
event
ed y
oung boy
sfr
om
part
ici
pati
nginwar.

ZJCNOTESPage43
 Tshakausedguer
ri
ll
awarfar
ebyatt
ackingatni
ghtandatt
imesambushat
tacks.
 Tshakausedwit
chdoct
orstotr
eati
njur
edsoldi
ers.

 Tshakaemploy
edspi
es
Theseweresenttogat heri
nfor
mati
onaboutt
heenemy
.Theyhel
pedi
nset
ti
nga
sui
tabl
eregi
mentt
oattacktheenemy
.

 Tshakamadeuseofsmokesignalsforcommuni
cat
ion.
 Eachsol
dierhadadi
sti
nct
ivehead-gear
.
 Cowhornf or
mati
on

Thi
spr
ovedef
fect
iveasenemi
eswer
edi
str
act
ed

Economi cor ganisation

 Theycul t
ivatednearhomest eads, theygr ewmai zeandmi ll
et.
 Ment ookcar eofcat tle,manuf acturedandr epairedweaponsandot herhouseholdtools
e.g.hoes; theyal soconst ruct edhut saswel lasrepai r
ingthem.
 Someski l
fulwomenwer ei nv olvedi nbeadwor k;pot ter
ymaki ngandmaki ngofmat s.
Weav i
ngwasdonet opr oducemat s.
 Theyt radedi ront ool
swi t
heachot her.
 Theycul t
ivatedandgat her edt oi mpr ovethei
rdiet .
 Theykeptcat t
lef ormeat ,mi lkandhi des.
 Theypai dt r
ibutet othechi efi nt hef orm ofcattle,specialanimalskinsandot herir
on
tools.
 Theypr acti
sedext er
nalt radewi thEngl ishtr
ader s;beadsandcl ot
hwer eexchangedf or
i
v ory.Ivoryhunt edbel ongedt ot heki ng.
 Theyal sopr actisedhunt ingandhunt ingpart
ieswer eputintoregiments.

oPol i
ti
calor ganisation
 Theki ngwasanabsol uteruler
;hewassupr emeadminist
rat
orthoughhehadacouncil
ofIndunaswhi chadv i
sedhi m whenr ul
ing.Thoughhegotadvi
cehisdeci
sionwasfi
nal.
 Dutiesoft hekingi ncluded:
 All
ocat i
ngl and.
 Distri
buti
ngcat tl
e.
 Commanderoft hear my.
 ChiefJudge.
 I
niti
atedi nxwalaandi nkataceremoni es.
 Chiefswer ev it
al astheyruledt hei
rchieftai
nci
es.
 Chiefswer el oyaltotheki ng.
 Thest atewasdi videdintor egi
ment altownsandawomanwaschosent oov er
ri
deeach

ZJCNOTESPage44
 town.Thiswasawayofcont roll
ingregi
mentsandal sogav einfor
mat iont
oTshakaon
theIndunar esponsibleofthattown;thi
sencouragedthechecki ngont hebalanceofthe
administ
ration.
 Each regiment alt own encir
cled a huge catt
le pen as each t own was al locat
ed
regi
ment alcattl
e.
 Outl
y i
ngtri
but arystatespaidtr
ibutetoTshakaasasignofr espect.
 Youthswer edi videdintomi l
i
tarygroupswhichcouldpr ov
ideser vicet ot
hest atee.g.
workingfort heking;theycouldalsorai
dandhunt.

 Theki
ngcont
rol
l
edt
hei
rwor
kleadi
ngt
opubl
i
cor
der
.

SocialOr ganisati
on
 TheZul ubeli
evedi nGodwhom t heycall
edUnkulunkulu.
 Theybel i
evedi nwor l
dlyspi ri
ts“ Amadlozi”whom peopl ewoul dcommuni catewit
hin
ti
mesofneed.
 Theybel i
evedt hatev erymi sfortunethatpeopleencount eredwascausedbysor cer
y
(magi calpracti
se).
 Sett
lement s/mi l
it
ar yt
ownswer ecircul
arandeachset tlementenci r
cledacatt
lepen.
 Cattl
ewer ev it
alast heydet ermi nedone’ssocialst atus;theywer eusedforpayi
ng
l
obol a.
 Polygamywaswi del
ypr actisedsucht hataZul ufami lywasbui l
tonapol ygamous
family.
 Zulubecamet henat i
onallanguagesot hoseincorporatedi nt
ot hest at
ehadtospeak
thelanguage.
 I
nxwal aceremonywasi niti
atedbyt hekingandeveryZul umemberhadt oat
tend.
 I
nkat awasanat i
onalceremonyt hatpromot edZuluidentity.

Probl
emsf acedbyTshakadur i
nghi srei
gn
 HismosttrustedIndunae.g.Mzili
kaziranaway,thi
smadet hestateweakerandhefel
t
i
nsecure.
 Hedidnotgetsuppor tfr
om hisfamilyandrel
ati
ves.
 Hegotmanyt hreatsfrom Br
it
ish,NdwandweandBoer s.
 Thedeathofhismot hermadehi mr ulewit
hangerandalsoremindedhim ofhi
sdeat
h.
 Hehadunsuccessf ulmil
it
arycampai gnsandwasdef eat
edbytheBrit
ish.

I
mpactofTshaka’srule
 Zul
ubecameav er
yl argestateunderTshakaduet or ai
ds,alotofpeopl
ewer e
i
ncorpor
atedi
ntothest ateandtheStat
eexpandedfrom Pongolari
vert
othenort
hi.e.
Tugel
ariv
eruptoIndianoceanintheeast.
 Zul
uwasauni f
iedStatebecausepeoplewhower eabsorbedhadthesamecult
ureand

ZJCNOTESPage45
 l
anguage.
 Ager egi
ment sbr oughtyoungpeopl etogetherastheynolongerstayedi nhomesteads,
butregimental t
ownst hereforetheybecamemor eloyaltoTshakathant heclanhead.
 TheSt at
ebecamedomi nantinSout her
nAfricaandwasknownast he“ f
ight
ingmachine”
duetomi li
taryreformsintroducedbyTshaka.
 Developmentofpr i
deintheZul uSt ateduetomi l
it
arysuccessinwar .
 TheZul uSt atebecameav eryrichst at
eeconomi call
y;catt
leraidedwer eal otand
peoplebenef i
tedthroughmeat ,
mi lk,hi
desandmanur eetc.

Decl
ineofZuluStat
e
 Deat
hofTshaka
I
neff
ecti
veleader
stookov
er.

 DeathofNandi
Tshakafel
temptywi
thoutherasshewashi
sadv
isor
.

 Mfecane.
Hi
smostt rust
edI
ndunasr
anawaye.
g.Mzi
l
ikaziwi
thsomeoft
heZul
upeopl
eandt
he
st
atewasweakened.

 Endl
essmi
l
itar
ycampai
gns.

MFECANE

Itr
eferstowarswhi cht ookpl aceamongt henNgunipeopl earoundt he18th cent
ur y,
Ngunipeoplei
ncl udedmanygr oupsspeaki ngdialectse.g.Zulu,Mthet hwa, Xhosa,Hl
ubi ,
Mpondo,Zizietc.Newst ateswer efoundduet omi li
tar
ypowerandt rading.By1820s,
onest at
ehad emer ged t o dominateot hers( Mt hethwaofDi ngisway o,Ngwaneof
Sobhuza)i.
e.Zul ustate.Ot herstateswer eforcedt omi gratefrom Nguni lande. g.
NdebeleofMzilikaziandKol oloofSebet wane.Al otofdest ructi
onr esultedaswar far e
spr
eadt oCentralAf ri
caasdeat handdest ructi
onwasgr eat l
yexper ienced.Thi st
ime
wascal l
edMfecanebyt heZul umeani ng“ Greatcr ushi
ng”andDi f
aqanebyt heSot ho
meaning“Scatt
er i
ng”.I
twasal soref
erredtoast i
meofsuf f
ering,tr
oubl e,mov ementet c.

CausesofMf ecane
 EconomicandPol i
tical
development
Norther
nNgunipeopl ewer efarmer sduringthe19th centuryandheav yrai
nfal
lwas
recei
vedleadi
ngtogoodcr opy i
elds,theareahadgoodsoi l
sandv egetat
ionl
eadi
ngto
surpl
uses.As a r esul
tpopul ati
on increased.As popul ati
on i
ncreased her
ds al
so

ZJCNOTESPage46
 i
ncreasedinsizeandtheref
orecouldnotbemov edf
reel
ytothehill
sandv il
lagesfor
grazi
ng.Therewasani mbalanceinpopulati
ondensit
yandav ail
ableresourcesso
competit
iont
ocontrol
thebestlandsforagr
icul
tur
eandgrazi
ngpurposesdeveloped.

 Ageregiments
Asst at
esgrew ager
egi
ment si
ncr
easedinimportancee.g.wereAmabut hopromoted
unit
yandprovidedanarmyascompetit
iont
ocont roll
andincr
eased,ther
efor
et her
ole
ofthear mybecamemor eimport
antandinit
iat
ionceremonieswer ebannedsot hat
youngmenwoul dpar
ti
cipat
eint
hearmy.

 Hunti
ngandGat heri
ng
Thisledtoalar gescaledest
ructionofwi l
dgame.Power f
ulstatescouldgetl arger
areasforhunt
ingast heycouldov er
powerweakerst ates.Elephanthuntingledt oa
great
erdemandofi voryatDelagoaBaybyt heEur opeans,goodcont rolofsucht rade
meantalotofwealthtoaparti
cularstate,
andthisal
someantgoodr ewardstosubjects.
Thedesir
etocont r
oltr
adeledtogrowt hofst
ates.

 Drought
Rainscamet oanendanddr oughtwasexperi
encedforaboutt
eny ear
s.Cr
opsfai
led,
pastureswitheredl
eadingtowidespreadfamine.ThisbecameknownasMadl atule
fami nemeaningMadl atul
emeaning“lethi
m eatand keep quiet
”.Competi
ti
onf or
scarceresourcesbecamesev er
easpeoplerai
dedeachot herf
orcattl
eandst
oresof
grain.

CourseofMf ecane
 When r aided some chi efdoms broke up and mi grated disorgani
sed as desper ate
beggar s,theyhadnot imet opackupf oodorcat tl
e.
 Somemi gratedasst rongmenandwomenunderl eader shi
pandmostl i
kel
ynott obeg.
 Whol echi efdomswer eterri
fi
edoft heZuluandi tsr ai
dssomucht hattheymov edt o
saferlandswhi lesomer emainedandpaidtri
but et otheZul u.
 NgwaneofSobhuzawasdef eat
edbyNdwandweofZwi deandmov edtonorthpar tof
Pongol aRi ver ,hissoldiersadaptedtacti
csoft heZul u,Mthet hwaandNdwandwe.Thi s
madehi m conquerot herweakgr oupsandi ncor poratedt hem int
ohisnew ki ngdom
(Swaziland) .
 SoshanganeofGaza- Nguniwasi nZwi de’
sar myasoneoft hechiefoffi
cers,when
Tshakadef eat edtheNdwandwei n1818heescapedandabsor bedsomei mmi grants
(Northwar ds)andhewasabl etoconquerSout hernZi mbabweandMozambi quebut
wasnotassuccessf ulasSobhuzaashi spolit
ical infl
uencewasweak.
 Zwangendabaoft heNgonial so escaped whent heNdwandwewer edefeated,he
fol
lowedSoshanganebutpar tedwhent hetwocl ashedandl ostthebattl
ein1831and

ZJCNOTESPage47
 theNgoni tr
av el
ledt
oNor t
hwestZi mbabwe.
 Zwangendabahadaser i
esofbat tl
eswi t
ht heShonaunderChangami redy nasty
,fai
li
ng
tosubduet hem completel
y.Hecr ossedtheZambezi ri
verandfinall
ysettl
edinTanzania.
 AfterZwangendaba’ sdeatht heyseparated,onegroupsettledinEast ernZambi aand
theot hergroupcausedhav ocinSout hernTanzaniaandMal awiast heyusedNguni
war f
aretoov erwhel
m weakergr oups.
 Mzi l
i
kazioft heKhumal o wasal so partoft heNdwandwe,butpr esided overthe
Khumal o clan ashewasl oyalto Tshaka,Zwi dehad conflict
ed wi t
h Mashobane,
Mzi l
i
kazi’
sf athersoasar esulttherewashat redbetweent hegr oupsandMzi li
kazi
sidedwi t
hTshaka,butsoonerconf l
ict
edbecauseofr esourcesashepr eferr
edtogi v
e
them totheKhumal othantheZul u.

ImpactofMf ecane
 Deat hofmanypeopl eduet ohungerast heylosttheircattl
e,sheepandgoat s.
 Abandonmentofci rcumci si
onasi tkepty oungboy sawayf rom acti
vedut yforal ong
ti
mei .
e.i
nthear my.
 Dest r
ucti
onofchi efdomswhi chbeganMf ecanee. g.Ndwandwe,Mt hethwa,Ngwane
andnewonesemer gede. g.KololoofSebet waneandNdebel eofMzi li
kazi.
 Somel ar
gear easwer el
eftdepopul atede.g.Sout hofTugel ar i
ver
 Spr ead ofNgunicul t
ure and l anguage t hr
ough assi milati
on.Howev er,i n some
i
nstancest heNguni languagewasdest royed.
 Newwart acti
cswer espreadi nSout hernandCent ralAfr
ica.
 Peopl efr
om st rongerchiefdomsbenef i
tedf rom theloottakenf rom weakerchi efdoms.
 Leader swereappoi ntedduet ot al
entandr atherthaninherit
ing.
 Abal ancebet weenhumanpopul ati
onandl andav ail
ablewasest abl
ishedl eadingt o
stabil
ityi
nther egion.

ZJCNOTESPage48
 THENDEBELESTATE

Ndebel
eMi
grat
ion

Ndebel e means man ofl ong shi elds.Mzi l

ikazi’s Khumal o was par tofZwi de’
s
Ndwandwebutl aterjoinedTshaka’ sZuluSt ate.In1821Mzi likaziwassentbyTshakat o
raidt heSot ho,Mzi li
kazithendeci denott ohandov ert her aidedcat tl
e.Tshakasentan
armyast hiswasr egardedasr ebelli
onagai nsthi m;t heZul uar mywasdef eatedbyt he
Ndebel e.I tsleaderwasMzi li
kazisonofMashobaneoft heKhumal oclan.TheZul u
armywassentf ort hesecondt i
meandMzi li
kaziwasdef eatedatNt umbanehi l
lbut
somewar ri
orswer eleft.In1822t heNdebel emov edacr ossDr akensbur g.Bet ween
18221nd1823t heNdebel er eachedOl phantRi verandt heyr estedatEkupemel eni
(resti
ngpl ace).Theycont i
nuedt or ai
dnei ghbour i
ngst at
es,br i
ngingf or
thcat t
le,men
andwomenwhoi ntegratedintot hestate.Ekupemel eniwasnotav erygoodar eaasi t
wascl oset oZul ulandandt hePediwer eat hreatt ot heNdebel e,thear eaalsol acked
goodgr azinglandsespeci al
lyafterthe18323/ 24dr aught ,sincei twasr est
ingplacet he
Ndebel eheadt omov e.Theymov edt oPretor i
aandt heirnew set tl
ementwascal l
ed
Nhl ahlandel a,atNhl ahlandelatheyat t
ractedt heSot hot hrought heirraidsinBot swana,
Lesot hoandZi mbabwe.Thear eawasst il
lcl oset oZul ulandwhi chwasnow under
Din’aniandi n1830Di nganisentanar myt oat tackt heNdebel e.TheNdebel ealsof elt
i
nsecur east heyexper iencedthreatsfrom Kor aandKhoi san.

 Aftert heat t
ackbyt heZul ut heNdebel ewer eal soat t
ackedbyt heGr iguas, Tswanaand
Koracont i
nuouslyattackedt heNdebel eespeci all
yf orhunt i
nggr ounds,t heNdebel e
thensentanar myanddef eatedt hegroupsbutl ostmen, womenandcat tl
e.
 TheNdebel emov edfurthert oMar icoandt heirnewset tl
ementwasatMasega.
 TheNdebel eleftMasegaduet ofrequentattacksandi n1837t heymov edf urt
hernor t
h.
 Att hi
spoi nttheydivi
dedt hemsel vesintotwogr oupssi ncethegr oupwast oolargeto
cont r
ol andf eed.
 Onegr oupwasunderChi efIndunaGundwaneNdi wenialsocal ledKal i
pi.Ithadol d
people,women,chi l
dr en,sheep,goat s and Mzi li
kazi’
s chi l
dren;Nkul umaniand
Lobengul a.Thisgroupmov edt oMzi ngwanev all
eyhi l
lwher etheyreached
theonceRozv istat
e,theynamedt heplaceGi bixhegu( Nhav ayatumbar e) .
 Thesecondf oll
owedal ongerr oute.Mzili
kaziwast heleaderandwashel pedbyI ndunas
i
ncludi ng Magqekeni ,t heymov ed west wards t owar ds Lake Ngamil eading tot he
Kalahar iDeser t.Theymov edeast wardst owar dsZambezibutt hear eawast set
se
i
nfest ed.
 WhenMzi l
i
kaziheardthatNkul umanihadbeeni nstall
edaski ng, her ushedt oGibixhegu
andki lledNdi weniandsomeoft hechi efswhohadi nstal
ledNkul umani asking.

ZJCNOTESPage49
 Nkul
umanir
anawayand Lobengul
awashi
dden and r
eleased whenMzi
l
ikaz
ihad
cal
meddown.

 Mzili
kazithenestabl
ishedhi scapit
alatI ny
athiandin1840i nMatabel
eland.Itis
bel
ievedtheNdebelear r
ivedinpresentdayZimbabwei n1841andfoundRozv ist
ate
ser
iouslyweakenedandest abl
i
shedtheirst
ateinthenowmodernci
tyofBul
away o.

 Fact
orsl
eadi
ngt
other
iseofNdebel
eSt
ate

 Mzi
l
ikazi
abil
it
ytorul
e
HesavedtheKhumalof r
om Tshaka’
srut
hlessnessbyl
eadi
ngt
hem,t
hroughal
ong
j
our
neyi.
e.fr
om Ngunil
andtoZi
mbabwe.

 Str
ongarmy
TheNdebelehadav erystr
ongarmybecauseMzi l
i
kazihadl earntal
otoff i
ght
ing
methodsfrom Tshaka.Thearmyrai
dedal otofpeopleforcattl
eandgrai
nast hey
tr
avel
ledandwer eabletofeedtheNdebel
e.Thearmywasal soablet
odef endthe
peopl
efrom enemiesl
eadi
ngtothecr
eat
ionoftheNdebelest
ate.

 Enoughminer
alweal
th
Theyhadalotofgol
dwhichenabledthem t
opracti
sebot
hinter
nalandext
ernalt
rade.
Theytr
adedwitht
hePort
ugueseandtheArabshencepr
osper
it
yofthestat
e.

 Str
ongeconomy
Food was in abundance as they suppl
emented r
aidi
ng wit
h agr
icul
tur
ethough
agri
cul
tur
ewasonasmal l
scale;
thisl
edt ogrowt
hofthestat
e.

Poli
ticalorganisation
 TheNdebel estatewasmor ecentral
i
sedandcov eredal i
mi tedar
ea.
 All
Ndebel ecattlewerelocatedwithi
n80km oft hekings’vill
age
 Outly
ingar easoft heRozv iEmpirewerekepti ntoucht hroughambassadorsandt
ri
but
e
tother oyalcourtandshr i
neofMwar i
.
 Theki ngoccupi edcentralandalmostpower fulposit
ionint heNdebelest
ate.
 Theki ngwast hecommanderoft hear myandchi efjudge.
 Hewasal sochi efadministr
atorandreli
giousleader.
 Hemademaj ordeci si
onsandpowerofl i
feanddeat hov erthesubject
s.

ZJCNOTESPage50
 Hewashel pedt oadmi nistert hestatebyaf ewwi semeni nt headv i
sorycounci l
.
 TheMpakat iwasmadeupofsel ect edchi efsandmember soft her oyalfami ly
;they
madeal ldeci sionsaf fectingt hest ate.
 Abi ggeradv isor ycounci lcalledt heIzikul uincl udedal lchiefs,el dersknownf orwi sdom,
tradit
ionalcust oms and hi story;t hese gr oups di scussed al lnat ionali ssues i n
accor dancet olocal traditionbef oreref erringt hem t oMpakat i andt heki ng.
 Mzi l
ikazior gani sedhisst ateinr egiment altowns.
 Eacht ownwasaset t
lementofsol di erandsuppor ti
ngci vi
lian’scommandedbyan
Induna.
 TheI ndunawasanadmi ni str
at orofthet ownaswel lasmi li
tarycommander .
 Theser egionalgov ernor skeptt heki ngr egul arl
ybr i
efedont heact i
vi
tiesandt hest ate
affairsofthepr ov i
nce.
 Ther egiment alt ownswer egroupedi nto4pr ovincesheadedbyanappoi ntedchi ef.
 Pr ovi
nceswer edi v
idedi ntor egiment alt ownsandanI ndunawasi nchar geofeach
regiment ,howev er
,theirposi tionwasnother editary,someoft heking’swi v
escont rolled
thepr ovi
ncest hereforet hesewi veshadpowerov erIndunas,t hisencour agedt ot al
control ofthest ateast hewi vesr epor tedanydev el
opment sandpr oblemst ot heking.

Soci
o-Pol
i
ticalor
gani
sat
ion

Thest
atewasdi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreecl
asses:

 Zansi
Const itutedoft heor iginalKhumal owhof ormedar i
stocracyclass,theymadeup15%of
thet otalpopul at i
on;al thought heywer ef ew theywer ev erypower f
ulandpr i
vil
eged.
MostI ndunaswer eel ectedf r
om t hiscl ass;theywer enotal l
owedt omar r
yf rom Enhla
andHol ebutwi t htimecoul d,theEnhl aandhol ewer enotal l
owedt omar ryfrom Zansi.
 Enhla
Thismadeupal lelement st hathadbeeni ncooperatedintothest ateeit
herbyf orceor
voluntar yont heirjour neyfrom Nguni landt oZimbabwe.Theymadeup25%oft het ot
al
popul ationandi ncludedt heSot ho, TswanaandKor aet c.theywer enotaspr i
vil
egedas
theZansi butwer etreat edbetterthant heHol eclass.
 Hole
Thiswasmadeupoft heShona, Karanga, Leya,Nyayietc;theymadeup60%oft het ot
al
popul ation.Theywer emostdi sadv antagedi nt hestateast heydidmostoft hehar d
wor kint hest ate.Theywer enotel ectedasI ndunasoranyot herleadershippositionsin
thest ate.

Economi
cor
gani
sat
ion

ZJCNOTESPage51
 Cult
ivat
ion
Theypracti
sedcropculti
vati
onbutonasmallscal
ebecausethear eacouldhar
dly
Receiveenoughr ai
nfal
l
.Theygr ew cr
opssuchasmai ze,mil
let,sorghum,pumpki
ns,
melons,potat
oes,beansetc.Bot
hmenandwomencul ti
vatedcrops.

 Past orali
sm
Theywer eal sopastorali
stswhokeptsheep,cat tl
eandgoat s.Cattl
ewer eofgr eat
er
valuecompar edt osheepandgoat s.Therewer eZebut ho(Nat i
onalherds)andI nkomo
Zamat onga(Privateherdsandki ng’sher ds).Ther i
chloanedcat tletothosewhohad
noneandt hispromot edpeaceamongt heNdebel e.Cattlewereusedf orlobolapayment ,
asf oodatf unerals,
weddings,inxalaceremonyandi nti
mesofdr aught.
Trade
Ndebel epr acti
sedbot hint
ernalandext ernaltrade.Externallytheytradedwi t
ht he
Por t
uguese and Ar abs forf i
rearms,beads,cl oth and cer amics,foreigners were
i
nter estedingol dandi vory.I
nternall
yt heyt r
adedcat tl
eforgr ai
nandi ront ool
se.g.
hoes, spearsandkni fes.

 Rai
ding
Wasv i
talamongsttheNdebele,theyobtainedfoodyoungmenandwomen.Youngman
wereneededt obuil
dast r
ongar myt odef endthestat
e;t
hisal
someantapowerful
nat
ion.Herdsal
soincreasedthr
oughr ai
ding.

 Tri
bute
I
twaspai dbysubjectsasasi gnofr
espect
;itcoul
dbei
nthef
orm ofcat
tl
e,gr
ain,
fi
rewood,
iront
ool
s,leopar
d’sski
nandl
abour.

 Hunti
ngandGatheri
ng
Ther
ewascl eardi
vi
sionofl
abourasmenhunt
edandwomengat
hered.Ani
mal
ssuch
as,I
mpalas,Kudusetcwerehuntedwhi
l
stwomengat
her
edberr
ies,bul
bsandsmal
l
i
nsects.
 Cr
aftswor
k
Womenwer ei
nvol
vedinweavi
ngbasket
s;basket
scoul
dbeusedt
ost
oregr
ain.Pot
ter
y
workwasdoneandthushav
ingpot
sforcooki
ng.

 Bl
acksmi
thi
ng
Thi
swasmainl
ydonebyandmadehoes,
spear
sandkni
ves.

Rel
igi
on

ZJCNOTESPage52
 Ngunigr oupswor shippedahi ghGod( Ml i
mo) ,Mli
moandUnkul unkul
uwer ethesame,
theNdebel eadapt edMl imofr om theTswanaandwhent heyr eachedZi mbabwet hey
adoptedt heShonahi ghGod( Mwar i)
,Mwar iwasbel i
evedtobepower fulsowhenr ai
n
fai
ledtheyconsul t
edMwar i
.
 TheNdebel esentannual gi
ft
sandof fer
ingst otheMwar ishr
ine.
 The Kar anga and Rozv iwor shipped “Mhondor o”a l i
on spir
it,power sofGod and
ancestorscoul dbeonlyreachedt hroughMhondor oorking.
 Theyhel danannualgat her
ing,inxalaceremonywer etheythankedancest orsforgood
harvests,prosperi
tyandsuccessespeci al
lyinmi l
it
arycampaigns.
Ndebel e-Shonar elati
ons
 Foral ongt imei twascommonl ybel ievedt hatt hecomi ngoftheNdebel ecausedt he
breakdownanddi sappear anceofal l aspect sofShonal if
e.
 Lobengul aalsobel ievedt hatMashonal andwasunderhi scontr
ol;i
twassobecausehe
didnotknowt owhatext entofthear eai nhabitedbyt heShonaspeakingpeopl e.
 Howev er
,theNdebel et ooktimet oest abli
shcont r
oloft heShonagroupsandev en
whent heydi dt hei mpactwasnotal way sasdi sastrousandasbrutal
.
 Itisassumedt hatdespi tether aidoft heShona,t heNdebeleweremor ei nt
erestedin
peacebyexchangi nggr ainandi ront oolsf orcattleandt heyal
soadoptedsomeShona
rel
igions.
 Thei mpactoft heNdebel edomi nancewasgr eatert othosewholiv
edneart hant hose
whol ivedfurtheraway .
 Thei nter
dependencet hatexistedbet weent heShonaandt heNdebeleiswi t
nessedby
theirwi l
l
ingnessi nf i
ght i
ngt oget herdur i
ngt hef i
rstChimur
engaagai nstEur opean
i
mper i
ali
sm /occupat ion.

Decl
ineoft
heNdebel
eSt
ate
 Mzil
ikazidiedin1868andwassucceededbyLobengul ai n1870,bet
ween1868and
1870t her
ewer esuccessiondisput
esbetweenGwabal andaandachi efIndunawho
supported Lobengul
a and Zwangendaba’
sr egiment
s which suppor
ted Nkulumani
,
Zwangendabaur gedthatNkul
umaniwassti
llal
iveinSouthAfr
ica.

 Lobengula exper
ienced t
hreatsfrom Transv
aal,Port
ugaland Br
it
ain,they wer
e
i
nterest
edacquiri
ngcoloni
esf orpr
osper
it
y,andther
efor
etheywer
edefeat
edbyBSAC
i
n1893.

THESLAVETRADEANDORI
GINSOFUNDERDEVELOPMENT

ZJCNOTESPage53
 Whatdoesslaver
ymean?
I
tiswhenonei stakenfor
cibl
yfr
om t
hei
rhomeandsol d.Onether
eforl
osesthei
r
f
reedom andthei
rpossessi
onsandnol
ongeri
sincont
roloft
hei
rli
vesandt
heyar
ei l
l
-
t
reated.

Originsofunder devel
opment
Weal thofasoci etyisnol ongerusedfori tsowndev el
opmentandt hisiscal l
ed
under dev
elopment .Wealt
hi sexportedandthepeopl earerobbedoft hei
rpot ent
ialby
theirownlabourandr esources.Afr
icawasdev el
opingatherownpacemeet ingherown
t
h
technologicalneeds,howev er,int
hemi doft he15 cent urychangest ookpl acethat
all
owedt henat uralcour
seofherhi st
oryanddev el
opment .Eur opeant r
ader scamet o
Afri
canott olookf ortr
aditionali
temsfortradesuchasgol d,ivoryandcl ot
hbutt o
purchasepeopl e.I twasthebegi nningofthepr ocessedofunder development.The
progressivedevelopmentofAf ri
cawasdistur
bedandnev errestored.

TheDemandf orsl
aves
Thesaleofhumanbei ngswasar esultofext
ernaldemand.Thegr owthofpol
it
icaland
economicsy st
emsr equi
redtheuseofhumanl abour
.Thedev elopmentofmer cantil
e
capit
ali
sm inEuropeandAmer icaledt othesett
ingupofpl ant
ationsandmineswher e
humanl abourwasrequir
edt oproduceami neandwar rantofminer al
sandgrewsugar ,
tobacco,coff
eeandbananasneededbyemer gi
ngcapi t
ali
stsofEur ope.Anumberof
areasinSouthAfri
caandt hemainlandofNorthAmer i
cawer ecolonised.

Whywar eAfri
cansEnslaved?
 I
tisbel
ievedthatAfr
icanswerepreparedandcoul
dresi
stdi
seases.
 Othersarguedt hatAfri
cahadmanyunwant edpeopl
ewhocoul dbesol
dwi
thout
di
stur
bingtheexist
enceofthesocialsyst
em.

Suppl
yofsl aves
 Thedemandf orslavesl edt ot hecapt ureorbuy i
ngofmanymi l
li
onsofAf ri
cans.
 Howev er,milli
onsofpeopl edi eddur i
ngt heprocessofr aidi
ng,captureandtranspor
t.
 Onest udysay st hepopul ationofEur opeandAsi ai ncreasedby4t imesbetween1650-
1900,whi l
et hatofAf ricar emai nedst able.
 Theslav ebuy erspref err
edt hei rvi
cti
msbet weent heageof15- 35t husithadat er
ri
ble
eff
ectont heAf r
icanlabourf orce.
 Mostoft hepeopl esol dint oslav er
yint heAmer i
casandt heAtlanti
cisl
andscamef r
om
WestAf ri
ca.
 ThePor tuguesewer et hef irstt oobtainslavesin1518.Ther eaf t
erthesupplyofslaves
fr
om WestAf r
icawasmor eascount riessuchasBr it
ain,France,Netherl
andsandSpai n
wereinvolved.
 Themai nsuppl yi
ngr egionswer et
heSene- Gambi a,Sier r
aLeoneandt heGol dCoastof

ZJCNOTESPage54
 Benin.
 Duringt hel att
erpar toft he18th cent ury,thesupplyoft hesl avesf r
om WestAf ri
ca
decreasedbecauseoft hegr owi ngant i
-sl
av er
ymov ement sinsomepar tsofEurope.
Thisfor cedt heslavet r
ader stoconcent rateont heEastAfricanregion.
 Thesesl av eswereexpor tedt oOman, PersianGulfandIndia.
th
 Inthe19 cent urytherewer eal sosentt oBr azi
landtheCar i
bbeani sl
ands.
 Duringt heear l
yday soft het r
adeEur opeanmer chantsobtainedslavesthr
oughtheuse
off orce.Theyhunt edandr aidedlocalpeopl eofthecoastandl atert
henadopt ed
met hodsofexchange.
 Theyof feredAf r
icanmi ddlemeni mportedandmanuf actur
edi temssuchascl ot
h,met al
work,or nament s,gunsandgunpowder ,spiri
tsandt obaccoi nexchangef orhuman
bei
ngs.
 Themi ddl emenwer echi efs,clanleadersandheadmen.
 Thev ictimswer eweakeret hnicgroups,pr isoner
sofwar ,cr i
minals,socall
edwitches
anddomest i
cslaves.

Aboliti
onofsl av et rade
 Asant i-sl
aver ymov ementsi ncr
easedmor eandmor esl aveswer esuppliedt ot heArab
ownedpl antationsont heislandofZanzi barandPemba.
th
 Itissai dthroughoutt he19 cent uryabout½ oft hepopul ati
onoft hesei slandswer e
madeupofsl av es.
 Despitet hef actt hati tlaager edbehi ndPor tugalint hesl avetrade,Br i
tainwast he
th
l
eadingbuy erofsl av esbyt he18 cent ury.
 Howev er,Bri
tainwasal sot hef i
rsttoabol ishthet radeofhumans.
 Some oft he l eadi ng British abolit
ionist s wer e Thomas Cl arkson ( Wri
ter) ,Wil
li
am
Wi l
berforce(MemberofPar li
ament )andGr anvill
eShar p( Lawyer)
.
 Theseandot herst hatopposedsl avet r
adewer eknownasHumani tar
ians.
 Slaverywasdecl ar edasi llegali n1772butt heBr i
ti
shPar l
i
amentdi dnotagr eeinthe
abolit
ionofsl av et radeunt il1807.
 Slaveryi t
selfi nt heAmer icaswasnotabol ishedunt ilmuchl aterandi nt heBrit
ish
th
coloniesin1833, howev er
,thet radecont inuedi ll
egallyfrom muchoft he19 cent ur
y.

Eff
ect
sofsl avetrade
 Sl
avemi grat
ionaffect
eddev el
opmentbecauseofl ossinhumanresources.
 TheBi
gmanandt hemi ddl
emanst r
engthenthei
rpolit
ical
andeconomicpower s.
 Sl
avelandlor
dsbecamev erywealt
hy.
 Thest
r ongmi l
it
arygroupswer eablet
obui l
dstrongerstatesasaresultofslavet
rade;
however,small
erst at
eswer ecompletel
ywipedoutanddest r
oyedasar esul
tofslav
e

ZJCNOTESPage55
 tr
ading.
 I
ndigenousdevelopmentsuff
eredt
hroughlossofabl
ebodi
ed.
 Tradi
ngitemssuchasgol dandsal
tdecli
ned.
 I
ndigenousmining,cr
aftandmanufact
uri
ngdecli
ned.
 Theexchangesy st
em wasunequalt o onesideand Eur
opeangoodsdi
scour
aged
development
.

ZJCNOTESPage56
THERI
SEOFCAPI
TALI
SM

Feudali
sm
Iti
sawayofpr oduci
nggoods.Agr icul
turewast hemainmeansofpr oductionandver
y
few people known as Landlords were mast ers.Ser
fs ortenant
s wor ked fort
he
Landlor
dsandgotf oodaspayment .Landlordsenjoyedmostofthebenefi
tsandpassed
ont hel
andtot hei
rchil
drenmeani ngal andlor
dwoul dalway
sr emai
nal andlordanda
serfaserff
ortherestofthei
rliv
es.

Capitali
sm
I
tisawayofpr oducinggoodsbymachi nes.Themeansofpr oductionwasf ormedby
Capitali
stsorBourgeoisieandworker
sorpr ol
etari
atsdidwor kfort hecapit
ali
stsfor
t
h
ver
yl owwages.Dur ingthe16 centur
yt herewereimpr ovementsintradeasshipshad
beeni nvent
edsoagr oupknownascommer ci
almiddleclassemer ged.Tradebecame
ver
ysuccessf ulduri
ngt hi
speri
odasgol d,i
vory,spi
cesandbeadswer eondemandby
Europeancapital
ist
s.Thismarkedthefi
rststagefrom feudal
ism t
ocapi t
ali
sm.

The2ndstageofdev elopmentwasinthe17thcent
urywer
ebygreatgrowt
hoffactor
ies
wasexperienced.Thisledtoaclassstr
uggleaspeopl
eweref
ighti
ngtocont
rolt
hefew
resour
ces.Thegr owthofindust
ri
esledtothedemandofr
awmat er
ial
s.

The3rd st
agewasar oundthe1870s.I
twasimperi
ali
sm.Manycount
ri
ese.g.Ger
many,
I
tal
y,Fr ance,U.
S.A.and Japanetc.began t
o competefort
hecontroloftheraw
mater
ials.

TheRenai ssance
There was a r ebirth ofsci ence,ar ts and ideas in gener al,beforet his peri
od all
knowledgewasbasedonCat holi
cbel i
efssuchaswr it
ingofar tfollowedbyAnci ent
RomeandGr eekbel i
efs.Theper i
odbef orerenaissancewascal l
edMedi evalmeani ng
middleage.I ntheRenai ssanceper iodpeopl ewer emor ei nt
erestedi nGeogr aphy,
Geomet r
icnav i
gation,biol
ogy( wor kingofthehumanbody ).
Painti
ng
Inthemedi evalperiodpaintingaboutr el
igi
ondomi natedaschur chwaspower ful
.When
church power s had been weakened,pai nters’pai nt
ing thr oughoutGi etto painted
st
portr
ait
s,ani malsandsi nsofdi rtylifeandwast he1 Renai ssanceItal i
anmenRaf ael
,
LeonardoDaVi nci
,Mi chaelAngel oandDant epai ntedtoshowbeaut yandt heymar ked
theperi
odofRenai ssance.
Archit
ecture
Thisinconcer nedwi thbui l
dingst ructuressuchasl i
brariesandt heatreswer eputup.
Peruzzi
,Raf aelandMi chaelAngel omadepl ansoft hisusingmat hemat ics.

ZJCNOTESPage57
 Li
ter
ature
Dant
eanI t
ali
anwri
terbecamet hefir
sti
nt heRenai
ssanceper
iodtousethelocal
l
anguage.Itwaspassedonf r
om Ital
ytosev er
alcount
ri
esli
keSpain,Fr
anceand
Engl
andwasWi ll
i
am ShakespeareandSpenceri
nEngl
andbecamepopul
ar.

I
deasofHumani sm
Educati
ondeal twi
thhumanmat t
ers(Humanism)rathert
hanrel
i
gionandchur chrul
es
ofthemedi evalperi
od.Schol
arsconcentr
atedonhumanneedsandsci ences.These
i
ncluded ar
tofper suadi
ng i
.e.hist
ory
,poetryand ethi
cs.Thef i
rsthumani stwas
Petrar
ch(1304-1374)andhewasanI tal
i
an.
Sci
entist Year Discov
ery

Coper
nicus 1473-
1545 Eart
hmov esar
oundt hi
ssunr at
hert
han
thesunmovi
ngaroundtheear
th.

Gal
i
leo 1564-
1642 Howt
omakeaccur
atecl
ocks.

He al so studied astronomy and he

supported the idea that the sun i
s
stat
ionaryandtheplanet
smov e.

I
saacNewt
on 1624-
1727 For
ceofgr
avi
tyandhi
sfamousl
aws.

Har
vey Thewaywhi
chbl
oodmov
esar
oundt
he
body
.

Gut
enber
g 1600-
1648 Pr
int he1stbook.
edt

AchievementoftheRenaissance
 Managedt omakepeoplet hi
nkoutsi
despir
it
ual
.
 Thingswerenolongersafeforpubli
ccr
it
ici
sm.
 BeforetheRenai
ssancekingscouldnotbecri
ti
cisedbyor
dinar
ypeopl
east
heycl
aimed
thattheyhadpowersoverpeople.

Shortf
all
softheRenaissance
Eventhoughtherenaissancequesti
onedandchallengedt
hechur
chandtherul
eofthe
tr
aditi
onalmonar
chi tdidnotcri
ti
cisethequest
ionsorsyst
emswhichweredev
elopi
ng
totakethepl
aceofthechur chandthemonarch.

TheRef
ormat
ion

ZJCNOTESPage58
 Itmeansmaki ngsomet hingbet terbyel i
minatingf aults.
 ItstartedinGer manyandai medatr enamingt r
adi tionalbel i
efsincludingt hoseoft he
church.
 Asr ef or
mat i
oni deasf ledt hroughEur opepr otest ants/protestantchur chesemer ged
andt hesef el
tthattheCat hol i
cshadgoneawayf r om t heor igi
nalteachings.
 Popeswer enowcor rupttot heex tentofaskingsi nner stopaymoneyf ort heirsi
nst obe
forgi
v en.
 Thechur chwasnowbei ngaccusedofi mmor alit
yandf ai
lingtodoi tsdut i
es.
 Thepr i
ntersmadebi bl
esr eadilyav ai
lablesucht hati tmadet hepeopl er eali
semuchof
whatt heyhear dinthechur chhadl itt
lesuppor tint hebi bl
e.
 Thosewhocr i
tici
sedt hechur chdur ingthisper iodwer et hekikesofDrMar ti
nLut her
KingJuni orandJohnCal v i
n.
 Thenew modecl assf r
eedi t
selff r
om theCat hol icChur chr esulti
ngi nmanyr el
i
gious
groupssuchasMet hodi
st s,AnglicansandPr ot est ants.

TheVoy agesofexpl orat

ion
Duri
ngt hemi ddl
eagesEur opeansbeliev
edt hattr
opicalseasboi
l
edandi fshipssai
l
ed
westfrom Eur opet heywouldfal
loftheearthtothesky.
Whyv oy agesofdi scovery
 Theywi shedt ofi
ndt heroutetoIndi
aandt heSpiceIsl
ands.
 Theywant edtobuysi l
k,carpet
sandscentsf r
om Asia.
 Theywant edtogetar easandtheirmoneyont hem andbecamer i
chere.
g.PrinceHenry
thenavigat orwholedt hesearoutetoI
ndia.

Expl
orer Ar
eaexpl
ored Achi
evement

Pr
inceHenr
y. I
ndi
a. Hepreparedmapst ohel
p
t
hePortuguesesai
l
ors.

Chr
ist
opherCol
umbus. At
lant
icOcean. Di
scov
eredAmer
ica.

VascoDaGama. Round t
he Cape ofGood Opened t
her
out
etoI
ndi
a
Hope. bysea.

Bar
thol
omewDi
az. CapeofGoodHope. Passedthemostsout
her
ly
poi
ntofAfr
ica.

Concl
usion
 TheRenaissancebr
idgedt
hegapbet
weenf
eudal
andmoder
nti
mes.

ZJCNOTESPage59
 Thef eudal societieshadbeendomi natedbyt heCat holicChur ch.
 TheRenai ssancewi t
hi t
shumani stemphasi soft ruthandet hi
calev i
dencedest royed
theet hi
cal f
eudal orderwher ethechur ch’
sbeliefsandi deasdomi nated.
 Thechur chhadbeenatt hecentreofsci entifi
cunder standing,polit
icalthoughtsand
educat i
on.
 Duringt heRenai ssancet herewasnowar e-exami nationofal lreli
gionbeliefsi
ncluding
thoseoft heCat holi
cChur ch.
 Agr eatr el i
giousmov ementandt het eachingsandst ruct
ureoft hoseoft heCat holi
c
t
h
Chur chhadst artedi nt he16 centur yinGermanyandspr eadt hr
oughoutt hewor l
d.
 Thesepr edest i
nesf ail
edt hattheCat holi
cshadgoneawayf rom theor igi
nalteachings
anddi sciplinesofChr i
sti
anity.
 Formanycent uriest heCat holi
cChur chclaimedgr eatweal thf r
om itssubjectsallover
Europeandi tstrengt henedi t
spowerf rom feudal r
ul er
s.

ZJCNOTESPage60
 THEAGRI
CULTUREANDI
NDUSTRI
ALREVOLUTI
ONI
NBRI
TAI
N

Capital
ism r eplacedf eudali
sm inBr i
tainwhenweal t
hwascr eatedbynew f arming
methods.Fi rstl
ybankswer eestabli
shedandpeopl eborrowedmoneyt obuil
df actori
es
andmachi nes.Peasant swer eforcedt owor kinf actori
esandsuppl i
edlabourf or
capit
alist
sf orlowwages.I nacapitali
stsy stem t
hemai nsour ceofsocialst
rugglewas
betweent hewor ki
ngandt hecapit
alistclass.Thecapi tal
istsusedwor ker
st omake
profi
ts.Capitali
stsar etherefor
eparasiticbecauset heycan’tli
vewithoutexploi
tingthe
workers.Britainisthef atherofcapit
alism inEuropeandi nt heworldingeneral.Itwas
madet hewor kshopoft hewor l
dbecauseofi tsi
ndustri
es.

THEAGRI CULTURALREVOLI TI
ON
Insteadoffarmingf
orsubsi
stence(t
of eedthelandl
ordsandserf
s)thelandlordsbegan
th
farming to make a prof
it
.By t he 18 cent ury commerci
alagricul
ture was full
y
establi
shed.Thoseworki
nghadnot i
met ogr owcropssotheyhadtobuycr ops.

Fact
orsl
eadi
ngtot heAgr i
cultur
alrevol
uti
on
 Wealt
hfr
om agr
iculture.
 Wealt
hfr
om i
ndustries.
 Wealt
hfr
om sl
avetrade.
 Wealt
hfr
om pl
antationsoftheCar i
bbeanIsl
ands.
 I
mprovement
sintranspor t
,roads,r
ail
waysandbri
dges.

TheEnclosur esyst
em
Thiswaswhenl argeopenf iel
dswer efencedorwal l
edi nt
ost ri
psofl and,ei
therfor
growing crops orgrazing l
ands forani mal
s.The peasant s suff
ered because t
he
(common)l andwasencl osedforthel andl
ords’agr
icul
turesot hepeasant shadno
morel andt ograzet heiranimal
sl eadi
ngt ot hest
rugglebetweenl andowningand
l
andlessclasses.

Cr
oprot
ati
on
Cr
opsweregr
owni
nrot
ati
oni
nst
eadofl
eav
ingt
hel
andt
ofal
l
ow.

Advant
agesofcr
opr ot
ati
on
 Soi
lmaint
ainedf
erti
l
e.
 Therewasmoreproducti
onoff
ood.
 I
ntensi
veuseofl
ands.

Lor
dTownsendint
roducedcr
oprotat
ion.JohnSincl
airandJethr
oTul
lwer
ebi
gland
owner
sanddemonstr
atedhowagr
icul
tural
capi
tal
i
sm wor ked.

ZJCNOTESPage61
 Eff
ectsofAgricul
tur
alrevol
uti
on
 Str
ugglebet
weenpeasant sandlandl
ordsov erl
andexi st
ence.
 Landlor
dsbecamer i
chereit
herbybuy i
ngorclai
mi nglargeareasofland.
 Peasantswerefor
cedtobecomeagr icult
uralworker
sori ndustr
ial
wor ker
s.
 Therewasharshexploi
tat
ionofdefencelesspeasantsofpr of
itmakinglandl
ords.

I
NDUSTRI
ALREVOLUTI
ONI
NBRI
TAI
N

Indust
ri
alrevol
utioni
sthechangeini ndust
ri
almethodsf rom handworktoworkdone
bymachi nesdr
ivenbypower.Peopl
ehadt ochangefrom wor ki
nginhomestofact
ori
es.
Producti
onwasnow onal argescale.Brit
ainwasdet erminedtoproducecheapand
abundantgoodsinordert
osupplymar ketsworl
dwi
der atherthancount
rywi
de.
Compar
ison

Bef
ore Af
ter

Manuf
act
uri
ngdoneathome. Manuf
act
uri
ngdonei
nFact
ori
es.
Goods produced were used by f
ew Goodswer
eusedf orsever
alpur
posesand
nei
ghbour
ingfamil
i
es. sol
dtodi
ff
erentcountr
ies.

Soci
etydependedl
argel
yonl
and. Soci
etydependedl
argel
yonmachi
nes.

¾ ofpopul
ati
onl
i
vedi
nrur
alar
easand¼ ½ popul
ati
onl
i
vedi
ntownsand½ i
nrur
al
i
ntowns. ar
eas.

CausesofI ndust r
ialrev olutioni nBritain
 Desiret oengagei nf oreignt r
adebymeansofmer chantf l
eet,fleetenabl edBr i
tai
nto
tradeinmanypar t
soft hewor ld.
 Sheusedt hemoneyshehadandshegotdev elopedduet osci ent i
fi
cinv ent
ionswhich
madewor keasi er.
 Popul ationgr owt hledt oacr eat ionofabi gmar kett omanuf act uregoods;domest i
c
i
ndust riescoul dnotcopewi t
hdemandsofpopul ationandt husdi f
ferentmet hodsof
manuf acturinggoodsi nl argequant i
tieswer eused.
 Mer chantf leetenabl edBr iti
sht oconquerabi gempi rei.e.Indi
a,Canadaandov ert
ook
thePor t
ssoBr itai
nhadabi gmar kettocov erfor.
 Stabil
ityi nBr i
tain-asi twasnev ercolonisedbyanyot hercount ry.
 Strongconcent r
ationwasonEconomi cdevelopmentr at
herthanwar
 Largequant i
ti
esofi r
onor ewer ev i
talfordev elopmentoff actorymachi nesandmost
factorymachi nesshi ft
edt ost eam power ,Brit
ainwasatanadv antageasl ar
gecoal

ZJCNOTESPage62
 deposi
tsexi
stedi
nSouthWal es.
 I
nventi
onofmachinesbyscienti
sts-t
hispr
eci
pit
atedi
ndust
ri
alr
evol
uti
onandt
hiswas
possi
bleduetocapi
tal
from t
rade.

Fact orsleadingtoIndust r
ialrevoluti
on
 Est abl
ishmentofbanksby1890, therewere70banksi nLondonand400i
nBri
tain.
 Av ail
abil
ityofcheapl abourt ooper atemachi nes,landlesspeasant
swereturnedint
o
desper atejobseeker sandwor kedunderhar shcondi t
ions.
 Increaseddemandf orpr
oducei nEur opee.g.Industrial
ist
shadmor emoneytospend
andal sodemandf r
om ov erseasmar kets.
 Impr ovementi ntransportsparedi nindustr
ialrevol
ution.
 Rawmat eri
alsandl abourreachedf actori
eseasily,quickl
yandcheapl
y.
 Finishedpr oductswer eeasilytransportedtomar kets.

Power
Morer el
iabl
e sources ofpowerwer e devel
oped especial
lyst eam engi
nes whi
ch
repl
acedanimalpower,windpowerandwaterpower.Steam enginesusedcoalandt
hus
mini
ngwasdev eloped.ThomasNewcomeri nventedthest eam engineandJames
Wattsimprovedi
t.Thenewsourceofpowerwasi nventedbetween1705and1720.

Changesi
ntext
il
eindust
ry

Texti
leindust
ri
esr ef
ertocott
onmanufact
uri
ngindust
ri
es.Themanufact
uri
ngofcl
oth
i
ncludedspinni
ngandweav i
ng.
Spinni
ng-Thepr ocessofpi
ecingt
oget
herwoolandcott
ontofor
myarn.

Weav
ing–t
hepr
ocessofi
nter
twi
ningt
hey
arnl
engt
hwi
seandcr
osswi
set
ofor
m cl
oth.

NameofI
nvent
or y
ear Machi
nei
nvent
ed Pur
poseofmachi
ne

JohnKay 1733 Fl
yi
ngShut
tl
e. Weavi
ng -Became f
ast
ert
han
spi
nni
ng

JamesHar
greav
es 1767 Spi
nni
ngJenny
. Spinni
ng–Produced11spindles
ofyarnatonce.Yarnswere
str
ongerforweftandnotstr
ong
forwarp.I
tcouldbeworkedby
hand.

Ri
char
dAr
kwr
ight 1769 Wat
erFr
ame. Spi
nni
ng– Pr
oducedast
ronger

ZJCNOTESPage63
 warpt han spinni
ng jour
ney.It
coul
d also produce weftwhich
wasst r
ongerandcoul dworkby
waterpower.

Samuel
Crompt
on 1779 TheMul
e. Spinning – i t combined t he
pri
nciplesoft hespinni
ng jenny
and thewat erframe.Pr oduced
str
ongery ar
nt han before and
100spi ndl
esatonce.

EdmundCar
twr
ight 1785 PowerLoom. Weavi
ng – Weav
ers caughtup
wi
thspi
nner
s.

Results
 Shif
tofpopulati
on
Factori
esshift
edfrom ri
ver
sidestocoalmi
ningcent
res,bi
gtownsbegantodev
elop
andal argernumberofpeoplebegantobeemployedintowns,peopl
emi
grat
edfr
om
rur
al t
ourbanareastoseekemployment.

 Devel
opmentofmiddlecl
ass
Themi ddl
eclassbecamewealthi
erthanalll
andl
ordsasmostf act
oryownerswere
middl
eclasspeopl
e.Themiddl
eclassi
ncl
udeddoct
ors,t
rader
s,t
eacher
sandlawyer
s.

 Devel opmentofwor kingclass

Thewor kingcl asswasf orcedbyl andlordst owor kinfact
ori
es.Theygotv eryl ow
wagesandhadpoorwor kingcondi tions.Thei rchil
drenbecameexpl oi
tedbyf actory
owner s,butlaterthewor ki
ngcl assformedt radeunionstostandforthei
rint
erests.
 Impr ov ementi nagr i
cult
ureandt ranspor t
Peopl esur v
ivedbybuy i
ngf oodi nt ownsast heyhadnowher et ogrow crops.New
met hodsoff armi ngmeanti ndust r
ialrevolution.Goodshadt obetransport
edt or ural
areast hereforeanew meansoft r
anspor tf ortranspor
tat
ionofgoodswasr equired.
Roadsandr ail
way swer eimpr oved.

 Av ari
etyofi
ronandst
eel
Li
ttlesteelwasproducedf
rom i
ronandav
ari
etyr
esul
tedi
ncheaperandr
eli
abl
e
equipment.

 Manuf
act
uri
ngindust
ri
esdevel
oped
Bet
ween1850and1914Brit
ainexper
iencedf
orei
gnandst
if
fcompet
it
ionast
her
ewer
e

ZJCNOTESPage64
 f
ew raw mat
eri
als.Eachcountryneededraw mat
erial
sforitsindust
ri
esandmost
wor
kersl
ostt
hei
rj obs.Thi
sledt
oscrambl
eandpart
it
ionofAfr
ica.

 Growthofbanki
ngsector
I
n1750t herewerelessthan12banks,butby1773theyhadrisent
o400.Thi
swas
becauseofentr
epr
eneurswhowant
edmoneyf ort
hei
rfact
ori
esandcanal
s.

 Developmentoflocalgover
nment
Witht i
mev il
l
agesbecamet ownsasi ndust
ri
altownsst
oppedbeingindust
ri
ali
sed.
Therefor
e,administ
rati
vestruct
uresbecameobv i
ousandl
ocalaut
hori
ti
eswereputin
pl
ace.

 Emanci
pat
ionofwomen

Thiswasalongter
mresultoftheindust
rialr
evol
uti
on.Womenwhowenttotownswer
e
l
ateremployedint
ext
il
efactori
es.Thesewomenr ecei
vedsamer
ateofwagesasmen
wheretheywereempl
oyedinthesameki ndofwork.

 Chi
l
dandwomenl
abour

Overhal
ftheworkingforcesi
ntheindust
ri
alsect
orwer
ewomenandyoungboys,
some
oftheboyswereasy oungas3y ear
s.Thi
swasbecausechi
l
drenwer
echeaptoempl
oy
andobedi
ent(chi
ldabuse).

 Ri
seofr epr
esent
ati
oninpar
liament
New i
ndust r
ialt
ownswer enotr epresent
ed i
n par
li
ament
.Wealt
hymerchant
sand
manufactur
eswer edeni
edadmi ssi
ont oHouseofCommonst heref
oret
herewasa
gr
eatdemandf orpar
li
amentaryr
eforms.

EUROPEANI
MPERI
ALI
SM I
NAFRI
CA

ZJCNOTESPage65
 SCRAMBLEANDPARTI
TIONFORAFRI
CA

Ittookplacebetween1870and1914.AsBr i
tai
nbegant odevelopinindust
ri
es,she
begantoi nv
estinIndi
aandot hercountr
iesasshecont i
nuedtogetal otofprofi
tsso
shedecidedt ocoloni
seAf ri
casoast oconti
nuepr of
it
ing.Ar
ound1880st hewor l
d
economyr ecover
edFr anceandGer manybeganinvesti
ngbycol oni
singAfri
ca.Bri
tai
n
andPortugalrespondedbydecl ari
ngownershipofmanycol onieshencet heideaof
scrambl
ingandf i
ghti
ngf orr
esources.

Causes
 Poli
ticalf
actor
s
 Nationali
sm
Europeancount r
iescompetedto col
oniseAf r
icaforsupremacy.A Europeanstate
whichhadmanycol oni
eswasofimportanceandwasofv al
ue.TheFranco-Pr
ussian
warbet ween1870- 71betweenGermanyandFr ancewasanexampl e.Thi sgreatl
y
causedt heexpansionofotherEur
opeanst at
esincoloni
sati
onofmostofAf ri
caas
manyEur opeanstat
eswantedtobevalued.

 Str
ategi
cpurposes
Otherpart
sofAf ri
cae. g.Egypt,Morocco,Mozambique,Angol
aandt heCapewere
obtai
nedtocontr
oltradeinti
mesofr eser
voir(
peaceandwar).Br
it
ain’
sinter
esti
nEgy
pt
wastheSuezCanal asitwasaf ast
erroutet
oIndia.

 Balanceofpower
Aftert heBerl
incongresswashel dandtheRusso-Tur
kishwarof1877-
78therewasa
realisati
onbyEur opeancountr
iesthatt
herewasnopoweri nEuropewhichwasmore
power f
ulthant heot her
s.Thismeantt hatnocountryinEuropecouldexpandit
s
terri
torywithoutriski
ngamaj orwarhencet heyt
urnedtoAfri
cawherether
ewasno
resistance.

 Sourceoft roops
Europeannat i
onsalsoobtai
nedcoloni
esi
nAfri
casoast oprovi
deasourceand
basef ortroopse.g.Franceobtai
nedSenegalandBr i
tai
nobt ai
nedSouthAfr
icaand
usedAf r
icansf r
om theseterr
it
ori
estofi
ghtforthei
rrespect
ivesidesdur
ingt
heFir
st
Wor l
dWar .

 Soci
alf
act
ors

 Tociv i
li
seAfri
ca
Thef actthatEuropewast echnologi
cal
lyadvancedmadeEuropeansf
eelsuper
iorto
Afr
icanst her
efor
eEuropeansf el
ttheyhadthedutytoci
vi
li
seAfri
caandbri
ngitoutof

ZJCNOTESPage66
 darknesscharact
eri
sedbycannibal
ism andbarbar
ism.Theyconsider
edAf
ri
canst
obe
l
ikechildrenwhoneededinst
ructi
onsonev er
ythi
ngandt heyweretobedr
aggedfr
om
thei
rbeliefst
otheci
vil
i
sedonesofEur ope.

 Toendsl aver
yandsl avetrade
 Thescr ambl ewasal soasar esultofneedbyEur opeanstoabolishslavetradeand
i
ntroduceChr isti
anit
y.Slav
et radewaspopul arinAfri
casoot herEuropeansfeltthati
t
wasunf airtocontinuetr
eatingAf r
icansli
kethi
s.
 Extrali
vingspaceandsear chforjobs
Thescr ambl ewasal soasar esultoftheneedtocreateextr
alivi
ngspacef orgrowing
populati
on.Thi swasbecausemostoft hepeopleinBrit
ainhadlostthei
rjobsinBr i
tai
n
theref
oret heyneededtobeempl oy edel
sewhere.

 Economi cf actors
 Needforr awmat eri
als
t
h
The19 cent urymarkedt heimportanceofr awmat eri
als.Indust
riesbegantopr oduce
goodsi nabundanceandatf asterrate.Theref
ore,raw mat eri
alscouldnotmeett he
demandf ort heproductionofgoods.Thi sledtocompet i
tionforraw materi
alsgol d,
cott
on,r ubberand v egetabl
e oil.When gol d was di scovered atKimberly and
Witwat
er srand,newhopeswer eraisedforSouthernAf r
icaespeci al
l
ySouthAfricaand
Zimbabwewhi chwerebel i
evedtohav esecondrandgold.

 Market
s
Thehomepopulati
oninBri
tai
nwaslar
gelymadeupoflowlypaidworkersandordi
nary
peopl
ewhocouldhardl
ybuygoods.Br
it
ainimposedhi
ghtari
ff
sonimpor t
edgoodsand
thi
smadeitdi
ff
icul
ttosel
lgoodst
oindustr
ial
i
sedcount
ri
es.Asaresult
,mostcountr
ies
hadtoseekmarket
sinAfr
ica.

 Sear
chf
ori
nvest
ment

Duri
ngt heEuropeandepr essi
on(1875-1900)i
nvest
mentofcapit
albecamel ucr
ati
ve
andt hi
sforcedcapit
ali
ststoviewAfr
icaasaninvest
mentoppor
tunit
ybringi
ngalotof
prof
its.Thi
spr ov
edt r
uei ntheKimberl
ydiamondmi neswer
ethei
rpr of
it
sdoubledor
tr
ebledthoseinEurope.

 Populat
ionincrease
Populat
ion ofindustr
ial
i
sed countr
iesi ncr
eased and itbecamedi
ff
icul
tto pr
ovi
de
enoughf oodforthem.Therefor
e,openspaceswer eanecessit
ysoastocaterf
orall
popul
ation.Abov eall
,Europeangov er
nment sfear
edt hatextr
aandpoorpopul
ati
on

ZJCNOTESPage67
 coul
driseagai
nstt
hosei
npowerasawayofexpr
essi
ngt
hei
rneedssot
heywant
edt
o
avoi
dthis.

 Localfact
or s
Thecolonisati
onofAf r
icawoul dnothav ebeenpossi
blei
ftherewerenocondi
ti
onsin
Afri
cathatledtothedefeatofAf r
icansbysett
ler
s.
 Thereweremenwhower ealreadywor ki
ngasagentsforEuropeancount
ri
esandfor
chart
edcompani esi.
e.Mulatoes.

 ManyAf
ri
canst
ateshadbeenweakenedbydev
ast
ati
ngef
fect
sofsl
avet
rade.

 Mi
ner
alst
hatwer
efoundi
nAf
ri
caat
tract
edEur
opeanset
tl
ers.

 Somechi
efshadinv
itedt
heEur
opeanst
othei
rst
atesandt
hisshowedl
ackofuni
ty
amongAf
ri
cans.

 Trader
sandmi ssi
onar
iesur
gedt hei
rcount
ri
estoestabl
ishpol
i
ticalcont
rolandthi
s
madei teasi
erf ort
hem toaccompli
shthei
rmissi
onse.g.Char
lesHelm,Robertand
JohnMof f
atetc.

 I
nfl
uenceofbusi
nessmene.g.Ceci
lJohnRhodeswhoi ni
ti
atedt
hei nf
luenceofBri
tai
n
i
nmanypartsofAfr
icai
ncl
udingSouther
nAf
rica.Hehadadream ofpaint
ing“Af
ri
cared”
f
rom Capet
oCairo.

Berl
inConference
Toav oidfi
ghtingov erclai
mt oterr
it
ori
esinAf ri
ca,theEuropeancountri
escall
eda
meet i
nginBerlin,Germanyin1884-85todiscussanddeci deonhow todi vi
deAfri
ca
amongt hemselv es.NoAfri
cancountr
ywasinv i
tedtotheconfer
ence;i
tshowedclearl
y
thatAfri
cahadl ostpowertoEurope.Thefuturepoli
ti
calaff
air
sofAf r
icawer et
obe
decidedint
heof ficesofEur
opeandnotAfri
ca.

Aimsoft hemeet ing

 Todr aw upr ul
esf ortheeffecti
veoccupat i
onofAf ri
ca.Ther ef
ore,Afri
cawasdi vi
ded
i
nto20t erri
tori
alunitsknownas‘ spheresofinfl
uence.
’
 Theyagr eed thatanycount rywi l
li
ng to occupyAf ri
can land had toi nf
orm other
i
nterest edpower ssoasf orthem t omaket hei
rowncl ai
msdi ff
erentfrom theones
cl
aimed.
 To pl an an ef fective way of conquest-ef f
ecti
ve conquestmeanta col onial
admini strati
v estructur
eandf ail
ur etodosomeantt hatanycount ryhadt heri
ghtt o
occupyt hepar ti
cularcountr
ythiswasar ti
cle35oftheBer li
nConference.
 Toendsl averyandsl avetr
adeint err
it
ori
esoccupied.
 Majorwat erway se.g.Congo,Ni gerandZambezihadt obecomeopenf ortradetoall
Europeancount r
ies.

ZJCNOTESPage68
 Terri
tori
alter
ms
 Portugalwhichhadcl
aimedtheterr
itor
yatthemouthoftheCongoRi verandgota
pi
eceofl andtot
hemouthofCongo.
 Frenchclaimsalongt
heNor t
her
nbankoft heCongower
er ecogni
sed,thi
sbecame
FrenchCongo.
 Germanycl ai
msonTangany
ikawererecogni
sed.

Result
s
 Afr
icansl
ostpowerandi ndependencetoEuropeans.
 Afr
icabecameasour ceofrawmat erial
sneededbyEur opeancapit
ali
sts.
 Afr
icawasunderdev el
opedaspr ofi
tsweresentbacktoEur ope.
 Afr
icansl
ostthei
rlandandwer eforcedtoproducelabourinfarms.

 Sl
aver
yandsl
avet
radebegant
obeexper
iencedi
nAf
ri
ca.

 Af
ri
cansl
ostt
hei
rcul
tur
einmostar
easduet
oint
roduct
ionofChr
ist
iani
ty.

 Technol
ogicalchangeswerenot
icede.
g.bi
ggershi
pswer
emadet
ocar
ryweaponsand
l
argercar
go, bet
terweaponswer
ealsomade.

 Shi
ftofpopul
ati
onasmostpeopl
emov
edf
rom r
uralt
our
banar
easduet
oconst
ruct
ion
ofi
ndustr
iesandmarket
s.

 Af
ri
cansgai
nedski
l
lsi
ncar
pent
ing,
met
alwor
k,bui
l
dinget
c.

 Dev
elopmentoft
ranspor
tsy
stem e.
g.r
ail
wayl
i
nes,
roadsandt
elegr
aphl
i
nes.

 Est
abl
i
shmentofsoci
alser
vicese.
g.school
sandhospi
tal
s.

 I
mprovementofagri
cult
ureduet ot
heAgr
ari
anr
evol
uti
onwher
ebynew cr
opsand
f
armingmethodswer
eintr
oduced.

COLONI
SATI
ONOFZI
MBABWE
I
twaspar tofimperi
ali
sm br
oughtforthbyt
hescramblef
orAfri
cai
nthe19th cent
ury
.
MainlyfourgroupsofEuropeansi.
e.Germans,Bri
ti
sh,Boer
sandPortuguesewer e
i
nterest
edintheLimpopoZambeziarea.

Br
it
ish–Thoughtsecondrandgol
dwaspresentacrossLi
mpopoandint
o Zimbabwe.
Theyalsowantedtost
opBoer
sfrom expandi
ngint
oCent
ral
Afri
ca.

Por
tugal–wantedt ooccupyZi
mbabwesoastol
inkhercol
oniest
oSout
hEastAfr
ica.
Portugalwasf ami
l
iarwi
thtr
ade wi
ththeMut apaand mi
ner
alsinthe
ter
ri
tories.

ZJCNOTESPage69
 Ger
mansandBoer
s–Theydreamtofexpandingthei
rterr
it
ori
esandther
efor
ehadto
occupyandcol oni
seAf r
icanstat
ese.g.Ceci
lJohnRhodes
whocol oni
sedZimbabwe.

Earl
yEuropeancont actswithZimbabwe
 ThePortugueset r
adedi nMashonal andfrom theeary16thcent
l ury.
 OtherEuropeanmi ssi onar
ies,tradersandAdv ent
ist
sv i
sitednor t
hofLi mpopoint he
1820s.
 RobertMof fatwasoneoft hef ir
stmi ssionar
ieswhopav edt hewayoft heBrit
ish
occupat
ion.
 Hesignedat reat
ywi thMzi l
ikaziin1836whi chwascal ledtheMof fattr
eatyof1836
whichestabli
shedfriendshipbetweent heCapeGov ernment(TheBr i
ti
sh)andMzili
kazi.
 Between1836and1868whenMz il
ikazidiedhealsosignedat reatywit
ht heBoer
sbut
wasnott hatimportant.

Reasonsf orcolonisat
ion
 Expectedmi neral
weal t
h
Europeansbel i
evedt hatasgoldwasdi scoveredattheRandi n1886,itwasmost
probablyitalsoexistedinZi
mbabwewhi chcouldbecomet hesecondgoldbear
ingarea.
Previ
ousl yPor t
ugalhadbenefi
tedfr
om goldtradeinMutapa.Thi
scausedBoers,Bri
ti
sh
andPor tugueset ooccupyZimbabwe.Howev er,t
heBri
ti
shwont hefi
ght.

 Presenceofgoodsavannahsoil
s.
AcrosstheLimpopotherewassui t
abl
el andforEuropeancommerci
alagr
icul
ture;t
his
wouldintur
nbr i
ngaboutprof
it
st oBri
tain.TheBr
it
ishturnedt
olandaft
err
eali
singthat
ther
ewasnosecondr andgoldtheyenvisaged.

 Rhodesi mperi
ali
sm
HefeltthattheBri
tishwereasuperiorr
acei
nthewor l
dduet
ot hei
rci
vi
li
sat
ion
Therefore,hefeltitwast hei
rdut ytoci
vi
li
seAf r
ica.Hei
ntendedtoseizeSout
her
n
Rhodesiaduet ohisdream tooccupyCapetoCai
ro.

 Competi
ti
onbet weent
heBrit
ishandPort
ugueseforZi
mbabwe
Bri
tai
nhopedtouseZimbabweandCent r
alAfri
catr
anspor
trout
estolinkSout
hAfr
ica
andEastAfr
ica,thi
scoul
dbedonebyt heCapet oCai
rorai
lway.Por
tuguesewant
edto
l
inkMozambiqueandAngola.

 Goodcl
imati
ccondit
ions
Zi
mbabwewasbel i
evedtohav
eacool
cli
matefavourablef
orgoodhealt
h.Thi
sex
plai
ns
whyCeci
lJohnRhodescametoZi
mbabwetorecoverfrom hi
sil
l
-heal
th.

ZJCNOTESPage70
 Consi
der
ablepopul
ati
onofel
ephantsf
ori
vor
y
Thi
swouldpromotetradeandEuropewoul
dgetal
otofpr
ofi
tsi
ncet
her
ewasgr
eat
demandfori
vory
.

 I
ll
i
ter
ateleader
s
MostAfri
canl eader
swer
eil
l
iter
ate.Ther
efor
e,t
heywer
echeat
edi
nsi
gni
ngt
reat
ies
wi
thEuropeans.

Stepstakent ocoloni
se
 Taticoncession(1870)
I
twas si gned between Lobengul
a and John Swinbour
ne.I twas cr eat
ed on t
he
borderl
andsofMat ebel
elandandBechuanal
and( Bot
swana) .Swinbournewasgrant
ed
permissi
ont osearchforgoldandothermi
neral
sinthatpar
ticulararea.

 Gr
obl
ert
reat
y(Jul
y1887)

I
twassi gnedbetweent
heBoersandtheNdebel
eandi
twasaf
ri
endshi
ptr
eat
y.Pi
et
Grobbl
ernegot
iat
edthesi
gni
ngofthet
reat
y.

Terms
 Enforcedpeacebet weenMatebel
elandandSout hAf r
icaRepubl ic(
Transv
aal).
 Lobengul awasr egardedasaParamountchi efandanal ly.
 Lobengul ahadt oassistt
heBoerswi t
ht r
oopsi faskedt ohelp.
 Any onewi t
hapassf rom t
heTransv aalPr esi
denthadt her i
ghttohuntandt radein
Mat ebeleland.
 Allcriminalswhocoul dhaveescapedf rom SouthAf ricawer etobesentbackt oSouth
Afri
cabyLobengul a.
 Sout hAf ri
caRepubl i
ct oappoi
ntacounci lwhi chwoul dresideinMat ebel
elandand
admi nist
ratejusti
cetothosewhomi ghtv i
olateLobengul a’sl
aws.
LaterLobengul arenouncedtheGobbl ertreatyarguingt hattherewerenoi ndependent
witnesseswhent het r
eatywassigned.AlsoBoer swer et heonlyoneswhocoul dread
consideringt hepeoplewhohadsi gned.TheTr ansvaalgov ernmentinsist
edt hatthe
tr
eat ywasst il
lvali
d.Rhodeswasf orcedt oactqui cklysohesentJohnMof fatto
negot i
ateat r
eatywithLobengul
a;hewant edMat ebelelandtobeaBr iti
shspher eof
i
nfluence.

 Moffatt
reat
y(11Feb1888)
RenouncedtheGobbl
ertr
eatyof1887.

ZJCNOTESPage71
 Terms
 Peacetoprevai
lbet
weentheBrit
ishandtheNdebele.
Lobengulanottodealwi
thanyot herpowerwithoutper
missi
onf
rom t
heBr
it
ishhi
gh
commi ssi
oneri
nSouthAf
rica.

TheRuddConcessi on(30Oct ober1888)

Rhodessental awyerRochfordMagui r
e,hi
sf ri
endCharlesRuddandFr ancisThompson
whospokeNdebel ewel lt
onegot iat
etheRuddconcessi on.Lobengul awasunwi l
li
ngto
signthetreat
ybutoneofhi sIndunascalledLotshemi sledhimi ntosigningtheRudd
concessi
onbecausehewasbr i
bedbyThompson.Ot heragent sofi mper i
ali
sm at
Lobengula’
s courtwas a mi ssi
onary Rev Charles.D.Hel m,he pr etended to be
Lobengula’
sfri
endassai dhewassomeonewhodi dnottakesidesbutwasadv anci
ng
theinter
estofBr i
tain.Hepersuadedt heNdebel ekingt osigntheRuddconcessi on.
Lobenguladidnotreali
sethatHelm wasact ual
lybeingpaidbyCecilJohnRhodes.

 Terms
Lobengul
awaspr
omised:
 £100permont
hforanunspeci
fi
edper
iod.

 1000l
oadi
ngr
if
fl
es.

 100000r
oundsofammuni
ti
on.

 Agun-
boatt
obepl
acedont
heZambezi
Riv
er.

I
nt urnLobengulawould:
 Grantminingr i
ght
st oCecilJohnRhodes’men.
 Grantthem powert odoal lthi
ngstheydeemednecessar
yinordert
ocarryoutt
hei
r
miningactivi
ti
es.
 Togi velegalri
ghtstoCeci lJohnRhodes’mentostopotherf
ort
uneseeker
ssuchas
Boerstoent erMatebel
eland.

Non-ver
balterms
 Onlytenwhiteswer eal
lowedtomine.Theywer
enotal
l
owedt
omi
neneart
owns,t
hey
hadtosurr
endert hei
rfi
rearmstot
heking.
 ObeyNdebeler ul
es.
 Digoneholeatat ime.

NB:Aft
errecei
vi
ngtheRuddconcessi
on,Rhodesr
ushedtoBri
tai
ntoapplyforaChar
ter(
a
wri
tt
endocument)t
oenabl
ehimtoform acompanyf
ortheoccupat
ionofZi
mbabwe.

ZJCNOTESPage72
 OCCUPATI
ONOFZI
MBABWEBYEUROPEANSETTLERS

CecilJohnRhodes
 Cecil JohnRhodesmadeanef forttocoloni
seasmanyAf r
icancount r
iesaspossi bl
e,he
want edt opai ntthecont inentred.
 Hehadmov edawayf rom Br i
tainasar esul
tofhisill
ness.
 Hesawbusi nessoppor tuniti
esandst art
edtwobusi nesses:
 BSAC( Brit
ishSout hAf ricanCompany ).
 Kimber ly.
 Het racedhi sgol dmi neandsawt hatthebeltwasr eachi
ngZi mbabwesohet houghtof
colonisi ngt hecount r
y .
 Rhodeswasani mperialistathear t;hewant edtoconst r
uctar ail
wayl i
nefrom Capei n
SouthAf r
icat oCairoinEgy pt.
 Hef eltt hatt heBr i
ti
shwer ethef inestraceofall;hespentsleeplessnightsthi
nkinghow
l
uckyhewast obeBritish.
 Heev ent oldSt arrJamesont hatt heyarel uckytobel ongt ot hef i
nestflowerof
ci
vili
sat ion.

TheChar
ter

TheChar
terwasgr
ant
edon29Oct
ober1889.

Obj
ect
ives
 Construct
ionofarai
l
wayli
neandtel
egr
aph
 Encouragementofmigr
ati
onandcol
oni
sat
ion
 Dev el
opmentofmini
ng
 Pr omotet
radeandcommerce

ZJCNOTESPage73
 TheCharteralsoincludedthat:
 Imper ialgov ernmenthadf ullcontr
olofSout hernRhodesiaandcoul
dactupon
theadv i
ceoft heSecr etaryofcol onies.
 Thecompanyt ohavei t
sheadof fi
ceinBr i
tai
n
 Rel igi
onint hecountrywasnott obeinterf
eredwith
 Rhodeswasgi venper mi ssiont ooccupyt hecountryfor25year
sandaf
tert
hat
permissionhadbegr ant edr enewedf ortermsofteny ear
s.
 Rhodeshadt omai ntainapol icefor
ceandunder takepubli
cworks.

Cecilj
ohnRhodesf or
medt heBSACfortheoccupati
onofZi mbabweandaBoar dof
Dir
ectorswasformedtol eadtheBSAC.Advert
swer emadeofEngi neer
s,Minersand
Doctorsetc.Manyappli
ed,butonly200wereaccepted.Ever
ymemberwaspr omised
3000acr esofl
andand15gol dcl
aims.Apoli
ceforcewasalsoformedt oprotectthe
member s.Armymembersandt hei
rwagonswereref
erredtoasthe‘Pi
oneerColumn.’

ThePioneerCol umn
 I
twasamar chregar dl
essofwhatLobengul asai d.
 Soonaf t
erbei nggr antedtheChar ter
,Rhodeswentt oSout hAf r
icatogat heragangof
mercenarieswhi chhecal l
edthepi oneercol
umn.
 TheGangconsi stedof200mer cenari
essuppor t
edby500pol i
cemen.
 Tor educedangerofconf l
ict
,adeci sionwasmadet oav oidMat ebelel
andandmar ch
i
ntoMashonal and.
 F.C.Selousledt hewaymar ki
ngt reestobecutt omakear oad.
 About170wagonsf oll
owedhi m andt henearestNdebelev il
l
agewasl eft150km nor
th.
 Lobengulasenthi sment oaskt hem whyt heywer emar chingbutwer ebrushedaside
byColonel Penne-fatherwhowascommandi ngt hePioneerpolice.

 Ont hewaythePioneercol
umnestabl
i
shedFor
tTuliandf
rom ther
eFortVi
ctor
iaand
thenFortCharterandonSeptember121890t heygottoSal
isburyandhoi
stedthe
Brit
ishfl
aganddeclar
edMashonal
andoccupi
ed.

 Ast heyest
abli
shedFor tChar
teronthei
rway,asegmentofitheadedbyJameson
br
anchedoffandtrekkedtoMashonal
andtopr
e-ampt
heeff
ort
softhePort
uguesewho
weredri
vi
ngfrom t
heeast .

 Thewhol
eaim ofthi
swast
osei
zet
heeastandest
abl
i
shBei
raasani
ndependentPor
t
f
ornewBSACterr
it
ory.

ZJCNOTESPage74
 Themostimport
antShonaChiefMutasawasper
suadedbyJamesonandhi
spar
tyto
t
h
si
gnat r
eat
yknownast heMut asat
reatyont
he14 ofSeptember,2day
saft
erthe
est
abl
i
shmentoffor
tSal
isbur
y.

TheWarofdi
sposi
ti
onof1893(
Angl
o-Ndebel
ewar
)

 TheNdebel
eKi
ngdom wasdoomedf
rom t
hemomentRhodesdeci
dedt
ocol
oni
se
Zi
mbabwe.

Causes
 Confl
ictsovercontr
ol oftheShona
TheBr i
ti
shandt heNdebel ewantedtheShona,butfordif
fer
entpurposes.TheNdebel
e
neededt hem f
orraidsandt heBrit
ishasasour ceoflabour
.TheBr i
ti
shpr ev
ent
edthe
Shonafrom thecontinuousNdebelerai
dsther
eforethetwoclashed.

 Boundar
yissue

Aft
erreachingMashonaland,Jamesonmar kedaboundarytoseparateMashonal
and
andMat ebelelandontheIny at
hiandShashiri
ver
s.ThisangeredLobengulaashe
conti
nuousl
y asked who Jameson was,t o demark such a boundar
y.Theref
ore,
Lobengul
aref usedt
oaccepttheboundar
y.

 Rail
waylink
TheBrit
ishfel
tthattheNdebel eblockedt herout
eofcommuni cati
onbetweenSali
sbur
y
andMaf eki
ng(SouthAfr
ica)ast heyi ntendedtoconstr
uctarailwayli
netoli
nkSali
sbur
y
andMaf eki
ngthroughMatebeleland.Suchar out
emi ni
misedcost stoSout
hAfri
ca.Thi
s
seemedt obeimpossibl
east heyf earedLobengulaandabov ealltheyhadnotinv
aded
Matebel
eland,butMashonaland.

 Fai
lur
etof i
ndsecondrandgol
dinMashonaland
Bri
ti
sh f
ailed t
o getas much gold as t
heyexpected so t
heythoughti
twas i
n
Matebel
eland,t
heyal
sobeli
evedthatMat
ebelel
andwasbuil
tonahil
lofgol
d.

 Ri
chsoi
lsandcat
tl
e
TheBri
ti
shwantedthegoodgr
azi
ngl
andsandgr
eather
dsofNdebel
ecat
tl
e.They

ZJCNOTESPage75
 bel
i
evedt
heywoul
dmakeal
otofpr
ofi
tfr
om agr
icul
tur
eift
heyf
ail
edt
ogett
hegol
d.

 TheNdebel
ewerewarningl
ight
Theywereami
li
tar
ythreatt
ot heBr
it
ish.

 QuickVi
ctori
ouswar
TheNdebelewarwouldmakeRhodespopulari
nBr
it
ain;
theywant
edt
ofi
ghtanddef
eat
theNdebeleassoonast
heypossi
blycoul
d.

 TheVictori
aI nci
dent
In1891,LomagundiandChi biwerekil
ledbyLobengul a.Lobengulaconti
nuouslyrai
ded
theShonai nMasv ingowhower eprov
idinglabourtotheBr i
ti
sh.May1893,somemen
underheadmanGomar acutsome500y ardsoft el
egraphwirebetweenFor tTuliand
FortVictor
ia.Gomar apaidt hefi
nedemandedbyt heBrit
ishusingLobengula’scatt
le.
AnotherChiefBerest ol
eLobengula’
scat tl
eandLobengul abecamef uri
ousandsentan
armyunderMuny awoandUmgandanit oteachGomar aandBer eal esson.ByJulythe
armyr eachedMasv i
ngo,burntdownhomes,ki l
ledmenandt ooky oungchildrenand
womeni nZi mutoandot herareasi
nMasv i
ngo.

 Farmsandmi neswer eat tackedandal otofcat tlewer etakenev entheonesbel onging

tothewhi tes.
 Shonast oppedpr ovidingl abourinEuropeanf ar
msandmi nesi nMasv i
ngo.
 TheNdebel edemandedt hehandov eroft heShonawhohadt akenrefugei nwhitef arms
andt owns.
 Lendyr efusedt ocompl yandameet i
ngwashel dbet weenUmgandani /Many awoand
Jameson/Lendyandt hiswascal ledtheVi ctori
aAgr eement .
 Theyagr eedt hatt heNdebel ehadt owi t
hdr awfrom t heVict or
iadi
stri
ctwi t
hin2hour s
andacceptt heboundar ypr oposed.
 Jamesonf eltthatt heNdebel ear myhadnotgoneasf arasexpect edsoheat tacked
them kill
ing30peopl ei ncludingUmgandani .Lobengul abecameangr yandsought
revenge.
 Warbecameunav oidabl ebetweent heBr i
t i
shandt heNdebel e.
 AftertheVi ctori
ai nci dent,Lobengul ar efused mont hl
ypay mentsaspert heRudd
concession, Rhodesbegant obuyhor sesf r
om Sout hAf ri
caandl ookedf orvolunteersto
occupyMat ebeleland.
 Eachv olunteerwaspr omi sedaf arm( 3000acr es),15gol dclaimsandhal fthecat tl
e
capturedinMat ebelelandt obesharedamongstv olunteers.
 Thef ir
stcol umnl eftHar areleadingtoBul awayo,thesecondl eftVict
or i
aandmett he
Hararecol umnnearKwekweandt hel astcol umnl eftBotswanaandwentdi rect l
yto
Mat ebel
eland.

ZJCNOTESPage76
 Cour seoft heWari nMat ebelel
and
 Thewarbegani nOct ober1893,t heNdebel epr epar ed18000menwher e-
asBSAChad
3500meni ncl uding2000Tswanaauxi l
iaryfighters.
 Thecompanymov edf asterasithadhor ses.
 Itusedmoder nweaponse. g.machi neguns,gunpowder sandwagonst ohelpi nthe
prov i
dingofwarmat erial
.
 TheNdebel eusedspear sandshi elds.
 Thef ir
stbat tlewast heShangani (25Oct ober1893) .
 TheNdebel ecameatni ghtandki ll
edpeopl ecampedout side.
 Bysundownt heNdebel eweredef eat edandsomeoft heirwar r
iorsdied.
 ThesecondwarwasatMbembez i (
Nov ember1893) .
 TheNdebel er out edt heLaagerbyt her iveratni ghtandt hreeNdebel eregiments
ambushedi t.Af i
ercebat t
lewasf oughtandt heNdebel el ostduet oinfer
iorweapons.
 WhenJamesonandcompanyent eredMat ebelelandt hef oundi tdeserted.Jameson’s
plant ocapt ureLobengul awasi nvain.
 AllanWi l
sonwassentt of etchf orLobengul a,theShanganiRi verf l
oodedbefor ehe
coul dcrossov er .
 TheNdebel eki ngat tempt edt opr eventawarwi ththeEur opeansbyof f
eri
ngthem 2
bagsofgol dasapeacewi shofgi ft.
 Howev er,thegol ddi dnotr eachSt arrJamesonl eadingt ot hewarofdi sposi
tionin
whi cht heset t l
er ssucceededi nt akingt helandf rom t heNdebel eanddest r
oyi
ngt he
state.
 TheNdebel ear myat tackedWi l
sonandhi smen; t
heywer eslaughter
edwi ththei
rhorses.
 In1894Lobengul awassai dtohav edi edofMal aria.TheNdebel eIndunaslosthopeand
sur r
ender edt hemsel vest otheBSAC.

Resul
ts
 TheNdebeleweredef
eated.
 Matebel
elandbecamecompanyt
err
it
ory
.

ZJCNOTESPage77
 Chi
mur
enga1
 Chimurengameanswarofl i
berat
ion.Itwasalsoknownast heChindundumaduetothe
founder
sboomingsoundswhi chwereusedbyEur opeansagainstAfri
cans.
 Becauseofthewar sweremanyandt hef actt
hatboththeShonaandt heNdebel
etook
partinthewarrefl
ectthewidespreadt oopposit
iontocolonisat
ion.Theyhadsi
mil
ar
probl
emsanduni f
iedtofi
ghtthesett
lers.

Causes
 Lossofl and
Land belonged to communi tyand notthechiefevenev ery
thi
ng initi.e.ani
mals,
fi
rewood, fr
uittr
eesetc.TheBr i
ti
shpeggedfar
msi nbestareasinthecountryownedby
ShonaandNdebel e.TheNdebeleandShonawer edri
venawayf rom thei
rfar
msandhad
towor kasl abour
ersforEuropeansandfarmswhichoncebel ongedtothem.Theref
ore,
theyfeltoffendedanddegr adedwhentheirl
andwast akenawayf rom them.Theyhad
tofi
ghtt oregainthei
rlostl
and.

 Int
roduct
ionofr
eserves
GwaaiandShanganireser
veswerecreat
edfort
heNdebel
eaft
erthei
rdef
eat.Reser
v es
couldnotaccommodat ealltheNdebel
eandwereveryhot
,dryandtsetseinf
ested.
SomeNdebel er
efusedtooccupyt
heareas,
butt
onoavail
.

 Lossofcattle
Cattl
ewasasy mbolofweal th,t
heydist
inguishedchi ef
sf r
om subjects;ri
chfrom poor.
Poli
ceboy shelpedintheadmi ni
str
ati
onoft hecount ry,
butabusedt heirpowersasthey
begant odemandcat tl
e,goatsandsheepf rom Af r
icansandt husbecameunpopul ar
.
Theset t
ler
st hemselveslackedcapit
altoinv estinRhodesi asotheyst olecatt
lefrom
Afr
icans,raidedthem andsubj ectedthem t otaxesespeci al
l
ychi efswhof ai
ledt o
supplythelabourrequir
ed.Theywereeit
herpuni shedorf orcedtopayaf i
neintheform
ofcattl
e.

 Taxat
ion
Thecompanyint
roducedhutt
axin1894.Ev
eryadul
twasmadetopayadol
l
arf
orever
y
huthehad.Themot i
vebehi
ndthi
swast oforceAf
ri
canst
oleavet
hei
rhomesandbe

ZJCNOTESPage78
 employed and accommodated bythe sett
ler
son farms.Bot
ht he Shona and t
he
Ndebeleresi
sted,t
hecompanyseizedgoats,
cropsandcat
tl
efr
om peoplewhof ai
l
edto
paytax.Animalsweredr
ivent
othehill
sandhid.

 AbuseofAfri
canwomen
In1903t hecompanyi nt
roducedi mmorali
tysuppressionact.Itmainlyaf fectedthe
Shona.Nowhitewomanwast ohav esexualint
ercour
sewi thablackman.Pol iceboys
al
sot ookadvant
ageandabusedAf r
icanwomenaswhi teswereinterestedi nblack
womenandnol aw governedit.Afri
cansresentedthisassomehusbandsl ostthei
r
wivesfor
ever
.Whitesnevermar ri
edandy etin-
lawsexpectedlobol
aaccor dingt othei
r
custom.Ther
efor
e,Afr
icansfel
tthatwarwast heonlysolut
iont
oendt his.

 Forcedlabour
Thecompanyf orcedbl
ackment owor kf ort hewhitesforacert
ainper
iodoft imeper
year.TheNdebel eandShonar anawayt ot hehil
lst oavoidbei
ngoverworked.Some
chiefs and headmen openlyresisted forced laboure. g.a Mutoko headman was
punishedbyr eceivi
ngtenlashesandaf i
neof6goat sand3headsofcat tl
e.The
sjambokwasappl i
edonAf r
icanst oforcet hem towor k;atti
meswholev il
lageswere
burntforfai
l
ingtoprovi
delabour.Thisdisrupt edAfr
icanwayoflif
ecompletel
y .

 Ndebeleconf
idence
IntheAnglo-
Ndebelewarof1893,someregi
mentsdi dnotpart
ici
pate.Theref
ore,t
hey
fel
tthatas a combi ned f
orce t
heywould def
init
elywi nt
he war .Theywer e so
deter
minedtor e-
establ
isht
heirsupr
emacyinMat ebel
elandt
herefor
et heywerev er
y
confi
dent.

 Natural
/Phy sicaldi
sasters.
Favourablerainwasr eceivedi nbothMat ebel
elandandMashonal and,
butt hereaft
erthe
areawasst ruckbyadr ought.Hugeswar msofl ocustdevouredt hef
ewcr opsleftand
thi
swor senedt hesituationandf aminewasbei ngexperi
enced.Rinder-pestswi ped
hugeher dsofcat tl
eandt hiswasassoci at
edt otheShonahi ghPriestatMat opos
Mlimo/Mur enga,t he spiritbeliev
ed t hatthe whi te had t
o be dr i
v en away f r
om
MatebelelandandMashonal andforall
theseprobl emstobesol ved.

 Lossofindependence
TheNdebel eweref orbi
ddenfrom choosi nganotherkingaf
tert
hedeathofLobengul
a;
theyhadtof i
ghtthewhi t
estor egaintheiri
ndependenceaswellasanopportuni
tyt
o
chooseanewki ng.TheShonaal sofeltthatthesett
lersdi
dnotsignanyt
reat
ieswit
h
them,buttheyhadal solostt
heirindependence.

ZJCNOTESPage79
 Uprisingi nMat ebeleland
 March1896, whi teattacksbeganwi ththeki l
li
ngofThomasMur dockami ner.
 March 1896,about30 whi tes wer e ki l
led as the Ndebel e attacked f arm houses,
missionsandcol laborators.
 Ndebel ewer eor ganisedbyhi ghpr iestUml ugul uwithhel pofr egiment alIndunase.g.
Nyandaandot hers.
 Offi
cialsofMwar i
/MlimosuchasMkwat i andSi gi
nyamat shehelpedUml ugulu.
 Mkwat i
’sshrinewasatNt abazikamamboandi tbecamet hecentr eofthewar .
 Around June 1896,t he whi t
es gotr einf
orcement sf r
om Sal isbury,Sout h Afri
ca,
BotswanaandBr itai
n; t
herewer eabout2050t roopsal together
.
 TheNdebel ewer edef eatedatUmguzai nJune1896andt hi
si mpl i
est heyretr
eat
ed
most l
yi ntotheMat oposhi ll
s.
 TheNdebel ewer edef eatedast heyf acedf oodshor tages,mostoft heircropswer e
destroyedaswel last heirgrainst ores.
 Ntabazi kamambowasst ormedandf orcesgat heredar oundMkwat iwer ewarbr okeup.
 Rhodesbecameaf rai
doft hewarbecause:
 I
twasbecomi ngexpensi veast heNdebel ewer etaki
ngt oolongt odef eat.
 Mineshadcl oseddownsot hecompanywasr unningal oss.
 TheBr i
tishparli
amentwasaboutt owi t
hdr awtheB. S.A.C.chart
ert oruleRhodesi a.
 Warhadbeguni nMashonal andsoRhodeswasnotabl etof i
ghtt heNdebel eandthe
Shonaatt hesamet ime.
 Whiteswer elosingint er
msofbot hmanpowerandr esources.

 Rhodest
her
efor
equi
ckl
ysett
ledanagr
eement
.
TheNdebel
ewerepr
omised:

1.Supplyofbot hfoodandseeds.
2.Sal
ariesforIndunas(ari
stocr
acies)e.
g.Umlugul
utheIndunaofGwandadist
ri
ct.
I
nreturnt heNdebelewereaskedt o:
1.Surr
enderal lt
heirweapons.
2.Handov erall
whoper for
medal l
t henumer
oussettl
ermurders.
Thewarendednotbecauset heNdebeleweredefeated,
butbecauseofaset
tlement
.

MashonalandUprisi
ng.
 Supr i
sedt
hesettl
ersast heyf
eltthattheyprot
ectedtheShonaf r
om Ndebeler
aids.
 SignsofwarhadbegunatChi efMakoni ’
scour
tinManicaland.
 June1896,firewasseenathi l
ltopsar oundHart
ley(Chegutuarea)
,itspr
eadtoMazoe,
Mur ehwa,
Mt okoHeadlandsandMakoni ;i
twastheirsi
gntobeginthewar.
 Mwar irel
igi
ous l
eaders unit
ed par amountchiefs,these incl
uded Mkwatiwi t
h hi
s
headquart
ersatNtabazikamambo.

ZJCNOTESPage80
 Inwest ernMashonal and,Mashay amombe’ skraalwast hecent r
eofr ebel l
ion.
 Set tl
erswer eki l
ledi ncludi
ngt r
ader s;Beat r
icemi newasat t
ackedaswel lasar eas70km
away .
 Kaguv iandNehandacoor dinatedpeopl e,Kaguv iwor kedwi thChi namor a,Chikwaka,
Ny andor o,Zvimba, Mangwende, Mashay amombe, Rusikeet c.
 Nehandawor kedwi thChiweshe, Hwat a,Ny amweda, Negomo, Ny achuruet c.
 Fight i
ngwasor gani sedatlocal l
evelsbyt raditi
onal,politi
cal,andmi li
taryleader s.
 Shonausedguer ril
lawar fare, t
heywoul dat tackandaf t erattackingtheywoul dhideand
pret endt obeor dinar ypeopl e,thereforemanyset tlerswer eki l
l
ed.
 Whi tes wer e out number ed and about t o be def eated so set t
lers asked f or
reinforcement sf rom Br it
ain, Whitesbur ntdownShonav i
l
lagesandsei zedt heircatt
le.
 Af orceofhor set roopsat t
ackedMashay amombe;t heset tlersuseddy namiteson
Shonacav es.
 Mashay amombet oget herwi t
h230peopl ewer eki l
l
edwhi l
stescapi ng.Asar esul
t
par amountchi efswer edef eatedonebyoneandt hesei ncludedMakoni ,Mangwende
etc.
 Spi ri
tmedi umswer ehunteddown.Kaguv iwascapt ur
edi nOct ober1897andNehanda
i
nDecemberandt heywer ebot hhungon27Apr il1898.
 Chi efMaponder awhowasal soact i
vedi edi npri
son.
 1903Chi murengai nMashonal andended.

Dut iesandr ol esofspi ri

tmedi ums
 Theypr epar edandmobi li
sedpeopl eforwar .
 Inspi r
edpeopl etof i
ght .
 Pr ovidedlogi sti
csneededdur ingupri
sing.
 Gav emedi ci net owar riors,tr
eatedandheal edthewoundedandt hesi
ck.
Reasonsf ordef eatoft heShona
 Theyusedi nferi
orweaponse. g.spear s,shields,cl
ubsandar rowswhilstEur opeans
usedsuper ior sweaponse. g.gunsandcannonsandal sody nami t
e.
 Af ri
canswer enotuni tedassomer egiment swer eagainstupri
singandthereforedidnot
fight.
 Theyl osthopeaf t
ert heirleaderhaddi ed.
 Whi t
esdest roy edsomeShonacr ops,v ill
agesandwat ersource.Asar esulttheShona
wer est arved.
 Whi t
esgothel pf r
om Br i
tai
n( 1000sol diers).
 Lackedasi ngl ear myandal eadertocoor dinate.
 Sur renderingoft heNdebel emadeset tlersconcent r
ateont heShona.
 Spi ri
tmedi umsmi sledt hepeopl ebyi nformingt hem thatthewhi teman’
sbul let
swer e
goi ngt oturnt owat er.

ZJCNOTESPage81
ZJCNOTESPage82
 ROADTORESPONSI
BLEGOVERNMENT

Between1890and1897,t heBSAC f ai
ledtomakepr ogr
essi nSout hernRhodesi a
economicall
yandpoli
tical
l
y.Thi swasduet otheAnglo-
Ndebelewar ,
Chimur enga,r
inder
-pest
s which dest
royed cat t
le and l
ocusts whi
ch destr
oyed crops.Ther efor
e,t he
companyusedal otofcapitalonwaraswel lasfi
ndingmeansf orsurvi
val.

Development sinAgricult
ure
Europeantype Afri
cant
ype
Theybegant ogr owtobacco, mai z
e, Newmethodsoffarmingsuchascr
op
cotton,gr
oundnut setc.SouthernRhodesia rot
ati
onandconst
ruct
ionofcont
our
becameoneoft hemaj ormai zegrowers ri
dgeswerei
ntr
oduced.
andexpor t
edt oBrit
ainforthefirstti
mein
1909.
Mar ket
swer eestabli
shedf orexporti
ng Domboshav aandTshol otshoschool s
tobacco. weresetupbyt hegov ernmentt ot r
ain
agr
icult
uraldemonstrators.Theywer e
i
ssuedbadgesormast erf armer
cer
tif
icat
es
In1912t hel andbankwasest ablishedf or Thosewhower eablecoul dbuypl otsof
expor ti
ngt obacco.Thi shel pedEur opeans about200- 300acres.
toest abl i
sht hemsel vesonl andast hey
wer eabl et ogetl oans.
TheDepar tmentofAgr iculturewassetup Theycoul dalsosellt
heirpr oducebutnot
i
n1908t oimpl ementagr i
culturalpol i
cyto ont hesamemar ket
sasEur opeans.
whi tefar mer s.
Resear chst at i
one. g.Gwede1909, Rhodes
Ny angaandMat oposEst ateswer e
establ i
shed.
Apr i
cingpol icywhi chdi scriminated
agai nstAf ricanswasi mpl ement ed;the
l
ev ieswhi chwer epai dwer eforonet obe
ablet osel l goodspr oducedwer et oohi gh
thatAf r i
canscoul dnotpay .
Africanswer ef urt
hersubj ectedt of orced
l
abourandmostoft hem l osttheirland.

I
ndustr
ialdev
elopments
 Dev
elopmentofar ail
wayl
i
nef
rom Bul
away
otoHar
arei
n1897andt
henHar
aret
o

ZJCNOTESPage83
 Mut ar
ei n1898.Thiswasv i
talf
ortr
anspor
tat
ionofequipmentint
heindust
ri
alsect
oras
wellast heexport
ationofgoods.
 I
ndustrieswer ebuil
tneart ownse.g.Gwel
o,QueQueandGat oma.Mostpeoplemoved
fr
om rural ar
eastour banareastoseekemployment.
 Asbestosr epl
acedgol dast hemostval
uabl
emi ner
alinSout
hernRhodesi
a.
 Establ
ishmentofel ectri
cit
ysupplycommissi
oni n1937.Thi
spror
atedtheuseofpower
l
ines.

Legi
slati
vecounci
l
In1908t hefi
rstl
egi
slat
ivecounci
lwaselect
ed.Ithad9member s,5elect
edf r
om the
companyand4el ect
edbyt hesett
lerstor
epresentset
tl
er’
sneeds.TheChair
personof
thecouncilwasal
sochair
personofthe

Residentcommi ssi
oner
Ther esidentcommissionerwaselect
edbyBrit
aintochecki
fAfr
icanwer
ebeingtreat
ed
fai
rl
ybyt heBSAC.ThecommanderGener alcontr
oll
edthecompany’
sarmyther
eforeno
pol
icef orcewast obeusedwithoutknowl
edgeofthecommanderGeneral
.

Votersf ort hecounci l

Av oterwasexpect edt obeabl etofi
llanappl i
cationform andhadt oearn$100pery ear
ormor e.Thi smeantmostAf r
icanswer eexcludedf rom voting.In1898,t hesettl
er s
begant ocompl aint hatt heywer enotbenef it
ingascompar edt othecompany .They
alsoar guedt hatmi ningr oyalti
eschar gedbyt hecompanywer etoohi ghtobenef i
t
ordinarypeopl e.In1925, set t
ler
swonagai nstthecompany ,i
nst eadofthecompanyr ule
ending 1914 accor ding t ot he charter.Mor ey ear
s wer e added as set tl
ers wer e
benefiti
ng f r
om t he company ’sinvest ments.Howev er
,cl ashes continued to exist
betweent hecompanyandset t
ler
s,theywer emai nlyforland.Ther ewasal i
enatedland
(sharedl and)andunal ienat edland(unshar edland).Theset t
lersdemandedt oknowt he
owneroft heunal ienat edl andbutt hecompanydi dnotanswer .Thecompanyhad
reserved l and f ort heirunbor n children.Ther efor
e,t he company handed i nt he
governmentt ot heset tl
ers, butnotthel and.

Administ
rat
iveissues
 Thecompanyhadgi venoffar
ound16mi l
li
onandt hesettl
ersdemandedt oknowwho
wasresponsibl
ef orpayi
ngmoneybackaf tert
het erminati
onoft hecompany .Settl
ers
demandedthatthecompanywasr esponsi
blesotheyclashedwi ththecompany .
 Theissuewaspassedont oaj udi
cialcommi t
teeinBr i
tainwhichfinal
l
yr uledoutthat
l
and belonged tot he Bri
ti
sh gov er
nment .Bri
tain offered t
o pay 3. 5 mil
li
on as
compensati
onforadmi ni
str
ati
ondef i
cit
s.Thecompanywasof f
endedasi tneededland.

ZJCNOTESPage84
 Sout hAf r
icaof feredal argeramountt hanBr itainonl yifJoi nedSout hAf r
icaasaf if
th
prov ince.
 Char lesCoughl anl eaderoft hel egi
slat i
vecounci lwasagai nstt hejoiningofSout h
Af r
icaandSout her nRhodesi a;hear guedt hatRhodesi ahadasmal lpopul at
ionand
coul dbeswal lowedbySout hAfrica.Thi sal sodi lutedBritishinfluenceasshewoul dbe
fl
oodedbyt heBoer s.
 In1919, Char l
esCoughl anf or
medt heResponsi bleGov er nmentAssoci ation( R.
G.A.)
,to
fi
ghtf orar esponsi blegov ernmenti nRhodesi a.
 Ar ef erendum washel don22Oct ober1922i nwhi chCoughl anwonagai nstunioni
sts
(thosewhov otedf ort heuni onofSout hAf ricaandSout hernRhodesi a)andt hose
prev entedSout hernRhodesi afrom bei ngi ncor poratedi nt oSout hAf r
ica,R.G.A.got8
774v otesandUni oni sts5589v otes.
 1Oct ober1923Sout her nRhodesi awont hesel f-
responsi blegov ernmentwi thChar l
es
Coughl anast hef irstPr imeMi ni
sterofSout her nRhodesi a.
 Thecount rywasdi videdi nto15di st
rictsandeachdi stricthadt osend2member sto
representt hem int hepar li
ament .
 Elect i
onswer et obehel daf terev ery5y ear s,butAf ricanswer est i
llexcludedf r
om
voting.
 1923Br i
tainsurrender edt heAf r
icanmaj ori
t yt ot heset t
lerr egi
me.
 Feder ati
onofSout her nRhodesi aandNor ther nRhodesi awasal sosuggest ed,butit
fail
ed.

ZJCNOTESPage85
CENTRALAFRI
CANFEDERATI
ON

ZJCNOTESPage86
 Sout
her
nRhodesi
a(Zi
mbabwe)
,Nor
ther
nRhodesi
a(Zambi
a)andNy
asal
and
Federat
ion–I ti
swhenindi
vi
dualcount
ri
eskeept
hei
rter
ri
tor
ial
gov
ernmentbutsends
repr
esentat
ivestot
hefeder
alassembly.
Amal
gamat
ion–I
tiswhensev
eral
count
ri
esar
ejoi
nedt
ocomeupwi
thonecount
ry.
I
nt his case Souther
n Rhodesi
a( Zi
mbabwe),Nort
her
n Rhodesi
a(Zambi
a) and
Nyasal
and(Malawi)hadtobej
oinedasonecount
ry.
Reasonsbehi ndAmal gamat ion
 Settl
ersinNor thernRhodesi awant edt osharethepr ofi
tsofZimbabweangol df i
eldas
wellasthepr of i
tsfrom t hecopper.
 Theset t
lersinSout hernRhodesi awant edtouset hehuger eser
vesofZambi alabouras
theybeli
ev edt hatblackswer et heonlyv al
uabl
esour ceofcheaplabour.
 Settl
erssuppor tedf ederati
onascust om barr
ierswoul dber emovedsot hatSout hern
RhodesiaandNy asalandcoul dbenef itasNor thernRhodesi awhichwasapot ential
marketf orgoods,t hi
smeantgoodscoul dbeexpor tedandi mportedwithoutpay ing
duty.
 PostwarEur opeanscoul dbeat tr
acted.
 Whites in Nor t
hern Rhodesi a woul d get theirterri
tori
es commi ssi
on t o send
repr
esent ati
vest oamal gamat i
on.

Theideaofamal
gamat
ionwasrej
ect
edasNort
hernRhodesi
awasnotproduci
ngmuch;
theyal
sofear
edt
hatafewwhi
tesinNor
ther
nRhodesi
awouldnotr
esi
stnati
onali
sm.

ThereforeGoreBrownasettl
erfrom Nort
her
nRhodesiaconti
nuedt
osuggesttheidea
ofaf eder
ati
on.Hef el
tthatSouthernRhodesi
a,Nort
hernRhodesiaandNy asal
and
shouldf or
m af eder
ati
onbutinter
estofEuropeansi
nSout her
nRhodesiahadt obe
respectedwhereasAfri
cantr
eatmentsinNort
hernRhodesi
aandNy asal
andhadt obe
respected.

RoyWel enskyofNor t
her nRhodesi aandGodf reyHuggi nsofSout hernRhodesi abegan
tocampai gnf orf ederationar guingt hattherewoul dbepar tnershipbet weenAf ricans
andwhi t
esandy etitwaspar tnershi
pofa“ riderandhor se”.TheAf r
icansequat edt he
partnershiptot hatofal adderwhi chtheEur opeanswant edtouset oclimbon.Af ricans
al
sosaw t hi
sasani nstr umentdesi gnedt oper petuatewhiteandr aci
stsupr emacy
whileot herssaw i tasapl oyt odelayt hei
ri ndependence.Thi smeantexpl oit
ationof
Afri
cans.Af r
icanst herefor epr otest
edagai nstf ederati
on.Pr oponent soff ederation
arguedt hataFeder alSt at ewoul dattractmassi vef orei
gninvestmentt hus,st i
mul ate
economi cgr owt hi nther egion.AFeder alstatewoul dalsomobi l
iser esourcesasone
unit
,t herefor
eenabl ethedev elopmentofi nfrastructur
esuchaspowergener ation,

ZJCNOTESPage87
roads,r
ail
wayandindustr
ies.I
n1953t heBrit
ishGov er
nmentapprovedfederat
ion.The
white set
tl
erpopulati
on of Southern Rhodesia great
ly out
numbered t he set
tl
er
populat
ionofbothNorthernRhodesiaandNy asal
and.Thispopul
ati
ongr owthgreatl
y
shapedthewaytowardsaFederati
onandt hefuturedevel
opments.

St
ruct
ureofCent
ralAf
ri
canFeder
ati
on

I
twasmadeupoff
ivear
msofgov
ernmentnamel
y:

 TheFeder
al gov ernment
 Thr
eeTerri
torial gover
nment
s
 TheBri
ti
shgov ernment

CentralAfri
canFeder ati
onhadal egislati
v eCounci lof36seat swhi chconsi stedof29
Europeansand6r eser vedf orAf ricansr epresent at i
ves.Thesi xseat sf orAf ri
canswer e
notnecessar i
lymeantf orbl acksbutEur opeansr epresenti
ngAf ricanAf fairs.Thiswas
despitethatAf ricanswer et hemaj orit
yandneededbet terr epr esent ation.Sout hern
Rhodesiahad18seat s,Nor thernRhodesi a11seat sandNy asal and7seat si nt he
FederalAssembl y.Thecapi taloff ederat i
onwasSout hernRhodesi a( Sal isbury).The
Federalgovernmentwasr esponsi bleforkeyMi nist r
iessuchasFi nance, Ext ernalAf fai
rs,
Trade,Communi cationandDef ence.TheFeder algov ernmental sor ecei vedr evenue
from thethreet erri
tor i
esf orit supkeep.Eacht errit
oryhadat erritorialgov ernmentl ed
byaPr imeMi nisteri nt hecaseofSout hernRhodesi aandGov ernor si nNor thern
RhodesiaandNy asaland.Thet erritori
algov ernment scont rol
ledt heMi nistr i
esofLocal
government,Land,Agr icult
ur e,Heal t
h and Af rican Educat ion.Af ri
cansi n Nor thern
RhodesiaandNy asal andwer epar toft heirgov ernment sunl ikei nSout her nRhodesi a
weresuchapar tner shipwasunaccept able.Afri
cansgai nedl it
tleast heywer eexcluded
from thepolit
icalcake.Economi callytheydi dnotgai nmuchei t
herast axes,pr icesof
goodsr emainedhi gh,di scrimi nationper sistedandwagesr emai nedl ow compar edt o
thatofEuropeanset tl
ers.Ameni tiesl i
kehospi tals,educat ionandot hersal soremai ned
separateforblacksandwhi t
es.

ZJCNOTESPage88
 Federati
onmeant ;
 SouthernRhodesiawasbenef i
tti
ngmor ethanNyasalandandNor ther
nRhodesiaast he
Kari
baDam wast obebui l
tinSouthernRhodesi
a,thi
smeantpr omoti
onoft our
ism and
el
ectri
city.
 Univ
ersityofRhodesiaandNy asalandwast obebuiltinSouthernRhodesia(Univ
ersit
y
ofZimbabwe) .
 Constructi
onofar ai
lwayli
nefrom Norther
nRhodesiatoLourenzoMar ques(Maputo).
 Roadsandbr idgeswereconstruct
ed.
 Agri
cultureandindustr
iesweretobecreated.

Howev er,
developmentwasskewedi nfavourofSouthernRhodesiaastheCapital
oft he
Federalgovernmentwasi nSalisbur
y.Manyoft hedev el
opmentswer ethusundertaken
i
nSout hernRhodesi a.SouthernRhodesiaalsor ecei
ved60% oft heFederalrevenue,
thusrelat
ionsbecamesourl eadingtothecollapseoft heCentr
alAf r
icanFederati
on.
Otherfactor
swhi chcontr
ibutedtothecoll
apseoft heFederat
ionwere:

 I
n 1950 Af ricans i
n both Ny asaland and Nort
hern Rhodesi
a campaigned t
o end
federation.
 Racialat t
it
udeofSout hernRhodesia.
 Changi ngattitudest
owardscolonialism.
 Grantingofi ndependence/selfruleofNy asal
andin1962.
 TheBr iti
shgov er
nmenttermi
nat edtheCent r
alAf
ri
canFederati
onin1963.

THESETTLERCOLONI
ALECONOMY

TheLandQuest ion
 Thel andsegr egat i
onpol i
cieswer eimpl ement
edandAf ricansremainedwi thoutlandfor
Agriculture.
 Theywer ef orcedt owor kasl abourer si
nmi nes,factoriesandmi neswhi chAf r
icans
wereexpl oitedast heywer egi venlowwagesconsi deri
ngt heworktheydi d.
 Reser veswer ecr eatedforAf r
icansaf tert
he1896-97war .
 In1898t heor deri ncouncil or
der edthecompanyt opr ovideenoughl andforAf r
icans.
 In1902or derincounci lorderedcr eationofmor ereservesinst
eadofr edi
stri
butingland
asfort he1898demand.
 Settl
ersbegant obuyl andsucht hatby1902,2/ 3oft heHi ghvel
dwasbel ongingt othe
Europeans.
 Thel andcommi ssionof1914r efl
ectedwhatt heythoughtwasf i
nalby1920,l andwas
sai
dt ober edi
stributedasf oll
ows:

ZJCNOTESPage89
 LandboughtbyEuropeans: 31484095acres.
 Nati
vereser
ves: 21203493acres.
 Landnotall
ocat
ed: 43529880acres.
NB:onereal
lywonderswhatthel
andnotal
locat
edwasf or
.

TheLandAppor ti
onmentAct( 1930)
 Itwasasy stem inwhi chset
tl
erswant edtobedi vi
dedbetweenblacksandwhi t
esi n
suchawayt hattheycouldkeepsomel andforthei
runbornwhitechi
ldr
en.
 Outofat otall
andof96000000acr es,Europeanswer egi
ven49149174acr esand
Afri
canswer egiven21127040acr es.Duringthattimether
ewer e1081000Af r
icans
and50000wer eEuropeans.
 Thedev astati
onofl andapport
ionmentActisthatitcausedalotofover
crowdi
ngint he
reser
ves.

TheNat i
veLandHusbandr yAct
 Thiswasanef forttoreduceeffect
soft heLandAppor t
ionmentActoft heAfr
ican
population.
 Itstat
edhowl andi nthereserv
escouldbeusedanddi vi
ded.
 Onef ami l
ywasal l
owedt okeep5cattl
eonlyandtofarm 8acresonly.
 Distri
ctcommi ssionsdistr
ibut
edlandwhichhadbeenf ormer l
ydistr
ibut
edbychiefs.i
t
washopedt hattheNativeHusbandryactwouldpreventAfr
icansfrom comingtourban
areastoseekempl oyment.
 Theyal soexpectedthatitwouldr
esulti
nbett
erfar
mi ngmet hodsbeingused.

Effectsoft heLandAct sonAf r

icans
 Itcreatedaser iousl andshortageamongAf ri
canpeasant s.
 Croppr oduct
iondecl inedas1acr ecoul donlyproduceonebagofmai ze.
 Africanwer et urnedt olowpai dlabour er
sast heycouldget1meal i
emeal ,beansand
saltaspay ment s.
 Africanshadt opayr enttowhi t
es.
 Africanswer ef orcedoutoft heruralareastotheurbanar east
oseekempl oyment.
 Itcont ribut
ed t ot he raise ofnationali
sm in Zimbabwe e. g.The Af
rican Nati
onal
Conf erence of1957 whi ch aimed atr ev
ersing the Land Appor
ti
onmentActand
rel
ocat ionoflandonnon- raci
albase.

TheLandTenur eAct(1969)
 I
twasi ntr
oducedbytheRhodesiaFronttot i
ghtentheLandAppor t
ionmentAct
.
 I
tincr
easedt heevi
cti
onorremovalofAf r
icansf r
om Europeanareas.
 TheLandTenur eActcausedsomehar dshipsintheAfricancommuni t
y.
 Sever
al Act
swer el
ateri
ntr
oducedtodiscriminateagainstthebl
ackpeople.

ZJCNOTESPage90
 ChiefRekaiTangwena
 HewasanAf r
icanl eaderwhoopposedt hepolicyoflandsegr egat i
on.
 Tangwenal ivedar oundt heI nyanganiMount ains,thi
sl andwassol dtothewhites
withouthim knowi ngandt hereforehebecameasquat t
er.
 In1962, theRhodesi anFrontremov edallsquattersbutTangwenar efusedt
omov e.
 Hewast akent ocour tandlostandi nJune1968heappeal edtot hehighcour
tandwon
thecase.
 TheRhodesi anFr ontbecameangr yinthev i
ctory,abandonedi nruleoflawandresor
ted
tov i
olenceandmur der.
 September181968, theRhodesi anFr ontgovernmentev ictedRekaiTangwenabyf orce,
arr
estedhi m,bur ntv i
ll
agesdownandhi speopl ef l
edmount ai
nswher etheyli
ved
withoutshelter.
 Tangwenawasl ateraccompani edbyRober tMugabet oMozambi quein1974andonly
ret
urnedaf terindependence.
 TheTangwena’ sreturnedtothei rl
andandar enowhappi l
ysettled.

Rhodesi anLaw
 InRhodesi athel awwasusedasani nstrumentforoppressi
onandunder development.
 Int heear lyy earsofset tl
err ulelawswer epassedt of or
ceAf r
icansto wor kfor
Europeansbyconf i
scatingtheirland.
 Laterlawsi ntr
oducedpr eventedAf ri
cansfrom competingagainstwhiteinempl oyment
,
sel
lingpr oduceandr esi
dentialareas.
 Ther ewer ealsol awsofgov erningAf r
icanmov ementfrom onepar tofthepr ovi
nceto
anot her.
 Howev er,t
hesel awsdi dnotst opAf r
icansfrom fi
ght
ingtoachieveindependence.

LawsPassed
LAW YEAR PURPOSE

LandAppor
ti
onmentAct
. 1930 Creat
ion of r
eser
ves e.
g. Gwaai and
Shangani
.

Cheapl
abour

Nat
iveLandHusbandr
yAct
. 1951 Depr
iveAf
ri
cansoft
hei
rland.

Cheapl
abour
.

LandTenur
eAct
. 1969 Depr
iveAf
ri
cansoft
hei
rland.

For
cet
hem t
osel
lthei
rlabourcheapl
y.

ZJCNOTESPage91
I
ndust
ri
alConci
l
iat
ionAct
. 1934 Togov
ernl
abourr
elat
ions.

Thelawst
oppedAf
ri
cansf
rom f
ormi
ngt
rade
uni
ons.

Regi
str
ati
onofLabour
sAct 1895 Recordsoff
ingerpri
ntsanddet
ail
sofeach
worker’
svi
ll
age,tr
ibeetc.

Nat
iveRegi
str
ati
onAct
. 1936 Cont
rol
l
edmov
ementofAf
ri
cans.

ForcedAf
ri
canst
ocar
rypasseswher
ever
theywent
.

Nat
ivePassesAct
. 1937 Cont
rol
l
edmov
ementofAf
ri
cans.

ForcedAf
ri
canst
ocar
rypasseswher
ever
theywent
.

Mai
zeCont
rol
Act
. 1931 Cr
eatedbett
ermarketi
ngopportuni
ti
esasa
hi
gherpr
iceofEur
opeanmaize.

Cat
tl
eLev
yAct
. 1934 Madeitpossibl
eforEuropeanst
osel
lthei
r
cat
tl
eforbet
terpri
ces.

Sedi
ti
onAct
. 1936 Speechesandact i
onint
endedt
omake
peopl
er ebelagai
nstt
heauthor
it
yoft
hest
ate
wereforbidden.

Unl
awf
ulOr
gani
sat
ionAct
. 1959 AccusedtheleadersoftheA.N.
C.of
addressi
ngignorantandunwaryper
sonsi
n
stol
enandthreateningl
anguage.

Pr
event
iveDet
ent
ionAct
. 1959 GavetheMi ni
sterofJust
icepowertodist
inct
peopleconcentr
ati
oncampswi thoutt
ri
alina
propercour
t.

A.
N.C.l
eader
swer
ear
rest
edanddet
ained

LawAndOr derAct. 1960 Repl

acepr
event
ivedet
ent
ion.
(Maint
enanceAct)
Afr
icanLabourRegul
ati
on Prev
ent
edpeopl
efr
om l
eav
ingt
hei
rjobsand
Act. fr
om st
ri
ke.

Mast
ersandSer
vant
sAct
. Pr
event
edpeopl
efr
om l
eav
ingwor
k.

Madesur
elabourwasav
ail
abl
etoEur
opean

ZJCNOTESPage92
 mast
ers.

ZJCNOTESPage93
 MODERNAFRI
CANNATI
ONALI
SM ANDLI
BERATI
ON

Nationali
sm isaf eel
ingofonenessandl oveforone’scountry.Moder nnat ional
ism
grew inoppositi
ont ocol onialandot hersett
leroccupati
onoft hecount ry
.Thei l
l
-
tr
eatmentofAf ri
cansandot hersoci alandeconomi cprobl
emswhi chheldbackAf rican
developmentledt oi ncr
easingpr otestsasbl acksstruggl
edt oendoppr essionand
i
nequal i
tythattheset tl
erscr eated and tri
ed to ki
l
l.Inst
ead ofseei ng thepr otest
mov ement sasasi gnthatcondi t
ionsneedt oimprovet helegi
slati
onswer etightened.
Despitethebrutali
tyandabuseofcol onialgover
nment stheAf ri
cansdidnotst opt o
organiseandredressthemselv es.

Ear
lypr
otestmov
ement
s

 Aft
erthefi
rstChi mur enga,protestmov ementswereformedallaroundthecount
ryand
deal
twithgri
ev ancesi nthosear eas.
 Theleader
scamef r
om t heblackelitewhichincl
udedteachers,pr
iest
s.Tradeuni
ons
andtheworking.
 Theorgani
sationsf ormedpr otestedaboutpart
icul
argri
evancessuchas:

 Land.
 Wages.
 Represent
ati
oninparl
i
ament.
 Educati
onaloppor
tuni
ti
es.

 Someoft hemov ement

swerer efor
medI ndustr
ialworker
sunions,Rhodesi
anBantu
vot
ersassoci
ati
onandBri
ti
shAfri
canVoiceAssociati
on.
 However,duri
ng t
hisperi
od t
heseor gani
sati
onsdi d notdi
ewi thissueofending
minor
it
yrule.

Theriseofmassnat i
onalism
 Whent heWor l
dWarI Ibrokeout ,manyAf r
icansinthecolonyservedinthewart o
supportthei
rcoloni
al masters.
 TheRhodesi anAf r
icanswer enotanexpectat i
onduri
ngthewar ,peopl
eofdi f
fer
ent
raceswer emadeequal ast heysuff
eredanddiedatthewarfront
.
 Oncet hewarwasov er,t
heexper i
enceofequalit
ywascarri
edhomeandasar esul
tthe
nati
onalistv
oicedemandedPol i
ti
calpart
ici
pat
iont ogr
ow.
 Theyf oughtanddiedasequalal ongsi
dewhi tesbutoncehomet herewerenolonger
equalinthesett
lersystem.

ZJCNOTESPage94
 The1stmassnationalistpol
i
ticalmov ementwasAfri
canNationalCongress(
A.N.C.)in
1957andwhosel eaderswer eJamesChi ker
ema,MichaelMal ema,JosephMsi ka,
Geor
geNy andor
o, JoshuaNkomo, St
andakeSamkangeandEdsonSi thol
e.
 TheA.N.C.wasbannedi nFebr uar
y1959bySi rEdgarWhi t
eandmanynat ionali
st
l
eadersweredet
ained.

For
mat
ionofNat
ionalpol
it
icalpar
ti
es

TheNationalDemocr ati
cPar t
y(NDP)
st
 I
twas1 l edbyMi chael Mawemat heJoshuaNkomotookov er
.
 Alt
houghN. D.P.leader sincl
udedRobertMugabeandLeopoldTakawi r
a.
 OtherAfr
icancount r
ieslikeGhanamadeZi mbabwenati
onali
stdemandsst ronger.
 I
n1961r epresent ati
vesf orthepart
ywenttoLondontodiscussanewconst i
tut
ionwi
th
theBri
ti
shgov ernment ,however,
theywerenotof
fer
edequal r
epresentat
ions.
 Thepartywast henbannedon9Dec1961.

ZAPUandZANU
 Thebanni ngoftheN.D.P.l
edt oformati
onoftheZi mbabweAf r
icanPeopl
e’
sUni on
(ZAPU)withJoshuaNkomoi t
sleader.
 Aftervi
olentprot
estsi
nt hecountryZAPU wasbannedi nSeptember1962,lackof
agreementamongt henati
onali
stsledtothefor
mat i
onofZimbabweAf ri
canNati
onal
Union(ZANU)inAugust1963withNdabaningi
Sit
holeasit
sleader
.
 InAugust1964bothpart
ieswerebannedandtheleaderswer
edetained.

Dev el
opment sinSout hernRhodesi a
 Unli
ke in Nor thern Rhodesi a and Ny asaland wer e Af r
icans campai gned to end
federat
ion,inSout her
nRhodesi aAfri
canswer eexploited.
 MostAf ri
canswer eexcl
udedf rom voti
ngt herefor
et hepr otestedagainstcolonial
rule.
 I
n1962el ecti
onswer ewonbyt heRhodesi anf r
ont(R.F)l edbySi rWinstonField.
 I
anSmi ththreatenedtodecl areindependenceashecl aimedt hatmajorityruleshould
notexistinSouther nRhodesiabutmi nor i
tyrule.
 Hedet ai
nedpol iti
call
eaders,bannedt elevisionsanddecl aredU.D.I.i
ll
egalont he11thof
Nov ember1965.
 Brit
ainrespondedbyi ntroducingsanctiononI ansmi th.

Rev
olut
ionaryNational
ism
 On11Nov ember1965, I
anSmi t
hdecl
aredU.D.I
.agai
nstAf
ri
cannat
ional
i
sm.
 I
tbecameclearthatthesett
ler
swouldnotl
istentobl
ackdemands.

ZJCNOTESPage95
 ZANUandZAPUt hensentmor eoftheirl
eader soutoft hecount
rytoprepareforan
armedstruggle.
 ZANUwasal lowedtosetupcamp0si nZambi a,Ghana,Tanzani
aandChinawhilstZAPU
organi
sedj ointtr
aini
ngcampswi t
hA. N.C.( S.
A.)inZambi a,andtheSolventUnion
(Russi
a).
 HerbertChitepowasl eaderofZANUandi tsMi l
i
taryleaderwasZANLAandJames
Chiker
emawasl eaderofZAPU’smil
itar
ywi ngZIPRA.
th
 Thearmedst r
ugglebeganonthe28 ofApr i
l1966.

TheArmedst r
uggle
 Becauseofearlydefeat
stheGuerri
l
lasbegantol
i
stent
othegr
iev
ancesoft
hemass
whichtheyr
efer
redtoasNational
gri
evances.
 Theseare:

 Landstr
uggle.
 Gener
alpovert
y.
 Const
antharassmentbyRhodesi
anFr
ont
.

 Theguerril
las’fullunderstandi
ngoft hesegriev ancesencour agedpeopletojointhe
armedstruggle.
 Poli
ti
caleducationwasi ntroducedtof ight
erssot hattheywouldbeawar eoftheexact
aimsofthest r
uggl e.
 Poli
ti
caleducationwasi ntroducedtof ight
erssot hattheywouldbeawar eoftheexact
aimsofthest r
uggl e.
 Oldmenandwomenpr ovidedfoodandot hersuppl i
estof r
eedom fight
erswhilstt
he
yout
h,bot h boy s and girl
s wer e or
ganised int o securi
tygr oups t
o watch enemy
movement sandsuppl yinformationandf oodtot heguer ri
l
las.

Financialsupport
 BothZAPU andZANU r eceivedpolit
icalandf inancialsuppor tf r
om peopleoutside
Zimbabwe.
 Count r
iessuchasTanzani a,Mozambi que, Angol a,Zambi a,Ethi
opia,Al
geri
a,Yugosl
avia,
China,Romani a,North Kor ea,SovietUni on (Russi a)and ot hersociali
stcountr
ies
supportedar medstruggle.
 Manycount r
iesinthewor l
di ncl
udi
ngf rontlinest ates(Angol a,Botswana,Mozambique,
Tanzani aandZambi a)suppor t
edthef i
rstst rugglesoft heAf ri
canpeopleandopposed
theil
legalstateofRhodesi a.
 Thei ncreasi
ngguer ri
ll
ast ruggleledt ot hel ossofdi scipli
neandconf idenceamong
whiteset t
ler
s.

ZJCNOTESPage96
 Settl
erresponsetoar medst r
uggle
 The gov er
nmentcr eated pr
otect
ed v i
l
lages surrounded by wire and guarded by
Rhodesianforces.Thiswasaimedatst oppingsupportfortheguerri
l
las.
 Afr
icanhomeswer ebur ntdown,cropsdest r
oyedandcat tleki
ll
edinor dertodenythe
guerri
l
lasfood.
 Thousandswer edetainedandhangedf orsupporti
ngguer r
il
las.
 Botswana,Mozambi queandZambi awereat t
ackedbyt heRhodesiaFront.
 The Rhodesian gov ernmentused agent st o kil
lt op l
eadership oft he l
i
berat
ion
mov ement.

Pearcecommi ssion
 Edwar dHeath,t heleaderofaConser vati
v epar
tynegotiat
edf orasettl
ementwi thIan
smithdisregardingthef actthatI
anSmi thwasnoti nter
ested,Goodmanwast her
efore
senttonegotiate.
 Howev er,hefeltthattheBr i
ti
shGover
nmenthadt onegoti
ate
 Theset tl
ementhecameupwi t
hmeantcont inuousexploitat
ionofAf r
icans,some
Afri
canpr ot
estedbycar r y
ingdemonstrat
ionsinthestr
eets.
 In1973,IanSmi thdesiredtohavetalkswi t
hBishopAbelMuzor ewa(UANG)butf ai
led
toreachanyconsensus.
 Het r
iedDrJoshuaNkomoofZAPUbutf ail
edagain.
 IanSmi t
hbegant ofeararmedstrugglefrom Afri
canssohedeci dedt
onegot i
atewith
l
essmi li
tantAfricanleaders.

Int
ernalAgr eement
 Besidesat t
empt sbySout hAf r
icaandZambi at oendt hewar,at
tempt swerealsomade
bytheU. S.A.
 A meet i
ngt ookpl aceandI anSmi t
hannouncedaccept anceofmaj ori
tyruleon24
December1974, howev er
,Policear myandv i
talagencieshadt oremaininwhi t
ehands.
 Thiscalledforgr eatoppositionfrom Afri
canandBr i
tishcall
edaConf er
enceinGenev a,
Switzerl
andwhi chfailedagainasI anSmithwasnotr eadytoamendany thi
ng.
 I
n1976t heAmer icanGov ernmentsentHenr yKi ssi
ngert heAmer i
cansecretaryofst
ate
toor ganisetheGenev aConferenceatwhi chIanSmi t hwastomeetZAPUandZANU
l
eader s,ast heyf earedthedef eatofIanSmi t
ht hr
oughwarofl i
berati
on.Howev er
,at
thi
spoi ntSmi thdidnotwantt ograntmajori
tyrule.

 Ast hecostofthewarbecamebur densome,itl

edIanSmi
thtoadopttheideaof
negoti
ati
ngwithi
nter
nal
leader
sasawayofendingthewar
.
 Afr
icanleader
swhosuppor t
edthesett
lementi
ncl
udeMuzor
ewa,Si
thol
e,Chi
kerema

ZJCNOTESPage97
 andChi r
au.
 OnMar ch31978, thei
nter
nalset
tl
ementwassignedandtheleadersagreedtoforma
governmentofnational
unit
y.
 Undert hisarr
angementMuzor ewabecamePr i
meMi ni
steroft hebr i
efZimbabwe
Rhodesiain1979butev enduri
ngthi
speriodtheset
tl
ersconti
nuedt oholdpoli
ti
cand
economi cpower.
 Theset t
lementhadbeenadesperateat
tempttostopthear
medst ruggl
e,unfor
tunat
ely
thi
sdidnothappenasMuzor ewaandothersdi
dnothaveanycontroloverguer
ril
l
asso
thestruggl
econti
nued.

Lancast
erHouseConf
erence
I
twasheldinLondoni
nSeptember1979andi
tlast
edf
or4mont
hs

Memberspresent
 Bri
ti
shDel
egation–LordCar
ringt
on–3r epresent
ati
ves.
 ZANU–Rober tMugabe–57r epr
esent
ati
ves.
 ZAPU–JoshuaNkomo–20r epr
esent
ati
ves.
 Zi
mbabweRhodesiaDelegat
ion–BishopAbel Muzorewa–20r
epr
esent
ati
ves.

 ThePat rioticFr ontwast hreateningtofightt hecol oni

algov ernmentandtheref
orea
Conf erencewascal ledfor, t
heQuest i
onofl andbecamecr it
icalatLancast
er
 ZANUwant edlandwhi chwasownedbyt hewhi t
est ober edistri
but
edtother i
ghtful
owneri .e.t heAf ri
cans.
 Whi tesr efusedt ohandov erthel andarguingt hattheyhadt obepai dfort
helandtobe
released.
 ZANUar guedt hati fanypay menthadt obemadet heinternati
onalcommunitywas
responsi ble.
 TheBr i
tishgov ernmentl ateragreedt opayt hewhi t
essot hatt heyhandovertheland
theyownedf orredistr
ibuti
on.
 Electionswer ehel dandZANUwont hemaj orit
ybox.
 I
8Apr il1980i ndependencewasgr ant
edtoZi mbabwe.
 CdeCanaanBananat hel atebecamet hef i
rstPresidentofZi mbabweandCdeRober t
MugabewasPr imeMi ni
ster.

From l
iberati
ontoIndependence
 TheBriti
shgov er
nmentinSeptember1979cal
l
edt
hewar
ri
ngpar
ti
est
oaconf
erenceat
theLancasterHouse.

ZJCNOTESPage98
 BishopMuzor ewal edtheZi mbabweRhodesi aDel egat i
onwhileRobertMugabeledthe
patri
oti
cfront.
 Themeet ingwaschai redbyBr i
tishfor
eignsecret
ar yLordCarri
ngton.
 Theconf erenceendedi nDecember1979wi thanagr eementthattheywil
lbeacease
fi
refoll
owedbyel ecti
onsi nvol
vingallpart
ies.
 I
nt heelecti
onsRober tMugabe’sZANUwont heelections.
th
 Thebi r
thofanewnat ionwaswi t
nessedont he18 ofApr il1980wi t
hthehoist
ingof
theZimbabweanf lag.

Post-i
ndependenceZi mbabwe
 Thenew gov ernmentofZi mbabwewasf aced wit
hseriousprobl
emsofrecei
ving
economyandsoci al
ityhadbeendestr
oyedi
nt hear
medstr
uggle.
 From theonsetgov ernmentstar
tedtoaddressthepol
i
ticalandeconomi
cprobl
ems
facedbythecountry
.

Socialistideol ogy
 Duringt hear medst ruggl
eZi mbabweangov ernmentmat erialsupportfr
om social
ist
states.
 ZANUwasassi stedbyChinawhi lstZAPUgothel pfrom Russia.
 Itist her efore notsur pr
ising thatt he 1980 gov er
nmentchose t of ol
l
ow social
ist
i
deol ogywhi chwast osuppor tequal i
tyinthedistri
butionofweal t
h.
 Howev er,soci ali
sm wasdi ff
iculttoimpl ementasi tdidnotgetwhol eheartedsupport
fr
om ev eryoneassomequi cklyassumedper sonal wealth.
 Suchbehav i
ourdest royedsoci ali
sm asi tshoweddoubl estandardinpracti
se.
 Wi t
ht hecol lapseofsoci al i
sm i ntheSov i
etUni on( Russia)in1989Zi mbabweback
tr
ackedandopenl yt
heyaccept edcapitali
sm.

Pol
it
icaldev
elopment
ssi
ncei
ndependence

 Althought herewasnov otersrolli

n1980,tr
uedemocr acywasachi ev
ed.
 Peoplev otedfreelyandt heout comeoft heelect
ionswaswel comedbyt hemajor
ityof
thepeopl ewhowant edt hewart oend.
 Dur i
ngt hear medst r
uggl etherewer emanyar medgroupsinthecount r
yanditwasnow
necessar yt omai ntai
npeaceandsecur i
ty.
 Asar esultGener alSolomonTapf umaneiMujuruwasgiventhattask.
 Amul ti
-r
aci al
Cabi netwasappoi nted.
 Howev er,becauseofmi sunderstandi
ngamongt hepoli
ti
calgroupsabl oodyci
vilwar
brokeouti nMat ebelelandi n1982.
 Thisendedwi t
ht heuni t
yagr eementofDecember1987andMugabebecamePr esi
dent.

ZJCNOTESPage99
 Economi cdev el
opmentsi nceIndependence
 TheZi mbabweeconomi cprobl
emsst art
edati ndependencewhent hegov er
nment
att
empt edt odotoomuchwi t
heveryli
ttl
eresource.
 Amongt heot hert hingswer eintroducti
onofeducat ionatprimarylev
elandheal t
h
servi
cesforot herdisadv ant
agesgroups.
 Atindependencet heeconomywasdet er
minedbyf or
eigncompanies.
 Zimbabwehadgai nedpol it
icalf
reedom butnoteconomi cfr
eedom andasar esul
tas
l
ateas2000t hemaj ori
tyoftheAfri
cansr emainedaswor ker
sandpeasantfarmers.
 Howev er,somepr ogr esshasbeenmadei ngivingeconomicpowertoAfri
cans.

Educat
ion
 Thecol
onial
gov
ernmentai
msi
neducat
ionwer
e:

 TospreadChri
sti
ani
tythr
oughworkofvari
ousmi ssionar
ysoci
eti
es.
 Totrai
npeoplewhowouldbeusefulf
orcapit
ali
sts’extr
acti
onofweal
thfr
om thecol
ony
.
 Foreducat
iontobeusedasinst
rumentst
osepar ateAfri
cansf
rom t
hei
rcult
ure.

 OnlyEur opeanhi stor ywasl earnte.g.Hitl

er,Napoleon, Mussol inietc.
 Missionar ysocietieswer ethefir
stt ostartf
or mal;schoolsf orAfricaninSouther nAfrica.
 Thef ir
stmi ssionst ati
onwasest abli
shedatI nyathibyTheLondonMi ssi
onar ySociet y
(L.
M. S.)in1859.
 In1870a2ndmi ssionst ationopenedatHopeFoundat ion.
 TheJesui t
sf ol
lowedt heL. M.Sin1879andt heDut chRef ormedChur chestablishedone
school nearMasv ingoi n1891.
 In1899t heGov ernmentpassedi ts1steducat i
onforwhi techi l
drenandnotAf ri
cans.
 Theor dinanceal sost atedt hati
ndi vi
dualtraini
ngwast obei ncludedi nthecur ri
culum
forAfricanchi l
dren.
 In1903or dinancewaspassed,i taidedont eachingAf r
icanChi ldrenenoughEngl i
sht o
beabl et ounder stand.Ther ef
oret hiseducat i
onassumedatmaki ngAf ri
cansbet t er
l
abour ers.
 In1946, he1stgov
t ernmentschoolGor omonziwasest ablishedandi tcourtedf orski
lled
l
abour erpoweri nbot hpr i
vateandpubl i
csect or
s.
 TheAf ricandemandedt hatthegov ernmenthadt or unwi t
ht heeducat i
onsect orasthey
didEur opeaneducat ion.
 Thepar t
nershipbet weenMi ssi
onar i
esandgov ernmenthadcont i
nuedi ntheeducat ion
sector.

Educat
ionduringFederat
ion
 Duri
ngfederat
ion,
thefederal
governmentbecameresponsi
bleforeducat
ion.
 However,pr
imaryandsecondaryeducat
ionbecameunderterr
it
orial
government
.

ZJCNOTESPage100
 Thefederalgover
nmenthadalistofresour
ces:TheUni
versi
tyofZi
mbabwewasbui
l
t.
 Adepartmentofnati
veeducati
onwasest abli
shedasaseparat
ebody.
 Thecolonialr
egimedi
dveryli
tt
letorespondtoAfri
candemands.

Afr
icanEducat ionSy stem
Theeducat i
ondur ingU. D.
I.
 Aft
ert heIll
egaldecl arati
onofI ndependencei n1965,Af ri
canswer et r
ainedf orsemi-
ski
ll
edl abourinlocalareas.
 Therewasapl anf ortr
ainingteacher
sandbui ldingschool
s( 306)over10y ear s.
 Afr
icanswhower eall
owedt ogot ot
hef ul
l4y earsecondaryprogram constituted12.
5%
andther estendedatpr i
mar yschool
.
 Thi
swasbecausegr ade7mar ker
swer einstructedtof ai
lther estaf t
eracer t
ain
numberhadpassed.
 TheSki l
ledManPowerDev elopmentActandTheI ndust
rialConcil
i
ationActpr ev
ented
Afr
icansf r
om trainingandwor ki
ngintechni
cal fi
elds.
 WhitetradeUni onsstoppedbl acksfrom gett
ingt echni
caleducati
onandt raining.

Post -
Independenceper i
od
 Beforei ndependencet heeducat i
onsy stem hadf avouredt hewhi t
emi norit
ywhi lstthey
werebot tlenecksf orAf r
icanchi l
drenwhof orcedt hem outofschool s.
 Thissy stem pr oducedAf ri
canswhower eonlyabl etor eadandwr itethattheycoul dbe
accept edi nt hemines, farmsandi ndust ries.
 In1981, thegov ernmentsetoutt oprov i
debet tereducat i
onal opportunit
iesforAf ri
cans.
 Ther ewast obenodi scriminati
oni neducat i
onongr ounds, voiceclassandgender .
 Anexpansi oni neducat ionl edt hegov ernmentt ointroduceaf asttrackt eacheri n
school s.
 Otheruni versit
ieswer eopened/est abl ishedt or elievet heUni versit
yofZi mbabwet o
accommodat ethosef i
nishingtheirAl evel st
udi es.
 Topr omot ethegi rlchil
d,in1996t hegov er
nmentcameupwi t
ht heaffir
mat i
veact ion
poli
cy ,thisencour agedf emal eenrolmentathi gheri nsti
tut es.
 Sincei ndependencet heeducat ionsy stem hasr eceivedout st
andingachi evement s.
 Ont heot herhandt hequal i
tyofeducat ionhasbeenl i
mi tedbyl ackoff undsandbr ain
drain.
 Equal it
yhasal sobeendi ffi
cul
tt oachi eveassomeschool shav eexcel l
entf acil
it
ies
whilstot her shavet odowi thbar eminimum.

ZJCNOTESPage101
 ACHI
EVEMENTOFI
NDEPENDENCEI
NAFRI
CA

 Part
it
ionofAf r
icaaf ter1884ledtot heoccupat i
onoft hecontinentbyEuropeancol oni
al
powerexceptf or2count ri
es;Et hi
opiawhi chhadbeeni ndependentt hroughoutit
s
hi
storyandLiber i
a.
 Theexploit
ati
onofAf ri
canpeopleandt heirr
esour cesf ol
lowedasi milarpatter
nbutin
somecount r
iest herewasst rongresistancetocoloni sati
on.
 Theli
berati
onoft heliber
ati
onoft heAf ri
cancontinenthasbeenal ongstruggle.
 Egyptbecamet hef ir
stcountrytogai nindependencei n1922.
 The fi
rstblackAf ri
can count r
yt o become independentwas Ghana i n 1957;thi
s
encouragedotherAf ricannati
onali
st sinotherpartsoft hecont i
nent.

Liber
ationofGhana
Thegol dcoastasitisknownduringthecolonialti
mesbecamei ndependentonthe6th
ofMar ch1957.Att hebegi
nningofthe18th centurytheBrit
ishcompanyofmer chants
sentanof f
ici
altomakeat reat
ywithregi
onalchief.In1821theBrit
ishgovernmenttook
overthecompanyandi n1874t heFanteandGaCoast alar
easbecameaBr i
ti
shcolony
and2y earslat
ertheAsanteareawasoccupiedbecauseofi t
sgold.

Prot
estmov ements
 Despi
teafewAf ri
canshavingbei
ngmember soft
heAccraLegi
slat
ivecouncil1877.
 Thecoloni
algovernmentkeptAfr
icansoutoft
heseni
orpost
sinthecivi
lserv
ice.

ZJCNOTESPage102
 In1897,member sofGhana’ s2el it
egr oupst heeducat edandchi efsf ormedt hegol d
coastAbor i
ginesRi ghtsPr otecti
onSoci ety(A. R.
P. S.
).
 Theyhadbeenuni tedbyt heiropposi t
iont ol awswhi chdi dnotal low Afri
cansl egal
owner shipoft heirland.
 Inr esponset ogr owi ngdi scontent,TheUni tedGol dCr ossConv enti
on( U.G.C.
C. )was
formedi n1947.
 TheU. G.C.C.inv i
tedKwameNkr umahagr aduatei ntheUni t
edStatest ocomebackand
becomet hepar ty’
ssecr et
arygener al,hewasagoodspeakerandor ganiser.
 In1948heandot her swer edet ainedandast ateofemer gencywasdecl aredfoll
owi ng
demonst r
ationsandr i
otsafterhehadcal ledf oraboy cot tofEuropeanf irmsuntilfi
rms
wer ef orcedt olowerpr i
ces.
 Theconst ituti
onof1950gav eAf ri
cansmor erepr esent
at i
ons.
 InFebr uary1951, C. P.P.wont hel egislativ
eel ectionsandbecamel eaderofgov ernment
busi nessesandt hePr imeMi nisterthef oll
owi ngy ear.
 In1954hel edhi spar tytov ictoryi nt henew el ecti
ons,t heregionalandcapi tal
ist’
s
forceswer emobi lised againstt heC. P.P.and t heBr itishdemandedanew setof
elect i
ons.
 Intheseel ectionstheC. P.
P.wonagai n.

GhanaAf teri
ndependence
 Nkrumah’sv i
ctor
yinspi r
ednational
ist
salloverAf
rica.
 I
nhi sspeechhepr omi sedhiscountry
’ssupportt
oAf r
ica’
stotall
iber
ati
on.
 Ghanawast hefir
stcount rytot r
ainZimbabweanguer ri
ll
asandmanyot herl
i
ber
ati
on
uni
ts.
 Nkrumahwasov erthrownbyhi sarmyin1966anddi edinexil
ein1972.
 Howev er
,Nkrumahi sremember edasf at
herofAfr
icanindependence.

THEORGANI
SATI
ONOFAFRI
CANUNI
TY

Itwasal ooseassociati
onof30Af r
icancountri
es.TheO. A.U.wasanat t
emptto
establ
i
shanInterAfr
icanorgani
sat
ionofindependentst
ates.ThenO.A.
U.or
ganisedt
o
fi
ghtagai
nstcol
onial
i
sm inAfri
ca.

Pan-Afr
icani
sm
 Thiswasaf eeli
ngofAf ri
caninsideandoutsideAfri
catofreethemsel
vesfr
om white
people.
 Theor i
ginsofPan- Afri
canism ar
et r
acedtoNor t
hAmer i
cawer epeoplef
rom Afr
ican
descentdesiredtoestabli
shli
nksofBr ot
her
hoodwi t
hAfri
cansinAfri
ca.
 I
tsaim wast obr i
ngtogetherallt
heblackpeopleoftheworl
dinacommonst ruggl
efor
fr
eedom, equali
tyandself-det
erminat
ionthr
oughouttheworl
d.
ZJCNOTESPage103
 Pan-Af ricani st sbelievedt hatAf ricai sasi ngl euni tthatshoul dunite;t herewasadeep
cult
ur al unit yamongal l Afri
cans.
 EuropeandAmer icadev elopedbecauseofsl avel abourandr awmat eri
alsf rom Afri
ca.
 Becauseoft hesebel iefssomeoft heAf ricani nAmer icaor ganisedAf ri
canst ocome
backt oAf ricaandanumberact ual l
ycameandst ay edi nLiber iaandSi erraLeone.
 Themov ementofAf ri
canuni tyandsol i
dari
tywasknownasPan- Africanism.
 Withpr omi nentf i
gur essuchasHenr ySy lvesterWi l
liams, Mar cusGar veyandDrWi l
li
am
E.B.DuBoi se.
 Theear lyPan- Af
ricanist swer eKwameNkr umahofGhana, JomoKeny attaofKeny aand
Juli
usNy er ereofTanzani a.
 Henr ySy lvest erWi l
liamscamef rom Tr i
nidadi nt heWestI ndies; hewast hef i
rstperson
tochampi onPan- Af r
icanisti deasi n1900.Wi lli
amsadv isedAf ri
canchi efst of i
ght
againstcol oni ali
sm i nor dertobei ndependent .
 Mar cusGar veycamef rom Jamai ca,hecal l
edf orbl ackpeopl et or eturnt oAf ri
caand
hismov ementwascal l
ed“ Backt oAf ri
camov ement ”.Tohel pt hebl ackAmer i
cansgo
backt oAf rica, Gar v
eyf ormedashi ppingcompanyandt oldbl ackAmer icansst optor el
y
anddependonwhi teempl oyers.
 DrWi l
liam E. B.DuBoi se.Wasr egardedasf atherofpanAf r
icanism,DuBoi seideas
wereshar edbymostaf roAmer icans.Her egar dedAmer icaashi snat i
vel and.DuBoi se
panAf ricani sm ai medatencour aginganduni ti
ngAf r i
cansagai nstoppr essionand
exploitat i
onwher evert heywer e.

Format i
onoft heO. A.U.
 Bef orethef ormat ionoft heO. A.U.t herewer eseveralattempt stocr eat
eanI nterAf ri
can
organi sation,howev er,t hese at tempt sf ailed because ofpol i
tical
,economi c and
l
ingui sti
cdi fferences.
 Thei ndependenceofGhanaspeededupt hepr ocessandGhana’ sfi
rstbl ackl eader
KwameNkr umahwor kedont hei ndependenceofAf ricanst ates,hewant edt osee
Africaasonecount r
y.
 These i deas off ederation wer e notwi del yaccepted l eading t ot he spl itamong
i
ndependentAf r
icanst atesnamel yCasabl ancaandMonr ovia.
 Theyopposedeachot herbecauset heCasabl ancagr oupf avour edaf eder ati
onf or
Africawhi l
stt heMonr ov i
agr oupf av ouredal ooseassoci ati
on.
 TheCasabl ancagr oupwasr adical, mi l
it
antandv iol
entlytot hewestwhi lsttheMonr ovi
a
groupwasv eryf ri
endlyt othewest .
 Although t het wo opposed each ot hert heybot h agr eed on t heneed t of orm an
organi sationwi thanAf ricaninterest .
 Event uallyEmper orHai l
eSel assieofEt hi
opi a, ModiboKei taofMal iandSekouTour eof
Guineaj oinedt het wot ogetherl eadi ngt ot heappr ovalofachar terwhi chest ablished
O.A. U.inAddi sAbabaon25May1963.
ZJCNOTESPage104
 AimsoftheO. A.U.
 Topromoteuni t
yandsol i
dari
tyofAf r
icanstates.
 Tocoordinat
eandi ntensifythei
rcooper ati
onandef f
ortstoachiev
eabet t
erl
i
fefor
peopl
eofAf r
ica.
 Todefendtheirsovereignty,
terr
it
orialint
egri
tyandindependence.
 Toeradi
cateallfor
msofcol onial
ism from Afr
ica.
 To promotei nt
ernationalcooper ati
on,hav i
ng due regardtothe char
terofUni
ted
Nati
ons(U.N.)andUni versalDecl
ar at
ionofHumanRi ghts.

Pri
nciplesoft heO.A.U.
 Thesov erei
gnequal it
yofal lmemberst ates.
 Non-int
erferenceininternalaffai
rsofthestate.
 Respectf orallsovereigntyandt err
it
oriali
ntegri
tyofeachst at
eandf orit
sinali
enabl
e
ri
ghttoindependentexi stence.
 Peacefulsettl
ement sofdi sputesbynegot i
ati
on,mediati
on,conci
li
ati
onorarbit
rat
ion.
 Unreserved condemnat i
on i n allit
sf or
ms ofpol i
ti
calassassinat
ion as wellas
subversiveactivi
ti
esont hepar tofneighbouri
ngst at
esoranyotherstat
e.
 Absolutededi cat
iontot het ot
alemanci pati
onf r
eedom ont heAfr
icanter
rit
ori
eswhich
arestil
ldependent .
 Affi
rmat i
onofapol icyofnon- ali
gnmentwi thregardtoal
lbl
acks.

TheO.A.U.organsandt hei
rduties.
Themostimpor tantorgansoft heO.A.
U.are:
 TheassemblyofHeadsofSt at
esandGov ernment(
TheAssembl
y).
 TheCouncilofMi ni
sters.
 TheCommi ssionofMedi at
ion,Conci
li
ati
onandArbi
trat
ion.
 TheGeneralSecretar
iat.

TheAssemblyofHeadsofSt at
es
 Thesupremeormostpower f
ulor
ganoft heO. A.
U.for
medbyHeadsofSt
atesand
Gover
nmentwhi chmetonceay ear
.
 Deci
sionsweremadebyaconsensusoragr eementor2/3ofamaj
ori
ty.
 I
tmadedecisions,pol
i
ciesandadoptedr
esolut
ions.

ZJCNOTESPage105
 CouncilofMinist
ers
 Iti
smadeupoff oreignminist
ersofmemberstatesandmettwi
ceayear.
 Itprepared conferences and agendas and appr
oved t
he O.
A.U.budget
sfort
he
assembly.

ZJCNOTESPage106
 TheGeneralSecretari
at
 I
tisthecivi
lservi
ceandper manentorganoft heO.A.
U.
 I
tpr epar
esr eport
son t heO. A.U.acti
vit
ies,keepsalldocument
sand fil
esofthe
organi
sati
on.
 I
talsowrit
esmi nutesandpreparestheprogram andbudget
softheO.A.
U.f
oreachy
ear
.
 I
tisheadedbyt heChiefExecut
ivewhoi sappointedbyt
heassembly
.

ZJCNOTESPage107
 Achievement sandf ai
luresoft heO. A.
U.
 Endofcol oniali
sm inAf ricawasO. A.U.
’sgreatestachi
evement.
 Notsuccessf ulinendi ngconf l
ict
sandpr ev ent
ingconfl
ict
swhichlef
thundr
edsand
thousandsofpeopl edead, mai medanddi splaced.
 TheO. A.U.fail
edt oprev entandendci vil
wars.
 Thef act
orsdi vi
dedAf rica.
 TheAf ri
canuni tyhasremai nedadr eam.
 TheO. A.U.exper i
mentsonAf r
icanUnityandhasnotbeensuccessful
sof ar
.

Howt heA. U.wasf ormed

 TheO. A.
U.wasf ormedt oli
berat
eAf ri
cansf rom col
onial
i
sm.
 Thi
swasi t
smaj orrolebesidesot hersocialandeconomicaims.
 By1999al mostal lAfr
icanst at
eswer el i
berat
edandnof or
eignpowerdir
ectl
yrul
ed
Afr
ica.
 Thi
sdev elopmentmadet heO.A.U.anol dorganisati
oninanewwor l
dbecauseit
smain
ai
msofl iberat
ingAf r
icahadbeenachi eved.
 Thi
swast husagr eedf oranew bodywi thaimst oaddresst
hechall
engesthatAf
ri
ca
wasf aci
ngi nt
hegl obalvill
age.

ZJCNOTESPage108
 Call
stohaveaUni tedStatesofAfri
cawer eshotdown.
 Underthi
sagreementt herewast obeacont i
nent
alleaderwithf
ederalgovernmentsin
thememberstates.
 Theassemblyagr eedtof ormtheA. U.atLomei nTogoon11Jul y2000andatt he
LusakaSummitinZambi ainJuly2001.
 The53member soft heO. A.
U.signedtheconstit
utionoft heA.U.
,itwascal l
edt he
Consti
tut
iveActoft heA. U.andon1Jul ytheA.U.wasf or
medattheO. A.U.aft
er38
yearsofl
if
eandt heA.U.becamepr obl
emsont hecontinent.

Ai
msoft heA. U.
 Toachiev egreaterunityandsol idaritybetweenAf r
icancountriesandpeopleofAfr
ica.
 Todefendsov erei
gnt y
,ter
ritor
ial i
ntegr i
tyandindependenceofmemberst at
es.
 Topromot eanddef endcommonAf ricaninter
estsont hecontinentandbeyond.
 Toencour agecont inentalcooper ationt hr
ought heUni t
edNat ions(U.
N.)andUniversal
Decl
arationofHumanRi ghts( U.D.H.R. )
.
 Topromot epeace, securi
tyandst abi l
ityonthecont i
nent.
 Topromot eeconomi ccooper ationandsust ai
nableuseofr esources.
 Toimprov elivi
ngandwor kingcondi tionsofAf ri
cans.
 Topromot eresearchineducat ion,sci enceandtechnology.
 Toeradicatepov ertyanddi seases.

TheorgansoftheA. U.
TheAssembly
 Thi
sisthesupremeormostpower f
ulorganoft heA.U.
 I
twasmadeupoft heHeadsofSt atesandGov ernment.
 I
tmetonceay ear.
 Theoffi
cechai
rmanoft heassembl yi
shel df
oraper iodofoneyearbyHeadofSt
ateor
Gover
nment.
 Deci
sionsar
emadebyconsensus, agreementor2/ 3majori
ty.
 Theassemblydeterminesthepoli
ciesoft heunionandadoptscommi ssi
ons.
 I
tmoni t
orsi
mpr ovement sofpol
i
ciesbymemberst ates.

ZJCNOTESPage109
 TheExecut
ivecouncil
 I
tismadeupoff oreignaff
airsminist
ersofmemberstates.
 I
tmeetstwiceayearandi t
sdecisionsarebyconsensus,agr
eementor2/
3maj
ori
ty.
 I
tcoordi
nat
espoliciesinareasofcommoni nt
eresttomemberstates.

Speci
ali
sedTechnicalcommitt
ees
 Thesearecommitteesthatr
eporttot
heExecut
iveCounci
l
.
 Eachcommi t
teepreparespr
oject
sandprogr
ammesandmakef oll
owupsuper
visi
on.
 I
tthenrepor
tstotheExecuti
veCouncilonpr
ogressbei
ngmade.

Pan-Afr
icanParli
ament
 Thisismadeupofr epr
esentat
ivesofallmemberst
ates.
 Thepurposei stoensureful
lparti
cipat
ionofal
lAfr
icanpeopl
eint
hedev
elopmentof
thei
rconsti
tuency.

ZJCNOTESPage110
 Theparl
iamental
sor
eport
stotheExecuti
veCounci
lonemer
gingchal
l
engesandt
he
progr
essmadeondev
elopmentpr
oject
s.

Fi
nanci
alInsti
tut
ions
Thecouncilhadthefol
lowingf
inanci
ali
nst
it
uti
ons:
 TheAfr
icanmoment aryfund.
 TheAfr
icanInvestmentBank.
 TheAfr
icanCentralBank.

TheCommi ssion
 I
twor ksasthesecr
etari
atoftheAfri
cancounci
l
.
 I
tconsistsofaChair
personandagr oupofcommissi
oners,
 Thecommi ssi
onersreportt
ot heassembl
ywhichalt
ernat
esit
sst
ruct
ure,
funct
ionsand
regul
ati
ons.

ThePer manentr
epresent
ati
vecommi t
tee.
 Itiscomposedofpermanentrepresentat
ivestotheAf
ri
canUni
on.
 Itsmemberscamef rom t
hememberst ates.
 Theirtaskwast o preparethe wor koft heExecuti
veCounci
land car
ryoutt
hei
r
constit
uent
s.
 Thiscommi t
teeworkswithvar
ioussubcounci l
shereandot
hergr
oups.

TheEconomic, Soci
alandCultureCounci
ls
 Thisisanadv isingorgancomposedofdi ff
erentsoci
alandprof
essi
onalgroupsof
memberst at
esoft heCouncil
.
 Theworksoft hisorganisoutli
nedimprovi
ngtheeconomiesofmemberstat
esaswell
aschangingthelivi
ngstandar
dsoft hepeopl
e.
 Ital
sopromotedcul t
ureexchangesontheconstit
uent
.

Chall
engesoft heA. U.
 TheA.U.hast akenov erthepol
it
ical
workl
eftbytheO.
A.U.
 Themai ntaskfacingt heA.U.i
stheoneofpromoti
ngdemocr
acyandgoodgov
ernment
i
nAf r
ica.
 Otherchal
lengesar e:

 Povertyandunempl oymenti
sworseni
ng.
 Int
ernationalterr
ori
sm.
 Lackoff inancialr
esourcest
oest
abli
shastandi
ngarmyt
omaint
ainpeaceandsecur
ity
.
 Disuni
tyandsel f
ishint
erest
samongmemberst at
eswhi
chi
scausinglackofprogr
ess
i
ndev elopmentpl ans.

ZJCNOTESPage111
 Humanr i
ghtsabuseonConsti
tuenti
sincr
easing.
 Afri
cai
sstil
lcheapexpor
terofrawmateri
als.
 Lackofcult
urali
dent
it
y.

ZJCNOTESPage112