NLP NOTES

UNIT – I

Q. Define NLP? state its advantage and issues related to NLP?

Natural Language Processing (NLP) is a field of artificial intelligence (AI) that deals with the interaction between
computers and human language. In simpler terms, it's about enabling computers to understand and process
information the way humans do, through language.
Here's a breakdown of NLP's advantages and challenges:
Advantages of NLP
• Improved human-computer interaction: NLP makes it possible for us to interact with computers using
natural language, like spoken commands or chatbots, instead of relying on complex codes.
• Automated tasks: NLP can automate various tasks that involve understanding text, such as document
classification, sentiment analysis, and machine translation. This can save a significant amount of time and
effort.
• Enhanced data analysis: NLP can be used to analyze large amounts of text data, such as customer
reviews or social media posts, to gain insights that would be difficult to obtain manually.
Challenges of NLP
• Language ambiguity: Human language is full of ambiguity, with words having multiple meanings
depending on the context. This can make it difficult for computers to accurately interpret the meaning of a
sentence.
• Lack of common sense: Computers don't possess common sense the way humans do. This can lead to
misinterpretations of language that relies on implicit knowledge or cultural references.
• Limited processing power: While NLP has made significant progress, processing and understanding
natural language still requires a lot of computational power.

Q. State and explain the knowledge which is required to apply for an NLP?

There are two main areas of knowledge that are helpful, and often required, to apply for an NLP position: technical
skills and understanding of language.
Technical Skills
• Programming: Python is the programming language of choice for NLP. You'll need proficiency in writing
Python code to manipulate text data, build NLP models, and integrate them with other systems.
• Machine Learning & Deep Learning: NLP heavily relies on machine learning algorithms to analyze and
process language. Familiarity with concepts like supervised learning, unsupervised learning, and common
algorithms like neural networks is crucial.
• NLP Libraries: Libraries like NLTK, spaCy, and TensorFlow offer pre-built functions and tools specifically
designed for NLP tasks. Knowing how to leverage these libraries can significantly improve your efficiency.
• Data Analysis & Statistics: NLP often involves working with large datasets of text data. Having a strong
foundation in data analysis and statistics will help you clean, analyze, and interpret this data effectively.
Understanding of Language
• Linguistics: Knowledge of core linguistic concepts like phonetics (speech sounds), morphology (word
structure), syntax (sentence structure), semantics (meaning of words and sentences), and pragmatics
(contextual meaning) is beneficial. This helps you understand the complexities of human language and
how computers can process it.
• Text Processing Techniques: Techniques for cleaning text data, like tokenization (breaking text into
words), stemming (reducing words to their root form), and lemmatization (converting words to their
dictionary form) are essential for preparing text for NLP tasks.
Q. State and explain different components of NLP?

NLP can be broken down into two main functionalities: Natural Language Understanding (NLU) and Natural
Language Generation (NLG). These work together to enable computers to process and interpret human language.
1. Natural Language Understanding (NLU): This is the trickier part, where the computer tries to understand
the meaning of a given text input. Here's a breakdown of the steps involved:
o Text Preprocessing: This prepares the text data for further processing. It involves tasks like:
▪ Sentence Segmentation: Dividing the text into individual sentences.
▪ Tokenization: Breaking sentences down into smaller elements like words or punctuation
marks.
▪ Normalization: Converting text to lowercase, removing special characters, etc.
▪ Stop Word Removal: Removing common words that don't hold much meaning (e.g., "the",
"a", "is").
o Lexical Analysis: This focuses on understanding individual words. It involves:
▪ Stemming: Reducing words to their base form (e.g., "running" becomes "run").
▪ Lemmatization: Converting words to their dictionary form (e.g., "better" becomes "good").
o Syntactic Analysis (Parsing): Here, the computer analyzes the grammatical structure of the
sentence. It identifies the parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adjectives) and how they relate to each
other.
o Semantic Analysis: This dives deeper into the meaning of the sentence. It goes beyond individual
words and tries to understand the overall concept being conveyed. This might involve tasks like:
▪ Named Entity Recognition (NER): Identifying and classifying named entities like people,
places, organizations.
▪ Sentiment Analysis: Determining the emotional tone of the text (positive, negative, neutral).
o Discourse Integration: This considers the wider context in which the text appears. It takes into
account previous sentences and the overall flow of the conversation to understand the complete
meaning.
2. Natural Language Generation (NLG): This flips the switch, where the computer takes the processed
information and generates human-like text as output. NLG involves:
o Text Planning: Here, the system decides what information to include and how to structure the
sentence.
o Sentence Planning: This involves choosing the words and grammar to create a well-formed
sentence that conveys the intended meaning.
o Text Realization: Finally, the system converts the internal representation into grammatically
correct and fluent surface text.
These components work together in an NLP system. NLU extracts meaning from text, and NLG uses that
information to generate human-understandable language.
Q. Differentiate between NL U and NLG? Explain which is more difficult than that and why?

Both Natural Language Understanding (NLU) and Natural Language Generation (NLG) are crucial parts of Natural
Language Processing (NLP), but they deal with opposite ends of the spectrum. Here's a breakdown of the key
differences:
Natural Language Understanding (NLU)
• Function: Focuses on machine comprehension of human language.
• Goal: Extracts meaning from text and translates it into a machine-readable format.
• Tasks:
o Identifies intent and sentiment from text.
o Classifies text data (e.g., spam or not spam).
o Extracts specific information from text (e.g., names, locations).
o Answers questions based on a given context.
Natural Language Generation (NLG)
• Function: Deals with machine production of human language.
• Goal: Converts information from a machine-readable format into natural language text understandable by
humans.
• Tasks:
o Generates summaries of factual topics.
o Creates chatbots that can hold conversations.
o Writes different kinds of creative text formats (like poems or scripts).
o Translates languages.
Which is More Difficult? NLU
Generally, Natural Language Understanding (NLU) is considered the more challenging task. Here's why:
• Language Ambiguity: Human language is full of ambiguity, with sarcasm, metaphors, and slang making it
difficult for machines to determine the intended meaning.
• Lack of Common Sense: Computers don't possess common sense the way humans do. This can lead to
misinterpretations of language that rely on implicit knowledge or cultural references.
• Unstructured Data: Text data often comes in unstructured formats, requiring additional processing to
make sense of it.
NLG, while not without its challenges, has a bit of an advantage. Since machines control the generation process,
they can address ambiguity by choosing clear and unambiguous language. Additionally, NLG systems typically
deal with information that has already been processed and structured by NLU, making it a bit easier.
However, both NLU and NLG are constantly evolving fields, and the gap in difficulty is narrowing as NLP
techniques advance.

Q. Differentiate between natural language and computer language?

Feature Natural Language Computer Language

Purpose Human communication Instructing computers
Users Humans Programmers
Structure Flexible, evolving Strict, formal
Ambiguity High Low
Examples English, Spanish Python, Java, C++
Q. Explain different stages of NLP in brief?

NLP can be broken down into several stages, building on top of each other to process and understand human
language. Here's a simplified overview:
1. Text Preprocessing: This initial stage gets the text data ready for further analysis. It involves tasks like:
o Sentence Segmentation: Splitting the text into individual sentences.
o Tokenization: Breaking sentences down into smaller units like words or punctuation marks.
o Normalization: Making the text consistent, often converting to lowercase and removing special
characters.
o Stop Word Removal: Removing common words with little meaning (e.g., "the", "a", "is").
2. Lexical Analysis: This stage focuses on understanding individual words. Here, techniques like:
o Stemming: Reduce words to their base form (e.g., "running" becomes "run").
o Lemmatization: Convert words to their dictionary form (e.g., "better" becomes "good") are applied.
3. Syntactic Analysis (Parsing): Here, the computer analyzes the sentence's grammatical structure. It
identifies the parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adjectives) and how they relate to each other.
4. Semantic Analysis: This dives deeper into the meaning of the sentence, going beyond individual words. It
might involve:
o Named Entity Recognition (NER): Identifying and classifying named entities like people, places,
organizations.
o Sentiment Analysis: Determining the emotional tone of the text (positive, negative, neutral).
5. Discourse Integration: This considers the broader context in which the text appears. It takes into account
previous sentences and the overall flow of the conversation to understand the complete meaning.
Additional Stage (Natural Language Generation - NLG):
While not strictly part of understanding language, NLG sometimes follows these stages. NLG uses the information
extracted during NLP to generate human-like text as output. This involves planning the content, structuring
sentences, and converting the information into fluent language.
These stages work together in an NLP system. The first stages prepare the data, and then the later stages extract
meaning and potentially use that meaning to generate new text.
Q. State and explain steps to build an NLP pipeline ?
Building an NLP pipeline involves a series of steps to transform raw text data into a format suitable for your NLP
task. Here's a breakdown of the common stages:

1. Data Collection and Preprocessing:

o Data Collection: Gather the text data you'll use for your NLP task. This could come from various
sources like web scraping, APIs, or internal databases.
o Preprocessing: Clean and prepare the raw text data for further processing. This involves tasks like:
▪ Sentence Segmentation: Splitting the text into individual sentences.
▪ Tokenization: Breaking sentences down into smaller units like words or punctuation marks.
▪ Normalization: Making the text consistent, often converting to lowercase and removing
special characters.
▪ Stop Word Removal: Removing common words with little meaning (e.g., "the", "a", "is").
2. Text Cleaning and Feature Engineering:
o Text Cleaning: Address any remaining errors or inconsistencies in the text data. This might involve
tasks like:
▪ Spelling Correction: Fixing typos and grammatical errors.
▪ Normalization: Handling abbreviations, slang, and emojis consistently.
o Feature Engineering: Create new features from the text data that will be useful for your NLP
model. This could involve:
▪ N-grams: Analyzing sequences of words (bigrams, trigrams) to capture word co-occurrence.
▪ Part-of-Speech (POS) Tagging: Identifying the grammatical role of each word (noun, verb,
adjective).
3. Model Selection and Training:
o Model Selection: Choose an NLP model appropriate for your task. Common choices include:
▪ Classification models: For tasks like sentiment analysis or spam detection.
▪ Regression models: For tasks like predicting numerical values from text data.
▪ Sequence models: For tasks like machine translation or text summarization.
o Model Training: Train your chosen model on the preprocessed and feature-engineered text data.
This involves feeding the data into the model and adjusting its parameters to improve performance.
4. Model Evaluation and Tuning:
o Evaluation: Assess the performance of your trained model on a separate test dataset. This helps
identify any weaknesses or areas for improvement.
o Tuning: Refine your model by adjusting hyperparameters or trying different feature engineering
techniques to optimize performance.
5. Deployment and Monitoring:
o Deployment: Once satisfied with the model's performance, integrate it into your application or
system for real-world use.
o Monitoring: Continuously monitor your deployed model's performance to ensure it maintains
accuracy and adapt to changes in the data over time.
Q. Write a short note on the writing system?

Writing systems are a collection of symbols used to represent human language in a visual form. These symbols
can capture sounds (phonemes), words (logograms), or syllables. They allow us to communicate and store
information beyond the limitations of spoken language.

There are four main categories of writing systems:

• Alphabets: Use symbols to represent individual sounds (phonemes) in a language. The Latin alphabet we
use for English is a common example.
• Syllabaries: Use symbols to represent syllables. These are efficient for languages with a limited number
of syllables, like Japanese Kana.
• Logograms: Use symbols to represent entire words or morphemes (meaningful units of language).
Chinese characters are a well-known example.
• Abugidas: Characters that represent a consonant-vowel combination, like the Devanagari script used for
Hindi.

Writing systems have revolutionized communication and knowledge preservation throughout history. They
continue to evolve as we find new ways to represent language visually.

Q. What is a digraph and trigraph? Explain with examples?

Digraphs and trigraphs are both groupings of letters that together represent a single sound in written language.
Here's a breakdown of each:
Digraph:
• A digraph is formed by two letters that together make one sound.
• Examples:
o sh in "ship" (makes a /sh/ sound)
o th in "thin" (can make two different sounds: /th/ voiced as in "the" or /th/ unvoiced as in "thin")
o ch in "chip" (makes a /ch/ sound)
o ph in "phone" (makes an /f/ sound)
o ck in "duck" (makes a /k/ sound)
Trigraph:
• A trigraph is formed by three letters that together make one sound.
• Trigraphs are less common than digraphs in English.
• Examples:
o tch in "catch" (makes a /ch/ sound)
o igh in "sigh" (makes a /ī/ sound)
o eau in "beautiful" (can make different sounds depending on the word, like /o͞o/ or /yoo/)
It's important to note that not all combinations of letters will be digraphs or trigraphs. For instance, the "air" in
"chair" uses three letters but makes the separate sounds /e/ /ə/ and /r/.
Q. What is ABJAB? Explain with examples?

Abjad (also spelled abgad) is not a specific writing system itself, but rather a term used to classify a particular
type of writing system. Here's what abjads are and how they differ from other writing systems:

What is an Abjad?

An abjad is a writing system where each symbol represents a consonant sound. Vowels are typically not
represented with their own symbols, but may be indicated with diacritics (small marks added to letters) or left for
the reader to infer based on context.

Key Characteristics:
• Consonants Only: The core symbols represent consonants.
• Limited Vowel Representation: Vowels are either not represented or have limited markings.
• Right-to-Left Reading: Many abjads are written from right to left, though not all.
Examples of Abjads:
• Arabic: The most widely used abjad today. While short vowels can be indicated with diacritics, reading
Arabic often requires knowledge of the context and grammar to infer the correct vowels.
• Hebrew: Another well-known abjad. Similar to Arabic, vowels can be marked with diacritics, but readers
often rely on context to determine pronunciation.
• Phoenician: An ancient abjad that is considered the ancestor of many other alphabets, including the
Greek alphabet which later influenced the Latin alphabet we use for English today.
Comparison to Other Writing Systems:
• Alphabets: Unlike abjads, alphabets have distinct symbols for both consonants and vowels, providing a
more complete phonetic representation of spoken language. (e.g., English alphabet)
• Abugidas: Similar to abjads, they use symbols for consonants, but also have modifiers that indicate
vowels attached to the consonants. (e.g., Devanagari script used for Hindi)
• Logograms: These characters represent entire words or morphemes (meaningful units of language), not
individual sounds. (e.g., Chinese characters)
In essence, abjads are a specific type of writing system focused on consonants, leaving vowels to be implicit or
indicated with supplementary markings.
Q. Write a short text preprocessing? What are the stages of text preprocessing? Explain them in detail.

Text Preprocessing: Preparing Text for Analysis

Text data, unlike numerical data, is messy and unstructured. Text preprocessing is the crucial first step in any
NLP project. It involves cleaning, transforming, and organizing text data into a format suitable for analysis by NLP
models. Here's a breakdown of the common stages of text preprocessing:

1. Text Cleaning:
• Normalization: This ensures consistency in the text. It often involves converting text to lowercase,
removing special characters, and expanding abbreviations. (e.g., "This is an Example!" becomes "this is an
example")
• Punctuation Removal: Punctuation marks can be removed depending on the task. For sentiment
analysis, they might be preserved to understand the emotional tone, whereas for topic modeling, they
might be removed for a cleaner analysis of content.
• Spelling Correction: Typos and grammatical errors can be corrected, particularly for short text like social
media posts. However, preserving informal language might be important for tasks like sentiment analysis
of customer reviews.
2. Tokenization:
• This breaks down the text into smaller units. The most common unit is the word, but it could also be
characters or n-grams (sequences of words). Tokenization allows us to analyze the individual components
of the text.
3. Stop Word Removal:
• Stop words are common words that carry little meaning on their own (e.g., "the", "a", "is"). Removing them
can improve efficiency and focus the analysis on more content-rich words. However, stop words can
sometimes be important, like "not" in sentiment analysis.
4. Stemming and Lemmatization:
• These techniques aim to reduce words to their base form.
o Stemming: uses a set of rules to chop off suffixes (e.g., "running" becomes "run"). This can be
efficient but may lead to inaccurate stems (e.g., "plays" and "player" become "play").
o Lemmatization: uses a dictionary to convert words to their dictionary form (e.g., "running"
becomes "run" and "better" becomes "good"). This is more accurate but computationally
expensive.
• The choice between stemming and lemmatization depends on the task and desired level of detail.
5. Text Normalization (Optional):
• This broader normalization might involve:
o Handling Emojis: Emojis can be converted to text descriptions or removed depending on the task.
o Normalization of Informal Language: Text abbreviations and slang can be normalized or
preserved depending on the context.

By following these text preprocessing stages, you can transform raw text data into a clean and structured format,
ready for further analysis and use in NLP tasks.
Q. What is document triage? State the process of document triage.
Document triage is the process of prioritizing and sorting through a large set of documents to identify those most
relevant or urgent for further action. It's a crucial first step in many information-heavy workflows, helping to
streamline the process and ensure important documents are addressed efficiently.

Here's a breakdown of the typical document triage process:

1. Document Collection and Gathering:

o This involves gathering all the documents that need to be triaged. Documents can come from
various sources like email attachments, internal databases, or external submissions.
2. Initial Screening:
o This is a quick scan to get a general sense of each document's content. Techniques might include:
▪ Reviewing document titles, headers, and introductory paragraphs.
Utilizing keyword searches to identify relevant documents.
▪
3. Document Categorization:
o Documents are categorized based on pre-defined criteria relevant to the task. Categories could be:
▪ Urgency: High priority, medium priority, low priority.
▪ Topic: Finance, legal, marketing, etc.
▪ Action Required: Review, approve, further investigation needed.
4. Information Extraction:
o Key details like deadlines, names, or amounts are extracted from relevant documents to facilitate
further processing or routing.
5. Routing and Assigning Documents:
oBased on the categorization and extracted information, documents are routed to appropriate
individuals or teams for further action.
o This could involve assigning documents to reviewers, approvers, or departments responsible for
handling specific topics.
6. Documentation:
o A record of the triage process might be maintained, particularly for complex workflows. This could
include:
▪ Notes on the categorization and rationale behind routing decisions.
▪ Tracking the status of each document as it moves through the process.

Document triage helps organizations manage information overload and ensure efficient allocation of resources.
By prioritizing important documents, it streamlines workflows and saves time for those involved in the process.
Q. Define the following: tech segmentation word segmentation text normalization tokenization sentence
segmentation.
1. Text Normalization:
• Function: This refers to making text consistent and uniform.
• Process: It involves techniques like converting text to lowercase, removing special characters, expanding
abbreviations, and potentially handling emojis or slang in a consistent way.
• Goal: To create a standardized format for easier processing and analysis by NLP models.
• Example: Converting "This String Needs Normalization!" to "this string needs normalization"
2. Tokenization:
• Function: This breaks down text into smaller units for further analysis.
• Process: The most common unit is the word, but tokens can also be characters or n-grams (sequences of
words). Tokenization separates the text into these individual units.
• Goal: To analyze the building blocks of the text, such as identifying important words or phrases.
• Example: Tokenizing the sentence "This is an NLP example" would result in a list of tokens: ["This", "is",
"an", "NLP", "example"]
3. Sentence Segmentation:
• Function: This separates a piece of text into individual sentences.
• Process: It identifies sentence boundaries based on punctuation marks (periods, exclamation points,
question marks) or other cues like newline characters.
• Goal: To understand the structure of the text and analyze the meaning conveyed in each sentence.
• Example: Segmenting the text "This is a paragraph. It contains two sentences." into two separate
sentences.
4. Word Segmentation:
• Function: This focuses on breaking down words into smaller meaningful units, especially relevant for
languages that don't use spaces between words.
• Process: It involves identifying morphemes (the smallest meaning-carrying units in a language) within a
word.
• Goal: To understand the individual components that make up words and potentially analyze their
grammatical role.
• Example: In Chinese, segmenting the word "中国人" (zhong guo ren - meaning "Chinese person") into
three morphemes: "中" (zhong - meaning "central"), "国" (guo - meaning "country"), and "人" (ren - meaning
"person"). Note: Word segmentation is not typically used for English text which already has spaces
between words.
5. Tech Segmentation (not as common as the others):
• Function: This term is less widely used and doesn't have a universally agreed-upon definition.
• Possible Interpretations:
o In some contexts, it could refer to a specific technique for segmenting technical text that might
involve identifying technical terms or acronyms.
o It could also be a more general term for segmenting text related to technology domains, potentially
using domain-specific knowledge to guide the segmentation process.
UNIT – II

Q. What Is Unigram, Bigram & Trigram? Explain With Examples?

Unigram, bigram, and trigram are terms used in natural language processing and linguistics to refer to sequences of one,
two, and three words, respectively.
1. **Unigram: **
- A unigram is a single word in a given text or sequence.
- Example: In the sentence "The cat is sleeping," the unigrams are "The," "cat," "is," and "sleeping."
2. **Bigram: **
- A bigram is a sequence of two consecutive words in a given text or sequence.
- Example: Using the same sentence, the bigrams are "The cat," "cat is," and "is sleeping."
3. **Trigram: **
- A trigram is a sequence of three consecutive words in a given text or sequence.
- Example: Continuing with the same sentence, the trigrams are "The cat is," and "cat is sleeping."
These concepts are often used in natural language processing tasks such as text analysis, language modeling, and machine
learning. Analyzing n-grams helps in understanding the context and relationships between words in a given sequence,
which can be useful for tasks like language modeling, text prediction, and sentiment analysis.

Q. DEFINE THE FOLLOWING: 1. STEMMING 2. LEMMATIZATION 3. SYLLABARIES 4. ABUGIDAS

1. **Stemming: **
- Stemming is a text normalization technique used in natural language processing and information retrieval. The goal of
stemming is to reduce words to their base or root form, by removing suffixes or prefixes. The resulting stemmed form may
not be a valid word, but it represents the core meaning of the word.
- Example: The stemming of the word "running" would result in "run."
2. **Lemmatization: **
- Lemmatization is another text normalization process that involves reducing words to their base or canonical form, known
as the lemma. Lemmatization typically considers the morphological analysis of words and aims to transform them to their
dictionary or base form.
- Example: The lemmatization of the word "better" would result in "good."
3. **Syllabaries: **
- Syllabaries are writing systems where each character represents a syllable rather than an individual sound or letter. In
syllabic writing, a symbol usually corresponds to a combination of a consonant and a vowel sound, forming a syllable.
- Example: The Japanese writing system includes two syllabaries, Hiragana and Katakana, where each character represents
a syllable.
4. **Abugidas: **
- Abugidas are a type of writing system in which each character represents a consonant with an inherent vowel. The
inherent vowel sound can be modified or suppressed using diacritical marks or additional symbols. Abugidas are common
in many South and Southeast Asian scripts.
- Example: The Devanagari script, used for languages like Hindi and Sanskrit, is an abugida. In Devanagari, characters
represent a consonant with an inherent "a" vowel sound, and additional marks can modify the vowel sound or represent
consonant clusters.
Q. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN STEEMING AND LEMMATIZATION:

Aspect Stemming Lemmatization

Goal Reduce words to their base form by Reduce words to their base or canonical form
removing suffixes or prefixes. (lemma), considering morphological analysis.
Output Stem (may or may not be a real word). Lemma (a valid word found in a dictionary).
Level of Analysis Basic, heuristic rules applied without In-depth linguistic analysis, considering context
considering context or grammar. and part-of-speech.
Examples "running" → "run," "happily" → "happi." "better" → "good," "was" → "be."
Use Cases Information retrieval, search engines, text Language translation, sentiment analysis,
mining where speed is crucial. question answering where accurate word forms
are essential.

Q. WHAT IS NER? STATE THE FEATURES?

NER stands for Named Entity Recognition, which is a natural language processing (NLP) task that involves
identifying and classifying named entities (such as persons, organizations, locations, dates, and more) in a given
text. The primary goal of NER is to extract structured information from unstructured text, making it easier to
analyze and understand the content.
Key features of Named Entity Recognition include:
1. **Entity Types: **
- NER identifies and classifies different types of named entities, including persons, organizations, locations,
dates, percentages, monetary values, and more. These entities are often predefined categories.
2. **Context Awareness: **
- NER algorithms take into account the context in which words appear to determine whether a word is part of a
named entity. For example, "Apple" could refer to the fruit or the technology company, and context helps in
distinguishing between the two.
3. **Ambiguity Handling: **
- NER systems need to handle ambiguity, as a single term may belong to different entity types depending on the
context. Effective NER models consider surrounding words to disambiguate entities.
4. **Tokenization: **
- NER involves breaking down the text into tokens or individual words. Tokenization is a crucial step as it forms the
basis for identifying and classifying named entities.
5. **Machine Learning and Statistical Models: **
- NER often employs machine learning and statistical models, such as conditional random fields (CRF), hidden
Markov models (HMM), or more recently, deep learning techniques like recurrent neural networks (RNN) and
transformers.
6. **Training Data: **
- NER models require labeled training data where entities are annotated to train the system. This annotated data
helps the model learn patterns and associations between words and entity types.
7. **Named Entity Linking (NEL): **
- In addition to recognition, some NER systems perform Named Entity Linking, which involves linking recognized
entities to a knowledge base or database, providing additional information about the entities.
8. **Real-world Applications: **
- NER is widely used in various real-world applications, including information extraction, question answering
systems, chatbots, sentiment analysis, and more, where identifying and categorizing entities is crucial for
understanding the content.
WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON: 1. PICTOGRAM 2.IDEOGRAM 3.LOYOGRAM

1. **Pictogram: **
- A pictogram is a visual representation of an object, concept, or idea through the use of symbols or pictures.
Pictograms are often simple, stylized images that convey meaning at a glance. They are commonly used in
signage, wayfinding, and information design to provide quick and universally understandable information. For
example, a picture of a heart can represent love, and a plane icon can signify an airport.
2. **Ideogram: **
- An ideogram is a written symbol that represents an idea or concept, often without relying on the pronunciation of
a specific word. Ideograms are prevalent in logographic writing systems, where characters represent entire words
or meaningful units. Chinese characters are a classic example of ideograms, where each character conveys a
specific meaning rather than a sound. Ideograms contribute to the visual communication of ideas across
linguistic barriers.
3. **Logogram: **
- A logogram is a type of ideogram that represents a word or morpheme (a meaningful unit of language) using a
single symbol. Unlike alphabets, where characters represent individual sounds, logograms represent entire words
or concepts. Examples include Chinese characters, Egyptian hieroglyphs, and certain symbols in modern writing
systems. Logograms are efficient for conveying meaning but may require memorization due to the lack of a direct
sound-to-symbol correspondence.

WHAT IS SYLLABLE? STATE AND EXPLAIN ITS TYPES (OPEN & CLOSE)?
A syllable is a basic unit of spoken language and is typically made up of one or more sounds, often consisting of a
vowel sound and accompanying consonant sounds. Syllables are the building blocks of words, and
understanding syllable structure is essential for pronunciation and phonological analysis.
**Types of Syllables: **
1. **Open Syllable: **
- An open syllable is a syllable that ends with a vowel sound and does not have a consonant closing it. The vowel
in an open syllable is usually long.
- Examples: "me," "go," and "hi." In each of these examples, the syllables end with a vowel sound.
2. **Closed Syllable:**
- A closed syllable is a syllable that ends with a consonant sound, typically resulting in a short vowel sound. The
presence of a consonant at the end "closes" the syllable.
- Examples: "cat," "pen," and "sit." In each of these examples, the syllables end with a consonant sound, affecting
the vowel sound before it.
**Explanation:**
- **Open Syllable:** In the word "table," the first syllable is open because it ends with the vowel sound /e/ and has
no closing consonant. The same goes for "pa-per" where both syllables are open.
- **Closed Syllable:** In the word "hop," the single syllable is closed because it ends with a consonant sound /p/.
Similarly, in "cat," the syllable is closed due to the ending consonant sound /t/.
Understanding the distinction between open and closed syllables is useful in various aspects of language
learning, including reading and spelling. It helps learners grasp the pronunciation patterns and aids in decoding
unfamiliar words.
STATE AND EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT CHALLENGES FACED IN TEXT PROCESSING FOR SPACE DELIMITED
LANGUAGES?
Text processing for space-delimited languages, where words are typically separated by spaces, faces several
challenges. These challenges arise due to the varying nature of languages, the presence of punctuation, and the
need to handle different linguistic constructs. Here are some common challenges:
1. **Tokenization:**
- **Challenge:** Determining the boundaries of individual words, or tokens, can be complex due to variations in
punctuation, contractions, and compound words.
- **Explanation:** Tokenization is crucial for many natural language processing tasks. In languages with
compound words or contractions, deciding where one token ends and another begins becomes intricate. For
example, in English, "don't" could be treated as one token or split into "do" and "n't."
2. **Ambiguity in Word Boundaries:**
- **Challenge:** Some languages may lack clear word delimiters or have complex compound constructions,
leading to ambiguity in defining word boundaries.
- **Explanation:** In languages where words can be compounded, determining the appropriate segmentation is
challenging. For instance, German often forms compound words, and identifying the correct word boundaries is
essential for accurate text processing.
3. **Multi-word Expressions:**
- **Challenge:** Handling multi-word expressions and idioms that function as a single semantic unit.
- **Explanation:** Some expressions, like "kick the bucket" or "spill the beans," are treated as single units of
meaning. Recognizing and processing these multi-word expressions requires specialized handling to maintain
their intended meaning.
4. **Abbreviations and Acronyms:**
- **Challenge:** Identifying and expanding abbreviations and acronyms.
- **Explanation:** Space-delimited languages often include abbreviations and acronyms, which may need
expansion for better understanding. Deciding whether to treat "USA" as a single entity or expand it to "United
States of America" depends on context.
5. **Natural Language Ambiguity:**
- **Challenge:** Dealing with ambiguity in natural language, where a single sequence of words can have multiple
interpretations.
- **Explanation:** Context is crucial for understanding meaning, and the same sequence of words can have
different meanings in different contexts. Resolving this ambiguity requires sophisticated language models and
contextual understanding.
6. **Handling Named Entities:**
- **Challenge:** Recognizing and processing named entities, such as names of people, places, and
organizations.
- **Explanation:** Named entities often pose challenges, especially when dealing with compound names, titles,
or entities with spaces. Ensuring accurate recognition and classification of named entities is essential for many
applications.
Addressing these challenges often involves employing advanced natural language processing techniques,
machine learning models, and linguistic resources to enhance the accuracy and efficiency of text processing for
space-delimited languages.
STATE AND EXPLAIN CHARACTER ENCODING IDENTIFICATION AND ITS IMPACT ON TOKENIZATION?

Character encoding identification is the process of determining the character encoding scheme used to represent
text in a digital file. Different character encodings, such as UTF-8, UTF-16, ISO-8859-1, etc., interpret binary data
into human-readable characters. Identifying the correct encoding is crucial for accurately processing and
interpreting text, especially when tokenization is involved. Here's how character encoding identification impacts
tokenization:
1. **Character Set Understanding:**
- **Explanation:** Character encoding defines how characters are represented in binary form. Understanding the
character set is essential for tokenization, as it influences how characters are grouped into words. Different
encodings may represent characters differently, leading to errors if the encoding is misidentified.
2. **Byte Order Mark (BOM):**
- **Explanation:** Some character encodings, such as UTF-16, may include a Byte Order Mark (BOM) at the
beginning of the file to indicate the byte order (little-endian or big-endian). Incorrectly identifying or ignoring the
BOM can result in misinterpretation of characters and affect tokenization.
3. **Multibyte Characters:**
- **Explanation:** Certain character encodings, like UTF-8 and UTF-16, use variable-length encoding for
characters. Tokenization algorithms need to be aware of multibyte characters and handle them appropriately to
ensure accurate word boundaries.
4. **Special Characters and Punctuation:**
- **Explanation:** Different encodings may represent special characters and punctuation in unique ways.
Incorrectly identifying the encoding can lead to misinterpretation of these characters, impacting the tokenization
process and potentially altering the meaning of text.
5. **Token Boundaries:**
- **Explanation:** Tokenization relies on recognizing boundaries between words or tokens. Incorrect encoding
identification may result in errors in determining these boundaries, causing words to be split incorrectly or
merged improperly.
6. **Normalization and Case Sensitivity:**
- **Explanation:** Some encodings may include variations of characters with diacritics, accents, or different
cases. Tokenization algorithms should be aware of these variations to ensure proper normalization and handling
of case sensitivity in the tokenized output.
7. **Impact on Language-Specific Features:**
- **Explanation:** Certain languages may have specific characters or symbols that are represented differently in
various encodings. Accurate encoding identification is crucial for preserving language-specific features during
tokenization, such as the correct representation of characters unique to a language.
In summary, character encoding identification is a crucial prerequisite for proper text processing, including
tokenization. Incorrectly identified or mismatched encodings can lead to errors in tokenization, affecting the
accuracy of linguistic analysis, search algorithms, and other natural language processing tasks. Therefore, it is
essential to ensure that the correct encoding is determined before tokenizing text.
WHAT IS TOKENIZATION? WHY ARE WORDS CONSIDERED AS SMALLEST UNIT OF TOKENIZATION IN ENGLISH?

**Tokenization** is the process of breaking down a stream of text into individual units, known as tokens. Tokens
are the smallest units of a language, and they can be words, phrases, symbols, or any other meaningful elements.
In the context of natural language processing (NLP) and text analysis, tokenization typically refers to breaking
down a text into individual words or word-like elements.
In English, words are considered the smallest unit of tokenization for several reasons:
1. **Semantic Meaning:**
- Words carry semantic meaning and are the fundamental building blocks of language. Tokenizing text into words
allows for a more granular understanding of the content, as words represent the basic units of communication
and convey specific meanings.
2. **Language Structure:**
- English, like many other languages, has a structure where sentences are composed of words arranged in a
specific order. Analyzing text at the word level helps capture the syntactic and semantic relationships between
words, forming the basis for more advanced linguistic analysis.
3. **Information Retrieval:**
- In many natural language processing tasks, such as information retrieval, search engines, and sentiment
analysis, the focus is often on understanding the meaning of individual words and their combinations. Tokenizing
text into words facilitates the extraction of relevant information and insights.
4. **Computational Efficiency:**
- Words are computationally efficient units for processing and analysis. Many NLP algorithms and models operate
at the word level, making it practical to tokenize text into words for tasks such as machine learning, text
classification, and language modeling.
5. **Linguistic Analysis:**
- Linguistic analysis, including part-of-speech tagging, named entity recognition, and sentiment analysis, often
relies on analyzing the characteristics and relationships of individual words. Tokenizing text into words provides a
foundation for conducting such analyses.
6. **Consistency in Representation:**
- Treating words as the smallest units of tokenization provides a consistent and standardized representation of
text. This consistency is essential for various NLP applications and ensures that different tools and models can
work with a common understanding of language structure.
While words are the most common unit of tokenization in English, it's worth noting that tokenization can be
adapted based on specific requirements and tasks. In certain cases, tokens may represent sub-word units or
even characters, depending on the objectives of the analysis or the characteristics of the language being
processed. However, in traditional English-language NLP, words are typically the smallest and most relevant units
for tokenization.
WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON TOPOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION ON WORD STRUCTURE?

Topological classification in the context of word structure refers to the study and categorization of words based on
their internal or structural features. This classification focuses on understanding how different components
within a word are organized or arranged in relation to one another. Here's a brief note on topological classification
in word structure:
**Topological Classification on Word Structure:**
In linguistics, the structure of a word plays a crucial role in determining its meaning and function within a
sentence. Topological classification involves analyzing the spatial arrangement or configuration of morphemes
and other linguistic elements within a word. This classification is particularly relevant in languages where word
formation involves the combination of morphemes in specific ways.
**Key Aspects of Topological Classification:**
1. **Affixation:**
- **Prefixes, Suffixes, and Infixes:** Words can be classified based on the presence and location of affixes.
Prefixes appear at the beginning of a word, suffixes at the end, and infixes within the word stem. Understanding
the topological arrangement of affixes contributes to the analysis of word formation.
2. **Compounding:**
- **Endocentric and Exocentric Compounds:** Compound words, formed by combining two or more independent
words, can be classified based on their internal structure. Endocentric compounds have a central element that
specifies the overall meaning, while exocentric compounds lack a clear central element.
3. **Derivation:**
- **Prefixation, Suffixation, and Circumfixation:** Derivational processes involve adding affixes to base words to
create new words. Topological classification considers whether derivational affixes are attached as prefixes,
suffixes, or circumfixes (affixes surrounding the base).
4. **Reduplication:**
- **Full and Partial Reduplication:** Reduplication, the repetition of all or part of a word, is classified based on the
topological arrangement of repeated segments. Full reduplication involves repeating the entire word or a
significant portion, while partial reduplication involves repeating a portion of the word.
5. **Clitics and Enclitics:**
- **Proclitics and Postclitics:** Clitics are linguistic elements that function as words but are phonologically
dependent on adjacent words. Topological classification considers whether clitics attach to the beginning
(proclitics) or end (postclitics) of a host word.
Understanding topological classification enhances linguistic analysis by providing insights into the structural
organization of words within a language. It aids in the identification of patterns, rules, and regularities in word
formation, contributing to a deeper understanding of the morphology and syntax of a given language.
WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON PART OF SPEECH?

**Parts of Speech: A Brief Overview**

In linguistics, the concept of "parts of speech" refers to the classification of words based on their syntactic and
grammatical functions within a sentence. The classification helps in understanding the role each word plays in
conveying meaning and constructing well-formed sentences. There are traditionally eight parts of speech:
1. **Noun:**
- Represents a person, place, thing, or idea. Examples: "dog," "Paris," "happiness."
2. **Verb:**
- Describes an action, occurrence, or state of being. Examples: "run," "eat," "is."
3. **Adjective:**
- Modifies or describes a noun by providing additional information about its qualities. Examples: "happy," "blue,"
"tall."
4. **Adverb:**
- Modifies or describes a verb, adjective, or other adverbs, indicating manner, time, place, or degree. Examples:
"quickly," "always," "here."
5. **Pronoun:**
- Takes the place of a noun to avoid repetition. Examples: "he," "she," "it."
6. **Preposition:**
- Shows the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other words in a sentence, often indicating location,
direction, or time. Examples: "in," "on," "under."
7. **Conjunction:**
- Connects words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence. Examples: "and," "but," "because."
8. **Interjection:**
- Expresses strong emotion and often stands alone as an exclamation. Examples: "Wow!," "Ouch!," "Bravo!"
Understanding the parts of speech is fundamental for analyzing and constructing sentences. It provides a
framework for grammatical analysis, syntax, and language structure. Each part of speech contributes to the
overall meaning and coherence of language, allowing for effective communication and expression of thoughts
and ideas. Mastery of parts of speech is essential for developing language skills and writing with clarity and
precision.
EXPLAIN IN BRIEF WITH EXAMPLE THE FOLLOWING PARTS OF SPEECH?
Certainly! Here's a brief explanation of some common parts of speech along with examples:
1. **Noun:**
- **Definition:** A noun is a word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea.
- **Example:** "dog," "city," "happiness," "friend."
2. **Verb:**
- **Definition:** A verb is a word that describes an action, occurrence, or state of being.
- **Example:** "run," "eat," "sleep," "is."
3. **Adjective:**
- **Definition:** An adjective is a word that modifies or describes a noun, providing more information about its
qualities.
- **Example:** "happy," "blue," "tall," "delicious."
4. **Adverb:**
- **Definition:** An adverb is a word that modifies or describes a verb, adjective, or other adverbs, indicating
manner, time, place, or degree.
- **Example:** "quickly," "always," "here," "very."
5. **Pronoun:**
- **Definition:** A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun to avoid repetition.
- **Example:** "he," "she," "it," "they."
6. **Preposition:**
- **Definition:** A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other words
in a sentence, often indicating location, direction, or time.
- **Example:** "in," "on," "under," "between."
7. **Conjunction:**
- **Definition:** A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence.
- **Example:** "and," "but," "or," "because."
8. **Interjection:**
- **Definition:** An interjection is a word or phrase used to express strong emotion, often as a standalone
exclamation.
- **Example:** "Wow!," "Ouch!," "Bravo!"
9. **Article:**
- **Definition:** Articles (definite "the" or indefinite "a" or "an") are words that define a noun as specific or
unspecific.
- **Example:** "the cat," "a book," "an apple."
Understanding the roles of these parts of speech is fundamental for constructing grammatically correct and
meaningful sentences in English and other languages.
DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN FORMAL AND NATURAL LANGUAGE?

Aspect Formal Language Natural Language

Purpose Typically used for specific, precise Used for everyday communication,
contexts, such as mathematics, expressing thoughts, emotions, and
computer programming, or scientific conveying a wide range of information.
notation.
Syntax Follows strict grammatical rules and is Has a more flexible syntax, allowing for
often unambiguous. Symbols and variations, ambiguity, and colloquial
structures have precise meanings. expressions. Grammar rules may be more
lenient.
Vocabulary Limited and specific, often consisting of Extensive and diverse, encompassing a
symbols, mathematical notations, or wide range of words, idioms, and
technical terms. expressions.
Precision Emphasizes precision and clarity. Allows for ambiguity, context-dependent
Ambiguity is minimized, and meanings interpretations, and variations in meaning.
are often explicit. Context is essential for understanding.
Audience Typically intended for machines, formal Intended for general communication
analysis, or communication between among people of various backgrounds,
experts in a specific field. levels of education, and experiences.
Examples Programming languages (e.g., C++, English, Spanish, French, or any language
Java), formal logic, mathematical used for day-to-day communication
notations.
UNIT – III

Q. What is corpus? State importance of creating a corpus?

In linguistics and natural language processing (NLP), a corpus (plural: corpora) is a collection of written or
spoken text data used for studying language. These collections can be large and diverse, encompassing
everything from books and articles to social media posts and transcripts of conversations.

Here's a breakdown of the importance of creating a corpus:

Importance of Corpora:
• Language Analysis: Corpora provide a rich source of real-world language usage for researchers and
developers of NLP tools. They allow us to analyze various aspects of language, including:
o Grammar: Studying sentence structures and word order.
o Vocabulary: Identifying common words and phrases, as well as rare or emerging terms.
o Semantics: Understanding the meaning of words and how they relate to each other.
• Training NLP Models: Large corpora are essential for training machine learning models used in NLP
tasks like sentiment analysis, machine translation, and speech recognition. The more data a model is
trained on, the better it can learn the nuances of human language.
• Developing Language Resources: Corpora can be used to create dictionaries, thesauruses, and
other language resources that benefit linguists, translators, and language learners.
• Benchmarking NLP Systems: Corpora provide a standardized way to evaluate the performance of
NLP models. Researchers can compare the accuracy of different models on the same set of text data.
Types of Corpora:
• Monolingual corpora: Focus on a single language.
• Multilingual corpora: Include text data from multiple languages.
• Domain-specific corpora: Focus on a specific domain or topic, like legal documents or medical
research papers.
Creating a corpus is a significant undertaking, often requiring careful selection of text sources,
considerations of copyright and privacy, and methods for cleaning, structuring, and annotating the data.
However, well-constructed corpora are invaluable for advancing our understanding of language and
developing powerful NLP applications.
Q. Explain what should be the size of corpus state and explain different corpus available with their side?

The ideal size of a corpus depends on the specific NLP task you're trying to achieve. There's no one-size-fits-all
answer, but here's a breakdown of some key considerations:
Impact of Corpus Size:
• Larger corpora generally offer several advantages:
o More comprehensive coverage: They capture a wider range of vocabulary, sentence structures,
and language variations.
o Improved model performance: Large datasets provide more training data for NLP models, leading
to better accuracy and generalizability.
o Ability to handle rare cases: With a larger corpus, models are more likely to encounter and learn
from less frequent words and phrases.
• However, bigger isn't always better:
o Cost and storage: Large corpora can be expensive to acquire, store, and process.
o Diminishing returns: Beyond a certain point, the benefits of adding more data may become
minimal.
o Focus vs. comprehensiveness: A smaller corpus targeted to a specific domain might be more
efficient for tasks like sentiment analysis of customer reviews compared to a general, massive
corpus.
Common Corpus Sizes:
• Small corpora: Can range from a few thousand to a few million words. These might be suitable for focused
tasks or initial explorations.
• Medium corpora: Typically range from a few million to a hundred million words. These are often used for
training NLP models for general tasks.
• Large corpora: Can contain billions or even trillions of words. These are valuable resources for
comprehensive language analysis and training powerful NLP models.
Examples of Corpora:
• Monolingual Corpora:
o English: Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) - 400 million words, British National
Corpus (BNC) - 100 million words
o Spanish: Corpus del Español (CREA) - 900 million words
• Multilingual Corpora:
o Parallel Corpora - Aligned text data in multiple languages, useful for machine translation tasks (e.g.,
EuroParl)
o Multilingual Web Corpora - Web crawls containing text data in various languages
• Domain-Specific Corpora:
o Medical literature databases (e.g., PubMed)
o Legal document collections
Choosing the Right Corpus:
The choice of corpus depends on your specific needs. Consider factors like:
• The NLP task: What are you trying to achieve (sentiment analysis, topic modeling, machine translation)?
• Domain relevance: Is the corpus relevant to the domain of your text data (e.g., legal documents vs. social
media)?
• Data size limitations: Do you have the resources to store, process, and train models on a large corpus?
By considering these factors, you can select a corpus that provides the right balance of size, domain relevance,
and cost-effectiveness for your NLP project.
Q. Discuss corporate respect to balance representativeness and sampling?

Corporate Respect and Balancing Representativeness and Sampling

Corporations have a responsibility to ensure their practices are respectful and inclusive. This extends to the data
they collect and use, particularly when it comes to tasks like customer analysis, employee evaluations, and
targeted advertising. In these contexts, balancing representativeness and sampling is crucial.
Representativeness:
• Refers to how well a sample reflects the characteristics of the larger population it is drawn from.
• A representative sample ensures that conclusions drawn from the data apply to the entire population and
don't unfairly disadvantage any subgroup.
Sampling:
• Involves selecting a subset of data from a larger population.
• The chosen sampling method significantly impacts the representativeness of the data.
Challenges and Corporate Respect:
• Biased Data: Corporations can unintentionally collect or use biased data that doesn't accurately reflect
the diversity of their customers or employees.
o This can lead to discriminatory practices or flawed decision-making.
• Unequal Sampling: Certain sampling methods can overrepresent or underrepresent certain groups.
o For example, focusing solely on online surveys might miss customers who don't have internet
access.
Balancing for Corporate Respect:
• Data Collection:
o Corporations should strive to collect data from a variety of sources to capture diverse perspectives.
o This might involve conducting in-person surveys, partnering with organizations that represent
different demographics, and encouraging feedback from all customer segments.
• Sampling Methods:
o Techniques like stratified sampling or random sampling can help ensure all groups have a fair
chance of being included.
• Data Analysis:
o Be aware of potential biases in the data and consider disaggregation (breaking down data by
demographics) to identify any subgroup discrepancies.
• Transparency and Accountability:
o Corporations should be transparent about their data collection and sampling practices.
o They can be held accountable for ensuring their practices are respectful and don't perpetuate bias.
Examples of Respectful Practices:
• A bank offering financial products considers the needs of low-income communities by collecting data
through in-person surveys in addition to online forms.
• A company conducting employee satisfaction surveys ensures different departments, age groups, and
ethnicities are represented through stratified sampling.
Conclusion:
By balancing representativeness and sampling in a respectful way, corporations can build trust with their
stakeholders, make fairer decisions, and develop products and services that meet the needs of a diverse
population. This not only benefits corporate social responsibility but also improves the overall effectiveness of
their data-driven initiatives.
Q. State the next plane types of corpora along with its pros and cons?

The traditional concept of a corpus focuses on written text data. However, as NLP applications broaden, so too do
the types of corpora used. Here's a breakdown of some "next plane" types of corpora, venturing beyond traditional
written text:
1. Speech Corpora:
• Pros:
o Capture spoken language with its natural nuances, valuable for tasks like speech recognition,
conversational AI development, and sentiment analysis of spoken interactions.
o Can include diverse accents and dialects, important for generalizability and reducing bias.
• Cons:
o Speech recognition errors can introduce noise into the data.
o Annotations for sentiment or intent can be subjective and require careful human labeling.
o Privacy considerations need to be addressed when collecting speech data.
2. Multimedia Corpora:
• Pros:
o Combine text data with other modalities like images, audio, and video.
o This richness allows for tasks like image captioning, video summarization, and multimodal
sentiment analysis.
• Cons:
o Processing and storing multimedia data can be computationally expensive.
o Annotating multimedia data can be time-consuming and require specialized skills.
3. Web-based Corpora:
• Pros:
o Leverage the vast amount of text data available online, providing a constantly updated and diverse
corpus.
o Useful for tasks like social media analysis, real-time sentiment tracking, and understanding current
trends in language use.
• Cons:
o Web data can be noisy and unreliable, containing spam, errors, and biased content.
o Copyright and privacy concerns need to be considered when using web-scraped data.
4. Dynamic Corpora:
• Pros:
o Continuously update and evolve as new data becomes available.
o This is beneficial for tasks requiring real-time analysis of evolving topics or language trends.
• Cons:
o Maintaining data quality requires ongoing monitoring and cleaning processes.
o Version control is crucial to track changes in the corpus over time.
5. Domain-Specific and Task-Specific Corpora:
• Pros:
o Focus on a specific domain (e.g., legal documents, medical records) or task (e.g., machine
translation, question answering).
o This targeted approach can improve the performance of NLP models trained on the data.
• Cons:
o May require specialized knowledge to collect and annotate the data.
o Limited applicability outside the specific domain or task.
Q. Explain sample techniques in NLP?

In NLP, sampling plays a crucial role in training machine learning models used for various tasks. Choosing the
right sampling technique ensures your model is exposed to representative data and improves its generalizability.
Here's an explanation of two common sampling techniques widely used in NLP:
1. Simple Random Sampling:
o Concept: Each data point (text document, sentence, etc.) in the population has an equal chance of
being selected for the sample.
o Implementation: Often achieved using random number generation. You assign a unique identifier
to each data point and then randomly select the desired number of identifiers to form your sample.
o Pros:
▪ Straightforward and easy to implement.
▪ Guarantees unbiased selection as every element has an equal opportunity.
o Cons:
▪ May not be ideal for datasets with inherent biases or imbalances. For example, if sentiment
analysis data contains mostly positive reviews, simple random sampling might not
adequately represent negative sentiment.
▪ Might not be the most efficient method for large datasets, as processing all data points
might be computationally expensive before selecting the sample.
2. Stratified Random Sampling:
o Concept: Divides the population into subgroups (strata) based on pre-defined characteristics
relevant to the task. A random sample is then drawn proportionally from each stratum.
o Implementation:
1. Identify relevant characteristics (e.g., sentiment category, topic label).
2. Divide the data into subgroups (strata) based on these characteristics.
3. Calculate the proportion of data points in each stratum relative to the entire population.
4. Use random sampling to select a proportionate number of data points from each stratum to ensure your
sample reflects the distribution of those characteristics in the overall population.
o Pros:
▪ Ensures all subgroups are represented in the sample, reducing bias and improving the
model's ability to handle diverse data.
▪ Particularly useful for imbalanced datasets, where some categories might be under-
represented with simple random sampling.
o Cons:
▪ Relies on identifying meaningful strata relevant to the task.
▪ Requires some additional computational effort compared to simple random sampling due to
the stratification step.
Q. Explain in detail sampling the whole document, full text OR CHUNK text with respect to copyright issue and
balance data?

Here's a breakdown of sampling whole documents vs. chunking text for NLP tasks, considering copyright and data
balance:
Sampling Whole Documents:
• Pros:
o Captures the complete context of the information within a document. This can be crucial for tasks
like topic modeling, sentiment analysis of entire articles, or information retrieval where
understanding the full document is important.
o May be necessary for tasks that require analyzing relationships between different parts of the
document.
• Cons:
o Copyright issues: Using entire copyrighted documents for training NLP models can raise copyright
concerns. It's important to ensure you have permission to use the data or use copyright-free
sources.
o Inefficiency: Processing and storing large documents can be computationally expensive.
o Class imbalance: If your documents are categorized (e.g., positive/negative reviews), sampling
entire documents might lead to class imbalance if one category has significantly fewer documents.
Chunking Text:
• Pros:
o Reduced copyright concerns: Using smaller chunks of text might be less restricted by copyright,
especially if they fall under fair use guidelines.
o Improved efficiency: Processing and storing smaller chunks is faster and requires less storage
space.
o Potential for balancing data: When dealing with class imbalance, chunking can help ensure each
class is represented proportionally by selecting chunks from various documents within each
category.
• Cons:
o Loss of context: Chunking can remove important context from the surrounding text, potentially
impacting the accuracy of tasks like sentiment analysis or topic modeling.
o Not suitable for all tasks: Tasks requiring analysis of document structure or relationships between
distant parts of the text might not be suitable for chunking.
By carefully considering these factors and potential solutions, you can choose a sampling strategy that balances
the needs of your NLP task with copyright considerations and data efficiency.
Q. State and explain any three tools used for data downloading for NLP?

Here are three commonly used tools for data downloading in NLP:
1. NLTK (Natural Language Toolkit):
o Description: A popular open-source Python library providing a suite of tools for NLP tasks. It
includes pre-built downloadable corpora for various languages, like English, Spanish, and German.
These corpora cover different domains, including news articles, books, and web crawl data.
o Pros:
▪ Extensive library of functionalities for various NLP tasks like tokenization, stemming, and
part-of-speech tagging.
▪ Easy integration with other Python libraries commonly used in NLP.
▪ Freely available and open-source, making it a good choice for academic and non-
commercial projects.
o Cons:
▪ Pre-built corpora might not be the most up-to-date or cover highly specialized domains.
▪ Downloading large corpora within NLTK can be slow due to their size.
2. spaCy:
o Description: Another popular open-source library for Python, known for its efficiency and ease of
use. spaCy offers pre-trained statistical models for various languages that can be used for tasks like
named entity recognition, part-of-speech tagging, and dependency parsing. These models can be
downloaded and used to process your own text data.
o Pros:
▪ Highly performant and efficient, making it suitable for large-scale NLP projects.
▪ Offers pre-trained models for multiple languages with various functionalities.
▪ Actively developed with a strong community for support.
o Cons:
▪ Pre-trained models can be large in size, requiring significant storage space.
▪ Some functionalities might require purchasing additional model packages depending on
your needs.
3. Hugging Face Hub:
o Description: A cloud-based platform for sharing and accessing pre-trained models for various NLP
tasks. It offers a vast collection of models trained on different datasets and using various
architectures. You can browse the Hub, search for models relevant to your task, and download
them for integration into your NLP workflow.
o Pros:
▪ Extensive collection of state-of-the-art pre-trained models for diverse NLP tasks.
▪ Provides access to models trained on large and specialized datasets you might not be able
to access or train yourself.
▪ Integrates well with popular NLP frameworks like TensorFlow and PyTorch.
o Cons:
▪ Some models might have licensing restrictions or require attribution for commercial use.
▪ Requires an internet connection to access and download models from the Hub.
These are just a few examples, and the best tool for you depends on your specific needs. Consider factors like the
programming language you're using, the size and type of data you need, and the specific NLP tasks you want to
perform. Remember to check licensing and usage terms before downloading any data.
Q. How to handle copyright issues of NLP while using already existent data set?

Here's how to handle copyright issues when using existing datasets for NLP:
Understanding Copyright Law:
• Copyright protects the original creative expression of an author. Text data can be copyrighted, and using it
without permission can lead to legal trouble.
Strategies for Responsible Use:
1. Copyright-Free Sources:
o Utilize datasets with explicit permissions for free, non-commercial use. Many resources like
government data, public domain texts, and open-access scholarly articles fall under this category.
o Look for datasets with Creative Commons licenses that specify permitted uses (attribution, non-
commercial, etc.).
2. Fair Use:
o Copyright law allows for limited use of copyrighted material without permission for purposes like
criticism, commentary, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, or research.
o Fair use depends on several factors:
▪ Purpose and character of the use: Is it for commercial gain or transformative (using the
material in a new way)?
▪ Nature of the copyrighted work: Is it factual or creative?
▪ Amount and substantiality of the portion used: Are you using a small, non-essential part
or the heart of the work?
▪ Effect of the use upon the copyright market: Will your use harm the potential market for
the original work?
o Fair use is a complex legal concept. If unsure, consult with a lawyer to assess whether your use
qualifies as fair use.
3. Permission from Copyright Holders:
o In some cases, the most straightforward approach might be to contact the copyright holder and
seek permission to use the data. This is particularly important for commercial use of copyrighted
material.
Additional Tips:
• Check data source licenses: Most datasets have accompanying documentation specifying permissions
and usage terms. Read them carefully.
• Focus on transformative use: When using copyrighted material, aim to transform it into something new
through analysis, interpretation, or critique.
• Minimize the amount used: Generally, using smaller portions of copyrighted material is more likely to fall
under fair use.
• Maintain good recordkeeping: Document the source of your data and any permissions obtained.
Remember: Copyright law can be complex, and these are general guidelines. For specific situations, consider
consulting a lawyer to ensure your use of NLP datasets complies with copyright regulations.
Q. What is corpus markup? State two types of Markups?
Corpus markup refers to the process of adding codes or annotations to a raw text corpus to provide additional
information about the data. This information goes beyond the words themselves and helps structure,
organize, and analyze the corpus more effectively.

Here are two main types of markups used in corpus linguistics:

1. Document Markup:
o Focuses on structural elements of the original text. This markup doesn't analyze the language
itself but translates aspects of the layout or formatting into a machine-readable format.
o Examples of document markup include:
▪ Paragraph and sentence boundaries: Indicating the start and end of paragraphs ( <p>
and </p> ) and sentences ( <s and </s> ).
▪ Headings and subheadings: Differentiating between titles, headings, and subheadings
using designated tags.
▪ Tables, figures, and other elements: Marking up non-textual elements present in the
original document.
2. Linguistic Annotation:
o Delves deeper into the linguistic properties of the text. This type of markup annotates
information about words, phrases, and grammatical structures.
o Examples of linguistic annotation include:
▪ Part-of-speech (POS) tagging: Assigning labels to words indicating their grammatical
function (e.g., noun, verb, adjective). (This might use <w pos="NN">cat</w>)
▪ Named entity recognition (NER): Identifying and classifying named entities like people,
organizations, and locations.
▪ Syntactic parsing: Analyzing the grammatical structure of sentences, including
relationships between words and phrases.
▪ Semantic annotation: Capturing the meaning of words and phrases, including their
relationships to each other.

These are just two main categories, and corpus markup can encompass a wider range of annotations
depending on the specific research goals and the type of corpus being analyzed.
Q. Statement explains different metadata markup schemes available for natural language processing.

The statement that "there are different metadata markup schemes available for natural language processing"
is absolutely correct. These schemes enrich raw text data within a corpus (collection of text) by adding
descriptive information beyond the words themselves. This structured information plays a crucial role in
organizing, analyzing, and ultimately understanding the language within the corpus. Here's an overview of
some commonly used metadata markup schemes for NLP:

1. TEI (Text Encoding Initiative):

• A widely used and flexible scheme that allows for detailed structural and linguistic annotation.
• Supports document markup (paragraphs, headings, tables) as well as linguistic annotation (part-of-
speech tags, named entities, syntactic parsing).
• Offers customizable options to accommodate specific research needs and types of corpora (e.g.,
historical documents, literary works).
2. CES (Corpus Encoding Standard):
• Designed for simplicity and efficiency, focusing primarily on document markup.
• Uses a smaller set of tags compared to TEI, making it easier to learn and implement.
• Well-suited for large corpora where structural organization is essential for analysis.
3. CoBRA (Corpus of Contemporary American English):
• A scheme specifically developed for the CoBRA corpus of American English speech and writing.
• Combines document markup with linguistic annotation features like part-of-speech tags and speaker
information (for spoken language data).
• Useful for research focusing on diachronic analysis (studying language change over time) and
sociolinguistic variation (how language use differs across social groups).
4. EAGLES (Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange):
• A European initiative providing guidelines and standards for corpus markup across different languages.
• Offers recommendations for both document markup and linguistic annotation, promoting
interoperability between corpora from various countries.
5. Standoff Markup:
• A more flexible approach where linguistic annotations are stored separately from the raw text data.
• Allows for multiple layers of annotation and facilitates updating annotations without modifying the
original text.
• Often used in combination with other markup schemes like TEI for complex corpora.
Benefits of Metadata Markup:
• Enhanced Search and Retrieval: Metadata helps users find relevant text data within the corpus
based on specific criteria.
• Improved Corpus Analysis: Structured information facilitates quantitative and qualitative analysis of
language use.
• Data Sharing and Reusability: Well-annotated corpora can be shared and reused by other
researchers, promoting reproducibility and advancing NLP research.

By leveraging metadata markup schemes, NLP researchers and developers can unlock the full potential of
language data and gain deeper insights into how language functions and evolves.
Q. Write a short note on text encoding initiative?

Text Encoding Initiative (TEI)

The Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) is a consortium that develops and maintains a widely used standard for
representing text data in digital form. It provides a flexible set of guidelines for adding structure and
descriptive information to electronic texts, known as metadata markup.

Key Features of TEI:

• Rich Annotation: Supports both document markup (paragraphs, headings, tables) and linguistic
annotation (part-of-speech tags, named entities, syntactic parsing).
• Flexibility: Offers customizable options to accommodate diverse research needs and types of corpora
(historical documents, literary works, etc.).
• Interoperability: Promotes data exchange between researchers working with different corpora.
Benefits of Using TEI:
• Enhanced Search and Analysis: Structured metadata facilitates efficient search and in-depth
analysis of language within the corpus.
• Data Sharing and Preservation: TEI-encoded corpora can be easily shared and preserved for future
research, promoting reproducibility and long-term accessibility.
• Advanced NLP Applications: TEI markup enables powerful NLP applications like sentiment analysis,
topic modeling, and machine translation.
In essence, TEI acts as a universal language for describing electronic text data, fostering
collaboration and advancing NLP research.
Q. Difference between standard generalized markup language and extensible markup language?

Here's a breakdown of the key differences between Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) and
Extensible Markup Language (XML):
SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language):
• Concept: A powerful and meta-language that defines a set of rules for creating specific markup
languages. Think of it as a blueprint for creating other markup languages.
• Functionality:
o Defines elements (tags) and attributes used to structure and describe data.
o Allows for defining the relationships between these elements.
o Provides a framework for validation, ensuring documents conform to the specified rules.
• Applications:
o Used less frequently today due to its complexity.
o Found in legacy systems and document management applications.
o Used as the foundation for XML.
XML (Extensible Markup Language):
• Concept: A markup language based on SGML, designed to be simpler and more user-friendly.
• Functionality:
o Inherits the core concepts of elements and attributes from SGML.
o Offers stricter syntax rules for well-formed documents.
o Places greater emphasis on data interchange and platform independence.
• Applications:
o The dominant markup language for data exchange on the web (e.g., HTML).
o Widely used in configuration files, e-commerce, and various data formats.
o Serves as a foundation for other markup languages like SVG and XHTML.
Here's a table summarizing the key differences:

Feature SGML XML

Purpose Meta-language for defining markup languages Markup language for data exchange

Complexity More complex Simpler and easier to use

Syntax Flexible Stricter and well-formed

Validation Emphasis on validation Less emphasis on validation

Applications Legacy systems, document management Web data exchange, configuration files

In essence, SGML provides the underlying structure for creating markup languages, while XML is a specific
markup language built upon SGML principles, designed for data exchange and ease of use.
Q. Write a short note on corpus ending standard.

The concept of a "corpus ending standard" is a bit of a misnomer. There isn't a single standard specifically for
indicating the end of a corpus. However, corpus management typically relies on a combination of file formats
and metadata schemas to define the structure and organization of the data.

Here's a breakdown of the key aspects related to corpus endings:

• File Formats: Corpora can be stored in various file formats like plain text (.txt), comma-separated
values (.csv), or XML (.xml). These formats don't inherently mark the corpus ending within the file itself.
• Metadata Schemas: Metadata markup schemes like TEI (Text Encoding Initiative) or CES (Corpus
Encoding Standard) can indicate the end of a document within the corpus. They achieve this through
specific tags that delineate the boundaries of individual documents or subdivisions within the corpus.
• Corpus Size: For very large corpora, they might be split across multiple files for better storage and
processing efficiency. In such cases, metadata associated with each file or a separate index file can
indicate the overall corpus size and the position of the specific file within the complete dataset.

Q. Characteristics of annotations done in embedded and standalone manner.

Embedded Annotation:
• Integration: Annotations are directly embedded within the text data itself. This can be achieved through:
o Inline markers: Special characters or codes are inserted within the text to mark specific elements
(e.g., <span class="highlight">important text</span> in HTML).
o Hidden annotations: Annotations are stored invisibly within the document structure, often using
dedicated fields or attributes (e.g., comments in code files).
• Advantages:
o Convenience: Annotations are readily accessible alongside the corresponding text, facilitating
quick reference and analysis.
o Synchronization: Changes in the text are automatically reflected in the annotations, maintaining
consistency.
• Disadvantages:
o Limited capabilities: Embedded annotations often have limited functionality compared to
standalone tools.
o Readability: Heavy annotation can clutter the text and hinder readability, especially for large
datasets.
o Interoperability: Embedded formats might not be easily transferable across different applications
or platforms.
Standalone Annotation:
• Separation: Annotations are stored and managed in a separate file or system from the original text data.
o Annotation tools: Dedicated software or web platforms are used to create, manage, and visualize
annotations.
o Linked data: The annotations reference specific portions of the text data using identifiers or links.
• Advantages:
o Rich functionality: Standalone tools offer a broader range of features like user management,
collaborative editing, and advanced search functionalities.
o Clean presentation: The original text remains uncluttered, improving readability.
 o Flexibility and interoperability: Annotations can be easily shared, exported, and used with
different text data.
• Disadvantages:
o Increased complexity: Requires additional software or platforms to manage annotations, adding a
layer of complexity.
o Synchronization burden: Maintaining consistency between annotations and the text might require
manual effort if the text is updated.

Q. Write a short note on multilingual corpora?

Multilingual Corpora:
• Definition: A collection of text data that includes documents in multiple languages. These corpora can be:
o Parallel corpora: Contain corresponding texts in different languages, often used for machine
translation tasks.
o Comparable corpora: Comprise texts from different languages on similar topics or domains,
useful for cross-lingual analysis.
• Benefits:
o Facilitate research on language comparison, translation, and multilingual NLP applications.
o Enable studying language universals and variations across different languages.
o Support the development of machine translation systems and multilingual information retrieval
techniques.
• Challenges:
o Ensuring data quality and consistency across different languages.
o Aligning corresponding texts in parallel corpora for effective analysis.
o Addressing language-specific complexities like grammar, syntax, and cultural references.

Q. Write a short note on multi modal corpora?

Multimodal Corpora:
• Definition: A collection of data that combines text with other modalities like audio, video, images, or
sensor data.
• Components:
o Textual data: Written text associated with the other modalities (e.g., captions for images,
transcripts for videos).
o Non-textual data: Audio recordings, video footage, images, or sensor readings that provide
additional context and information.
• Applications:
o Training NLP models that can understand and analyze information from various modalities (e.g.,
sentiment analysis of video reviews).
o Developing multimodal dialog systems that combine spoken language with gestures or facial
expressions.
o Supporting research on human-computer interaction and how different modalities influence
communication.
• Challenges:
o Data alignment and synchronization across different modalities.
o Designing effective methods for processing and analyzing multimodal data.
o Addressing the increased complexity of data storage, management, and processing.
Q. Describe in detail the corpus annotation types or explain in detail the schemes of annotation types with
diagram?

Corpus Annotation Types Explained with Diagrams

Corpus annotation involves adding descriptive information, or metadata, to a collection of text data (corpus) to
enrich it for analysis. These annotations go beyond the words themselves and provide various insights about the
language within the corpus. There are several key types of corpus annotation, each serving a specific purpose:
1. Document Markup
• Focus: Structure and organization of the text.
• Description: This type of annotation doesn't analyze the language itself. Instead, it translates aspects of
the layout or formatting into a machine-readable format.

2. Linguistic Annotation
• Focus: Properties of the language itself.
• Description: This dives deeper into the linguistic aspects of the text, annotating information about words,
phrases, and grammatical structures.

Here, each word (w) has a Part-of-Speech (POS) tag assigned (e.g., noun (NN), verb (VBZ)).
Additional Linguistic Annotation Types:
• Named Entity Recognition (NER): Identifies and classifies named entities like people, organizations, and
locations (e.g., <w pos="NNP">Paris</w> for a city).
• Syntactic Parsing: Analyzes the grammatical structure of sentences, including relationships between
words and phrases (shown using dependency parsing trees).
• Semantic Annotation: Captures the meaning of words and phrases, including their relationships to each
other (often using ontologies or semantic networks).
3. Pragmatic Annotation
• Focus: How language is used in context.
• Description: This type of annotation considers the communicative goals and social context in which the
language is used (e.g., sarcasm, humor).
Diagram:
This type of annotation is often less structured and relies on human judgment to identify pragmatic features. An
example might be:
<sentence speaker="John" intent="question">What time is it?</sentence>
Here, speaker and intent tags provide context about the speaker and the purpose of the utterance (asking a
question).
Choosing the Right Annotation Type:
The type of annotation chosen depends on the specific research goals and the nature of the corpus.
• Document markup: Essential for basic corpus organization and information retrieval.
• Linguistic annotation: Crucial for in-depth language analysis tasks like sentiment analysis or topic
modeling.
• Pragmatic annotation: Important for understanding the nuances of communication and the social
context behind language use.
By combining different annotation types, researchers can create rich and informative corpora that unlock the full
potential of NLP applications.
Q. Discover more morphosyntactic annotation?

Delving Deeper into Morphosyntactic Annotation

Morphosyntactic annotation, also known as grammatical tagging (POS tagging), is a fundamental type of linguistic
annotation in NLP. It assigns labels (tags) to each word in a text, indicating its grammatical function and
morphological properties. Here's an exploration beyond the basics:
Types of Morphosyntactic Features:
Beyond part-of-speech (POS) tags like noun (NN), verb (VBZ), adjective (JJ), etc., morphosyntactic annotations
can capture various features:
• Number: Singular (SG) or plural (PL) for nouns (e.g., <w pos="NN" number="SG">cat</w>, <w pos="NN"
number="PL">cats</w>).
• Gender: Masculine (M), feminine (F), or neuter (N) for some languages (e.g., applicable in Spanish or
German).
• Case: Nominative (NOM), accusative (ACC), dative (DAT), etc., depending on the language's grammatical
case system.
Tagset Complexity:
Tagsets can vary in complexity depending on the chosen scheme. Some popular tagsets include:
• Universal Dependencies (UD): A widely used, cross-linguistically consistent tagset focusing on syntactic
roles.
• Penn Treebank (PTB): A traditional tagset with a rich set of features, commonly used in English NLP tasks.
• Brown Corpus Tagset: A simpler tagset with fewer features, often used for historical reasons.
The choice of tagset depends on the desired level of detail and the specific NLP application.
Advanced Morphosyntactic Analysis:
Beyond basic tagging, morphosyntactic annotation can involve:
• Morphological segmentation: Breaking down words into their constituent morphemes (meaningful units).
• Syntactic parsing: Analyzing the grammatical structure of sentences and the relationships between
words (dependency parsing or phrase structure parsing).
Tools and Resources:
Several tools and resources can be helpful for morphosyntactic annotation:
• Natural Language Processing libraries: Libraries like NLTK (Python), spaCy (Python), and Stanford
CoreNLP (Java) offer pre-trained models for POS tagging and other NLP tasks.
• Corpus annotation platforms: Tools like brat and GATE provide functionalities for manual annotation and
visualization.
• Annotated corpora: Existing corpora with morphosyntactic annotations can serve as training data or
benchmarks for NLP models (e.g., Penn Treebank for English).
Impact of Morphosyntactic Annotation:
Accurate morphosyntactic annotation underpins various NLP applications:
• Machine translation: Understanding the grammatical structure of both source and target languages is
crucial for accurate translation.
• Part-of-speech tagging models: Trained models can automatically assign POS tags to unseen text data.
• Sentiment analysis: Identifying the sentiment of a sentence often relies on understanding the
grammatical roles of words.
• Text summarization: Extracting key points from text benefits from knowledge of sentence structure and
word relationships.
Q. What is tree bank explain pen treebank with an example?

Treebanks: Representing Text Structure

A treebank is a collection of text data (corpus) annotated with its syntactic structure. This structure is typically
represented using hierarchical trees, where each node represents a word or phrase, and the branches show the
relationships between them. Treebanks are invaluable resources for training and evaluating natural language
processing (NLP) models that deal with syntax and sentence structure.
One of the most well-known treebanks is the Penn Treebank (PTB), a corpus of English text annotated with phrase
structure using a specific tagset.
Penn Treebank (PTB): Unveiling Sentence Structure
The PTB is a widely used treebank for English, created at the University of Pennsylvania. It annotates sentences
using a phrase structure grammar approach. Sentences are broken down into hierarchical phrases, with each
phrase labeled according to its grammatical function.
Here's an Example:
Sentence: "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog."
PTB Tree Representation:
(ROOT (S (NP (DT The) (JJ quick) (JJ brown) (NN fox)) (VP (VBZ jumps) (PP (IN over) (NP (DT the) (JJ lazy) (NN dog)))) (.
.))
Explanation:
• ROOT: The top node representing the entire sentence.
• S: The main clause (subject-verb-object) structure.
• NP: Noun phrase (e.g., "The quick brown fox", "the lazy dog").
• VP: Verb phrase (e.g., "jumps over the lazy dog").
• PP: Prepositional phrase (e.g., "over the lazy dog").
• DT, JJ, VBZ, IN, NN: Part-of-speech tags (determiner, adjective, verb, preposition, noun).
This tree representation visualizes the hierarchical structure of the sentence. The "jumps" verb is the main verb
(head) of the sentence, and the noun phrase "the quick brown fox" acts as the subject. The prepositional phrase
"over the lazy dog" modifies the verb "jumps".
Benefits of PTB:
• Standardized annotation: Provides a consistent way to represent syntactic structure for English text.
• Training data for NLP models: Used to train parsers, dependency models, and other NLP systems that
analyze sentence structure.
• Benchmark for evaluation: Allows for comparing the performance of different NLP models on the same
set of data.
Limitations of PTB:
• Limited coverage: Doesn't encompass all grammatical constructions found in natural language.
• Focus on phrase structure: May not capture all the nuances of syntactic dependencies.
• English-centric: Not directly applicable to other languages with different grammatical structures.
Despite its limitations, the PTB remains a valuable resource for NLP research and development. It has paved the
way for more advanced treebank schemes and continues to serve as a benchmark for evaluating syntactic
analysis tasks in NLP.
UNIT – IV

Q. Explain with example constituency-based annotation and dependency-based annotation with advantages and
disadvantages ?

Constituency-Based vs. Dependency-Based Annotation: Decoding Sentence Structure

Both constituency-based and dependency-based annotation are methods for representing the syntactic
structure of sentences. However, they differ in the way they capture the relationships between words and
phrases:

Here's a table summarizing the key differences:

Feature Constituency-Based Annotation Dependency-Based Annotation

Focus Grouping words into phrases Identifying word dependencies

Structure Hierarchical tree Network of labeled arrows

Intuitive for basic concepts, suitable for Simpler for complex sentences, efficient
Advantages
specific NLP tasks for processing

Complex for long/complex sentences, Less intuitive for beginners, may not
Disadvantages
doesn't capture all dependencies capture all phrase-level information

Choosing the Right Approach:

The choice between constituency-based and dependency-based annotation depends on the specific NLP task
and the desired level of detail. Constituency-based approaches might be preferred for tasks focused on phrase
identification, while dependency-based methods might be more efficient for tasks like machine translation or
sentiment analysis.
Both approaches play a crucial role in NLP, and understanding their strengths and weaknesses helps researchers
choose the most suitable method for their specific needs.
Q. State and explain the guidance for construction of tree bank tree?

There isn't a universally defined "tree bank tree" construction method. However, treebanks, which are
collections of sentences annotated with structural information, often use either constituency-based or
dependency-based parsing approaches.
Here's a breakdown of the guidance for constructing these two types of structures within a treebank:
1. Constituency-Based Parsing:
• Focus: Identify phrases (noun phrases, verb phrases etc.) as units and their hierarchical relationship
within the sentence.
• Guidance:
o Define a set of grammatical rules (e.g., noun phrase can contain a determiner and a noun).
o Use these rules to segment the sentence into phrases.
o Build the tree structure by grouping phrases and showing their relationships (e.g., verb phrase
containing the noun phrase as subject).
o Consistency is key! Ensure the same rules are applied throughout the treebank for accurate
representation.
2. Dependency-Based Parsing:
• Focus: Direct grammatical relationships between individual words in the sentence.
• Guidance:
o Define a set of dependency labels (e.g., subject, object, modifier).
o Identify the head word (main word) in each phrase.
o Label the grammatical relationship between each word and its head word using dependency
labels and arrows.
o Ensure clear and unambiguous labeling for all words and their connections.
Choosing the Approach:
• Constituency-based parsing is helpful for understanding the overall hierarchical structure of
sentences and identifying sentence components.
• Dependency-based parsing is advantageous for complex sentences and capturing all grammatical
relationships between words directly.
Additional Considerations:
• Treebank purpose: The purpose of the treebank (machine translation, sentiment analysis) might
influence the chosen parsing approach.
• Language Specificity: Languages with different grammatical structures might require adjustments to
the parsing guidance.
By following these guidelines and considering the specific needs of your treebank, you can ensure
consistent and accurate construction of the tree structures, whether constituency-based or dependency-
based.
Q. Explain in detail methods of building a tree bank?

Treebanks are invaluable resources for computational linguistics, storing sentences annotated with their
syntactic structure. Here's a breakdown of the methods involved in building a treebank:
1. Data Acquisition:
• Corpus Selection: The foundation of your treebank is the corpus, a collection of natural language text.
Choose a corpus that aligns with the purpose of your treebank (e.g., news articles, dialogue, legal
documents).
• Data Cleaning and Preprocessing: Ensure the text is clean, free of errors, and consistently formatted.
This might involve removing typos, punctuation inconsistencies, or empty lines.
2. Annotation Scheme Design:
• Parsing Approach: Decide whether you'll use constituency-based parsing (focusing on phrasal units) or
dependency-based parsing (focusing on word relationships). Each approach has its advantages and
disadvantages (refer to previous explanation).
• Annotation Guidelines: Develop a detailed guide for annotators. This should define:
o Part-of-Speech (POS) Tags: A consistent way to label each word's grammatical function (noun,
verb, adjective, etc.). Existing tagsets like Penn Treebank tags can be a good starting point.
o Parsing Rules: Clear instructions on how to identify and segment phrases or define dependency
relationships based on the chosen approach.
o Annotation Examples: Illustrate how to apply the guidelines with real-world sentence examples to
avoid ambiguity.
3. Annotation Process:
• Annotator Selection and Training: Recruit linguists or trained personnel familiar with the chosen parsing
approach and the target language. Provide comprehensive training on the annotation guidelines and
ensure consistency across annotators.
• Annotation Tools: Utilize specialized software to streamline the annotation process. These tools can
provide interfaces for sentence viewing, tagging, and structure building based on the chosen approach.
Some popular tools include Utrecht Corpus Workbench (CLWB) and Brat.
• Quality Control: Implement a quality control process to ensure accuracy and consistency of annotations.
This might involve double-annotation (having two annotators work on the same sentence) and inter-
annotator agreement checks.
4. Data Integration and Sharing:
• Standardization: Use a standardized format to store the annotated sentences within the treebank.
Common formats include Penn Treebank format for constituency-based and CoNLL format for
dependency-based parsing.
• Documentation: Create comprehensive documentation for the treebank, including details about the
corpus, annotation scheme, and any specific considerations during construction.
• Sharing (Optional): Consider sharing your treebank with the research community to contribute to the
advancement of natural language processing.
Q. Explain the application of treebank?

Treebanks, those collections of sentences annotated with their syntactic structure, have a wide range of
applications across various fields:
1. Natural Language Processing (NLP):
• Training Machine Learning Models: Treebanks provide gold-standard data for training statistical parsers,
which can then analyze the structure of unseen sentences. This is crucial for tasks like machine
translation, sentiment analysis, and question answering.
• Part-of-Speech Tagging: Treebank annotations help build accurate part-of-speech taggers, a fundamental
step in many NLP tasks where identifying a word's grammatical role is essential.
2. Linguistics Research:
• Studying Syntactic Phenomena: Treebanks allow linguists to analyze and understand syntactic features
of a language in detail. They can study word order patterns, phrase structures, and dependency
relationships within sentences.
• Cross-Linguistic Comparison: Treebanks from different languages can be compared to reveal similarities
and differences in their syntactic structures, providing valuable insights for linguistic theory.
3. Speech Processing and Generation:
• Improving Speech Recognition: Treebank information on sentence structure can be used to guide speech
recognition systems, helping them better understand the order and relationships between words in spoken
language.
• Natural Language Generation: Treebanks can be used to train systems that generate natural-sounding
and grammatically correct sentences, useful for tasks like chatbots or machine translation.
4. Educational Applications:
• Language Learning Tools: Treebanks can inform the development of language learning tools that provide
students with insights into sentence structure and grammar rules.
• Automatic Error Correction: Treebank-based systems can be used to identify and correct grammatical
errors in student writing, offering valuable feedback for improvement.
Beyond these core applications, treebanks can also be used in areas like information retrieval and
sentiment analysis, where understanding the syntactic structure of text can be beneficial for various tasks.
Q. Write a short note on binary linear classifications?

Binary Linear Classifications: A Short Note

Binary linear classification is a fundamental concept in machine learning, specifically supervised learning. It
deals with classifying data points into exactly two categories based on a linear decision boundary.
Imagine a dataset with two features (X1 and X2) representing each data point. The goal is to learn a model that
can draw a straight line (in 2D) or a hyperplane (in higher dimensions) that separates the data points belonging to
different classes.
Key Components:
• Features: These are the characteristics used to represent a data point.
• Classes: The two distinct categories the data points belong to (e.g., spam/not spam, cat/dog).
• Decision Boundary: The line or hyperplane that separates the classes.
Model:
The model in binary linear classification is a linear equation:
y = w^T * x + b
where:
• y: Predicted class label (1 or 0)
• w: Weight vector (holds the coefficients for each feature)
• x: Feature vector of a data point
• b: Bias term (constant value)
Learning the Model:
The model learns the weight vector (w) and bias term (b) by analyzing training data with known class labels. The
goal is to find w and b that minimize the classification errors on the training data.
Applications:
• Spam filtering
• Sentiment analysis (positive/negative)
• Image classification (cat/dog)
• Fraud detection
Advantages:
• Simple and interpretable: Easy to understand the reasoning behind the classification.
• Efficient: Computationally inexpensive to train and use.
Disadvantages:
• Limited to linearly separable data: Works well for data that can be clearly separated by a straight
line/hyperplane.
• May not perform well with complex data patterns.
Binary linear classification is a powerful tool for many classification tasks. However, it's important to consider the
limitations and explore more complex models for scenarios with non-linear data structures.
Q. What is support vector machine explained with examples?

Imagine you have a dataset of emails classified as spam or not spam. Each email can be represented by
features like word frequency (presence of certain words) or sender information. An SVM aims to create a clear
separation line (in higher dimensions for multiple features) between these two classes.
The key idea of SVM is to find the widest margin between the classes. This margin is the distance between the
decision boundary (separating line) and the closest data points from each class, called support vectors.
Here's why a wider margin is better:
• It reduces the chance of future emails falling into an ambiguous area between the classes.
• It provides a clearer distinction between spam and legitimate emails.
How SVM works:
1. Mapping data: If your data isn't already in high dimensions, SVM can use a technique called kernel trick to
project it into a higher dimensional space where a clear separation might exist.
2. Finding the hyperplane: The SVM algorithm finds the optimal hyperplane that maximizes the margin
between the support vectors.
3. Classification: New emails can then be mapped into the same high dimensional space, and their distance
from the hyperplane is used to classify them as spam or not spam.
Example: Apples vs. Oranges
• Features: Color, size, sweetness
• Goal: Separate apples (red, medium, sweet) from oranges (orange, large, sour)
An SVM would find a hyperplane in the color-size-sweetness space that clearly separates the apples (support
vectors) from the oranges (support vectors) with the maximum margin. This allows for future fruits to be classified
accurately based on their features.
Advantages of SVMs:
• Effective for high-dimensional data.
• Good for small datasets.
• Interpretable: Support vectors provide insights into the classification.
Disadvantages of SVMs:
• Can be computationally expensive for very large datasets.
• Performance depends on the chosen kernel (for non-linear data).
Q. Explain multicategory classification discuss the method one versus all for classification?

Multi-Category Classification and One-vs-All Approach

Multi-category classification is a machine learning task where you have more than two distinct categories to
classify data points into. Unlike binary classification (spam/not spam), here you might have multiple classes like
classifying images of handwritten digits (0, 1, 2, 3, etc.) or categorizing emails into spam, work, personal, etc.
One-vs-All (OvA) approach is a popular strategy for tackling multi-category classification using binary
classification algorithms. It's a simple and efficient method, but it has some limitations to consider.
Here's how One-vs-All works:
1. For each class (C), train a separate binary classifier. Imagine you have N classes. You'll train N binary
classifiers.
2. In each classifier:
o Data points from the target class (C) are labeled as positive.
o Data points from all other classes (N-1) are labeled as negative.
3. Classification:
o For a new data point, you classify it using all N classifiers.
o The classifier with the highest confidence score (predicting the data point belongs to its positive
class) is chosen as the predicted class.
Example: Classifying Animals (Cat, Dog, Bird)
• Train 3 binary classifiers:
o Classifier 1: Cat vs. Not Cat (Dog + Bird)
o Classifier 2: Dog vs. Not Dog (Cat + Bird)
o Classifier 3: Bird vs. Not Bird (Cat + Dog)
• A new image is classified:
o Classifier 1 predicts high confidence (Cat).
o Classifiers 2 and 3 predict lower confidence.
o The animal is classified as a Cat based on Classifier 1.
Advantages of One-vs-All:
• Simple to implement: Leverages existing binary classification algorithms.
• Efficient training: Each binary classifier deals with a subset of the data (faster training).
Disadvantages of One-vs-All:
• Class imbalance: Can be problematic if some classes have significantly fewer data points than others. The
classifier trained for the minority class might suffer.
• Increased number of models: Training N classifiers can be computationally expensive for large datasets.
• One-vs-One might be better for some problems: In scenarios where all classes are inherently different
(e.g., handwritten digits), One-vs-One, which trains classifiers for all unique class pairs, might be a better
choice.
Q. Compare generative model to discriminative model.

Generative and discriminative models are two fundamental approaches in machine learning that tackle different
aspects of understanding data. Here's a breakdown of their key differences:
Goal
• Generative Model: Aims to capture the underlying probability distribution of the data. It learns how to
generate new data samples that resemble the training data. (Think: creating realistic images or composing
novel text)
• Discriminative Model: Focuses on learning the relationship between input features and desired outputs
(class labels). It predicts the class a new data point belongs to, but doesn't necessarily understand the
data generation process itself. (Think: classifying spam emails or recognizing handwritten digits)
Analogy
• Generative Model: Like an artist who studies a variety of paintings and learns to create their own unique
works in a similar style.
• Discriminative Model: Like an art appraiser who can identify the style and artist of a painting based on its
features but doesn't necessarily know how to paint themselves.
Learning Process
• Generative Model: Learns a joint probability distribution of both the input data (features) and the desired
output (generated data). It can be more complex to train as it needs to model the entire data creation
process.
• Discriminative Model: Learns a conditional probability distribution, focusing on predicting the output
class given a specific input. This can be computationally simpler to train.
Applications
• Generative Model:
o Image and text generation (creating realistic images or composing new text)
o Anomaly detection (identifying data points that deviate from the expected distribution)
o Data augmentation (increasing the size and diversity of a dataset)
• Discriminative Model:
o Classification tasks (spam filtering, image recognition, sentiment analysis)
o Regression tasks (predicting continuous values like housing prices or stock market trends)
Choosing the Right Model
The choice between a generative and discriminative model depends on the specific task you're trying to solve:
• If you want to generate new data samples or understand the underlying data structure, a generative model
might be a good choice.
• If your focus is on classification or prediction tasks, a discriminative model is often preferred due to its
efficiency and effectiveness.
Q. Explain mixture model in detail.

In the world of machine learning, mixture models are a powerful tool for dealing with data that might come from
multiple hidden distributions. Imagine a bowl filled with candies, but it's not just one type – it's a mix of
chocolates, gummies, and lollipops! A mixture model helps us understand this mix and potentially separate the
candies (data points) based on their characteristics (features).
Here's a breakdown of what mixture models are and how they work:
What is a Mixture Model?
• A probabilistic model that assumes your data points are generated from a mixture of several simpler
distributions. These distributions could be normal distributions (bell curves) for continuous data or
categorical distributions for discrete data.
• Each data point has a certain probability of belonging to each of these underlying distributions. The
mixture model learns these probabilities and the parameters of the individual distributions.
Components of a Mixture Model:
1. Number of Components (K): This is the number of underlying distributions you believe your data comes
from. In the candy example, K could be 3 (chocolate, gummy, lollipop).
2. Mixture Weights (π_k): These represent the probability of a data point belonging to each component
(distribution). They sum to 1. (Think: how likely you are to pick a chocolate vs a gummy).
3. Component Densities (f_k(x)): These are the probability density functions of the individual distributions
within the mixture. They define the shape and characteristics of each "candy type" within the data.
How Does a Mixture Model Work?
1. Learning: The model takes your data as input and iteratively estimates the following:
o The number of components (K) might be pre-defined or chosen using techniques like BIC (Bayesian
Information Criterion).
o The mixture weights (π_k) are adjusted to reflect the proportion of data points likely from each
distribution.
o The component densities (f_k(x)) are fine-tuned to better fit the data points within each distribution
(e.g., the "chocolate distribution" might learn a specific mean and standard deviation for sweetness
and size).
2. Prediction: For a new data point, the model calculates the probability of it belonging to each component
and assigns it to the most likely component. In simpler terms, it predicts which "candy type" the new data
point most closely resembles based on the learned mixture.
Applications of Mixture Models:
• Customer segmentation: Grouping customers based on their purchase history or demographics.
• Image segmentation: Separating objects within an image (e.g., segmenting a cat from its background).
• Anomaly detection: Identifying data points that deviate significantly from the expected mixture,
potentially indicating unusual events.
• Density estimation: Understanding the overall distribution of complex data that might not be well-
represented by a single distribution.
A Special Case: Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM)
• A popular type of mixture model where the component densities are Gaussian distributions (bell curves).
• Useful for modeling continuous data where the data points might cluster around multiple centers.
Q. State and process applications of expectation maximization model.

The Expectation-Maximization (EM) algorithm is a powerful tool used to estimate model parameters in situations
where there's missing data or latent variables. These latent variables are hidden characteristics that influence
the data we observe but are not directly measured.
Here's a breakdown of the EM algorithm, its applications, and the process it follows:
Applications of EM Algorithm:
• Missing Data Imputation: Filling in missing values within a dataset. For example, in a customer survey
with missing income data, EM can estimate these values based on other available information.
• Clustering with Latent Variables: Grouping data points based on hidden characteristics. Imagine
customer segmentation where the true reasons behind purchase behavior (e.g., brand loyalty, price
sensitivity) are latent but EM can group customers based on these underlying factors.
• Parameter Estimation in Mixture Models: Learning the parameters of the individual distributions within a
mixture model. As discussed previously, mixture models deal with data from multiple sources. EM helps
us understand the characteristics of each hidden "source" within the mix.
• Natural Language Processing (NLP): Identifying parts of speech (nouns, verbs) or hidden topics within a
document. Here, the words themselves are the observed data, but the underlying grammatical role or
thematic structure is latent.
The EM Process:
The EM algorithm works in an iterative two-step process:
1. Expectation (E-Step):
o Estimate the expected values of the missing data or latent variables, given the current model
parameters.
o This step involves calculating the probability of what the missing values could be based on the data
points we do have and the current model's understanding.
2. Maximization (M-Step):
o Use the estimated expected values from the E-step to update the model parameters.
o This step refines the model's understanding of the data by incorporating the information gleaned
about the latent variables in the E-step.
3. Repeat:
o These steps (E and M) are repeated until the model parameters converge (stabilize) or a maximum
number of iterations is reached.
Q. Define sequence prediction model what are the different applications where it can be used list the model
which can utilize for sequence prediction ?

A sequence prediction model is a type of machine learning model trained to analyze sequential data and forecast
the next element in the sequence. Imagine looking at a series of numbers or words and trying to predict what
comes next. That's the core idea behind sequence prediction!
Applications of Sequence Prediction Models:
These models have a wide range of applications across various fields:
• Finance: Predicting stock prices, market trends, and customer spending patterns.
• Natural Language Processing (NLP): Machine translation, text generation (like chatbots), and speech
recognition.
• Bioinformatics: Predicting protein structures, analyzing DNA sequences, and disease progression.
• Time Series Forecasting: Predicting weather patterns, traffic flow, and energy consumption.
• Recommendation Systems: Recommending products, movies, or music based on a user's past
preferences.
• Video Analysis: Understanding and predicting actions within videos, useful for self-driving cars or
anomaly detection in security systems.
Models for Sequence Prediction:
Here are some popular models used for sequence prediction tasks:
• Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs): These networks have a loop-like structure that allows them to
process information from previous steps in the sequence, making them well-suited for tasks like language
translation and text generation. Examples include Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) and Gated Recurrent
Unit (GRU) networks.
• Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs): While traditionally used for image recognition, 1D CNNs can be
effective for sequence prediction tasks where the order of elements matters but the specific content of
each element is less important. This might be useful in some bioinformatics applications.
• Hidden Markov Models (HMMs): These models are simpler than RNNs but can be effective for tasks
where the underlying process generating the sequence is assumed to have hidden states. They might be
used for speech recognition or protein structure prediction.
• Transformers: A relatively new but powerful architecture that excels at various NLP tasks, including
sequence prediction. They can analyze the entire sequence at once, capturing long-range dependencies
effectively.
Q. State and explain different kinds of constituents?

In linguistics, constituents are the building blocks of sentences. They are groups of words that function together
as a unit and can be replaced by a single word or another constituent. Here's a breakdown of the different kinds of
constituents:
1. Morphemes:
• The smallest meaningful units of language.
• Examples: "re-" (meaning "again") in "replay," "-s" (meaning plurality) in "books".
• Morphemes can't always stand alone as words (e.g., "re-" by itself), but they contribute to the overall
meaning of a word.
2. Words:
• The smallest grammatical units that can function independently.
• Examples: "book," "run," "happy."
• Words are formed from morphemes and have a specific part of speech (noun, verb, adjective, etc.).
3. Phrases:
• Groups of words that function as a unit but don't form a complete sentence by themselves.
• Examples: "the red car" (noun phrase), "to go to the store" (verb phrase), "very happy" (adverb phrase).
• Phrases can be identified by their syntactic role (subject, object, modifier) within a sentence.
o Noun Phrase (NP): Functions as a noun (subject, object, etc.) - "the red car"
o Verb Phrase (VP): Contains a verb and expresses an action or event - "to go to the store"
o Adjective Phrase (AdjP): Modifies a noun or another adjective - "very happy"
o Adverb Phrase (AdvP): Modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb - "quickly"
4. Clauses:
• Groups of words that contain a subject and a predicate (verb) and can potentially form a complete
sentence.
• Examples: "The red car is parked in the driveway" (independent clause), "because I was tired" (dependent
clause).
• Clauses can be independent (stand alone as a sentence) or dependent (rely on another clause for
meaning).
Here's a hierarchy to visualize the relationship between constituents:
Morphemes -> Words -> Phrases -> Clauses -> Sentences
Q. Write the different tests to identify whether the string is a constituent or not?

Here are some common tests used in linguistics to identify whether a string of words is a constituent:
1. Replacement Test:
• This test checks if the string can be replaced by a single word (of the same grammatical category) without
affecting the grammaticality of the sentence.
o If the replacement results in a grammatically correct sentence, the string is likely a constituent.
o Example:
▪ Original sentence: "The red car is parked in the driveway."
▪ Replacement: "The car is parked in the driveway." (Grammatical)
▪ "Car" is a valid replacement for "the red car," suggesting "the red car" is a constituent (noun
phrase).
2. Whic Movement Test (Wh-question test):
• This test checks if the string can stand alone as the answer to a question formed with a wh-word (who,
what, where, when, etc.).
o If the string can be a grammatically correct answer, it's likely a constituent.
o Example:
▪ Original sentence: "She likes to read science fiction novels."
▪ Question: "What does she like to read?"
▪ Answer: "Science fiction novels" (Grammatical)
▪ "Science fiction novels" can be a standalone answer, suggesting it's a constituent (noun
phrase).
3. Cleft Test:
• This test involves splitting the sentence and placing the string in focus using a structure like "It was...
that..." or "What... was it that...".
o If the string can be placed in the cleft without affecting grammaticality, it's likely a constituent.
o Example:
▪ Original sentence: "They visited the art museum yesterday."
▪ Cleft sentence: "It was the art museum that they visited yesterday." (Grammatical)
▪ "The art museum" can be placed in the cleft, suggesting it's a constituent (noun phrase).
4. Deletion Test:
• This test involves removing the string and checking if the resulting sentence remains grammatical.
o Exercise caution with this test, as some grammatical constituents might be optional (e.g., articles).
o Example:
▪ Original sentence: "The student who studied hard got an A."
▪ Deletion: "The student got an A." (Grammatical)
▪ While the sentence is still understandable, "who studied hard" provides additional
information and might be considered a constituent (relative clause).
5. Coordination Test:
• This test checks if the string can be coordinated with another constituent of the same type using
conjunctions like "and" or "or."
o Not all constituents can be coordinated, so use this test with caution.
o Example:
▪ Original sentence: She bought apples and oranges at the store.
▪ "Apples" and "oranges" can be coordinated, suggesting they are both noun phrases.
Q. What is Chomsky normal form converting the given grammar in Chomsky normal form?

Chomsky Normal Form (CNF) is a specific way of writing context-free grammars (CFGs) where all production
rules are very simple. There are four main rules for a CFG to be in CNF:
1. Unit Productions: No rules of the form A -> B (where A and B are non-terminal symbols).
2. Terminal Productions: All productions of the form A -> a (where A is a non-terminal symbol and a is a
terminal symbol).
3. Start Symbol Rule (optional): The start symbol (S) can only appear on the right-hand side of a production
rule if it's the only symbol (S -> ε, where ε is the empty string).
4. Binary Rules: All other productions must be of the form A -> BC (where A, B, and C are non-terminal
symbols).

Steps to Convert a Grammar to Chomsky Normal Form:

1. Eliminate Epsilon Productions:
o Identify and remove any productions with the empty string (ε) on the right-hand side.
o You might need to introduce new non-terminal symbols to achieve this.
2. Eliminate Unit Productions:
o Identify and remove any productions of the form A -> B (where A and B are non-terminal symbols).
o Replace these productions with the rules that B derives (basically follow the chain of productions
until you reach terminal symbols).
3. Eliminate Long Productions (if present):
o Identify any productions with more than two symbols on the right-hand side (A -> XYZ).
o Introduce a new non-terminal symbol (D) and rewrite the rule as A -> BD, and then create a new rule
D -> YZ.
o Repeat this process for any productions exceeding two symbols.
4. Move Terminals to Unit Productions (optional):
o This step is not strictly necessary but can improve readability.
o If you have productions like A -> Ba or A -> aB, rewrite them as A -> BC and B -> a (or vice versa).
Example:
Imagine a grammar with these rules:
S -> NP VP VP -> VP PP VP -> V NP NP -> Det N
Here's a simplified conversion process (without all the details):
1. Eliminate Epsilon Productions (assuming none exist).
2. Eliminate Unit Productions (replace VP with its definitions).
3. Eliminate Long Productions (might be needed for VP -> VP PP).
4. Move Terminals to Unit Productions (optional).
Q. Explain with example elimination empty production in given context free grammar.

Eliminating Empty Productions in Context-Free Grammars (CFGs)

Empty productions, denoted by ε (epsilon), occur in CFG rules where a non-terminal symbol can derive the empty
string. While useful in some cases, they can complicate grammar analysis. Here's how to eliminate empty
productions:
1. Identify Empty Productions:
• Look for rules where the right-hand side consists only of ε. These are empty productions.
2. Find Nullable Non-Terminals:
• A nullable non-terminal is a non-terminal symbol that can derive the empty string (ε). This includes:
o Non-terminals with an empty production rule (A -> ε).
o Non-terminals that appear on the right-hand side of a production rule where all symbols can derive
ε (e.g., B -> AC, if A and C are both nullable).
3. Eliminate Empty Productions:
• For each empty production (A -> ε):
o Identify all rules where the non-terminal A appears on the right-hand side (B -> XAY, where X and Y
can be any symbols and A is the empty production).
o Create new productions for the rule B by replacing A with ε. In the above example, you'd get B -> XεY
and B -> XY (assuming X and Y aren't nullable).
Example:
Consider the grammar:
• S -> AB
• A -> a | ε
• B -> b
Here, A -> ε is an empty production. B is nullable because it only has one rule (B -> b), and b is a terminal symbol.
Elimination Steps:
1. We have an empty production: A -> ε
2. B is nullable because its only rule leads to a terminal symbol.
3. We need to modify rules where A appears on the right-hand side:
o The rule S -> AB becomes: S -> aB and S -> εB (since A can be empty).
Resulting Grammar (without empty productions):
• S -> aB | εB
• A -> a
• B -> b
Q. What is the CYK algorithm applied to a given sentence and a given grammar?

The CYK (Cocke-Younger-Kasami) algorithm is used to determine whether a given sentence can be generated by a
given context-free grammar (CFG). It employs a dynamic programming approach to efficiently analyze the
sentence structure. Here's how the CYK algorithm works:
1. Input:
• A sentence w with length n (sequence of words).
• A context-free grammar G with productions (rules) defining how sentences can be formed. The grammar
needs to be in Chomsky Normal Form (CNF) for the CYK algorithm to work effectively.
2. Data Structure:
• Create a table T with dimensions n x n. Each cell T[i, j] will hold a set of non-terminal symbols from the
grammar.
3. Base Case (Length 1 Strings):
• For i = 1 to n:
o Check each grammar rule of the form A -> a (where A is a non-terminal and a is a terminal symbol).
o If the terminal symbol a matches the i-th word in the sentence w[i], add the non-terminal A to the
cell T[i, i].
4. Recursive Case (Length > 1 Strings):
• For l = 2 to n: (Consider all subsequences of length l)
o For i = 1 to n - l + 1: (Iterate over all possible starting positions)
▪ For k = i to i + l - 2: (Iterate over all possible split points)
▪ Check if T[i, k] contains a non-terminal B and T[k + 1, j] contains a non-terminal C.
▪ Look for a grammar rule A -> BC in the grammar G.
▪ If the rule exists, add the non-terminal A to the cell T[i, j].
5. Output:
• Check the cell T[1, n]. If it contains the start symbol (S) of the grammar, the sentence w can be generated
by the grammar G. Otherwise, the sentence cannot be generated by the grammar.
Example:
Consider the sentence w = "see the sun" and a grammar G (in CNF) with these rules:
• S -> NP VP
• VP -> V NP
• NP -> Det N
• Det -> the
• N -> sun
• V -> see
Running the CYK Algorithm:
1. Base Case:
o T[1, 1] = {Det} (matches "the")
o T[2, 2] = {N} (matches "sun")
o T[3, 3] = {V} (matches "see")
2. Recursive Case:
o We will not go through all the intermediate steps here, but after filling the table T, we get:
o T[1, 3] = {S, NP}
3. Output:
Since the cell T[1, 3] (representing the entire sentence) contains the start symbol S, the sentence "see the sun"
can be generated by the grammar G.
Q. Write a list representation for the given sentences:
1. Some politicians are mortal .
2. All Australian students like caving(KV).

Sentence 1: Some politicians are mortal.

• [['some', 'Det'], ['politicians', 'NOUN'], ['are', 'VERB'], ['mortal', 'ADJ'], ['.', 'PUNCT']]
Sentence 2: All Australian students like caving(KV).
• [['all', 'Det'], ['australian', 'ADJ'], ['students', 'NOUN'], ['like', 'VERB'], ['caving(KV)', 'NOUN'], ['.',
'PUNCT']]

Here's a breakdown of the tags used:

• Det: Determiner (e.g., "the", "a", "some", "all")

• NOUN: Noun
• VERB: Verb
• ADJ: Adjective
• PUNCT: Punctuation

This representation captures both the words and their grammatical roles in the sentences, providing a more
structured way to analyze the text.
Q. Define parsing in terms of an LP statistical parsing in NLP?

In Natural Language Processing (NLP), parsing refers to the process of analyzing a sentence and uncovering its
grammatical structure. It's like taking a sentence apart and understanding how the words relate to each other and
the overall meaning.
Now, let's talk about LP (Logic Programming) statistical parsing specifically. This is a particular approach to
parsing that leverages both logic programming and statistical techniques. Here's a breakdown:
• Logic Programming:
o Uses a set of logical formulas (rules) to represent grammatical knowledge.
o These rules define how words can be combined to form phrases and sentences.
o For example, a rule might state that a noun phrase (NP) can be formed by a determiner (Det)
followed by a noun (N): NP -> Det N.
• Statistical Techniques:
o Probabilities are assigned to these logical rules based on observed data (large corpora of text).
o This takes into account the frequency of different grammatical constructions in natural language.
o Instead of just having a definite rule, the statistical component allows the parser to consider the
likelihood of different parsing options.
How LP Statistical Parsing Works:
1. Input: A sentence to be parsed.
2. Logic Programming Component:
o Applies the set of logical grammar rules to the sentence.
o This generates a set of possible parse trees representing the potential grammatical structures.
3. Statistical Component:
o Assigns probabilities to each parse tree based on the statistical weights associated with the used
rules.
o Parse trees with more probable rules get higher scores.
4. Output:
o The parser outputs the most likely parse tree (the one with the highest score). This represents the
most probable grammatical interpretation of the sentence.
Benefits of LP Statistical Parsing:
• Flexibility
• Explanatory Power
• Incorporates Statistical Knowledge.
Drawbacks of LP Statistical Parsing:
• Computational Complexity
• Reliance on Training Data
Q. State and explain the importance of syntaxes NLU?

Syntax plays a crucial role in Natural Language Understanding (NLU) for several reasons:

1. Disambiguating Meaning:
• Word order and sentence structure (syntax) are essential for resolving ambiguity in language.
o Consider the sentence: "The man chased the dog." vs. "The dog chased the man." The order of
the words completely changes the meaning, and syntax helps NLU systems understand this.
• Syntax helps identify the relationships between words, like subject-verb agreement or noun phrases
modifying other nouns. This clarifies the intended meaning of the sentence.
2. Understanding Complexities:
• NLU tasks often deal with complex sentence structures like relative clauses or embedded phrases.
Syntax helps parsers break down these structures and understand their role in the overall meaning.
• For example, in the sentence "The student who studied hard got an A," syntax helps identify "who
studied hard" as a relative clause modifying "student."
3. Compositionality:
• Syntax allows NLU systems to leverage the meaning of smaller units (words and phrases) to
comprehend the meaning of larger sentences. This is known as compositionality.
o By understanding how words combine based on grammar rules, NLU systems can build up
meaning incrementally as they process a sentence.
4. Generalizability:
• A strong understanding of syntax allows NLU systems to generalize their knowledge to unseen
sentences. They can apply learned grammar rules to new situations and parse novel sentences with
more accuracy.
5. Feature Engineering:
• Many NLU models rely on features extracted from sentences for tasks like sentiment analysis or
machine translation. Syntax can be a valuable source of features.
o By identifying parts of speech, noun phrases, verb tenses, etc., NLU systems can create more
informative features that capture the grammatical structure and relationships within a sentence.
Beyond these core points, syntax also helps NLU systems in specific applications:
• Machine Translation: Accurate syntax parsing is crucial for translating sentences while preserving
their meaning and grammatical correctness.
• Question Answering: Understanding the syntactic structure of questions allows NLU systems to
identify key elements like who, what, where, and when.
• Sentiment Analysis: Syntax can help identify negation or sarcasm, which can influence the sentiment
expressed in a sentence.
Q. Write a short note on statistical parsing?

Statistical parsing is a technique used in Natural Language Processing (NLP) to analyze a sentence and determine
its grammatical structure. Unlike traditional rule-based parsers, it leverages statistical models to account for the
natural variations and ambiguities of human language.
Core Idea:
• Statistical parsers rely on a vast amount of text data (corpus) to learn the probabilities of different
grammatical constructions.
• Each possible parse tree, representing a way to break down the sentence, is assigned a score based on the
likelihood of its rules occurring together.
• The parser then chooses the parse tree with the highest score as the most probable grammatical
interpretation of the sentence.
Key Components:
• Grammar Formalism: Often uses a controlled grammar like Context-Free Grammar (CFG) to represent the
possible structures of sentences.
• Statistical Model: Assigns probabilities to grammar rules based on their frequency in the training data.
Popular models include Hidden Markov Models (HMMs) and Probabilistic Context-Free Grammars
(PCFGs).
• Parsing Algorithm: Decodes the sentence by searching for the highest-scoring parse tree. Common
algorithms include Viterbi algorithm and Chart parsing.
Benefits:
• Handles Ambiguity
• Robustness
• Performance
Drawbacks:
• Data Reliance
• Computational Cost
• Limited Explanation
Applications:
• Machine Translation: Improves translation accuracy by considering sentence structure beyond word-to-
word mapping.
• Speech Recognition: Enhances recognition accuracy by using syntax to predict the most likely word
sequence.
• Text Summarization: Identifies key information by understanding the grammatical relationships between
words.
• Sentiment Analysis: Takes into account sentence structure to better understand the emotional tone of
text.
Q. State and explain two types of syntactical representation that is constituents and dependency.

Syntactic representations are different ways to depict the grammatical structure of a sentence, showing how
words relate to each other and form phrases and clauses. Here's an explanation of two common types:
1. Constituent-Based Representation:
This approach views a sentence as a hierarchy of nested groups of words, called constituents. These constituents
function as units within the sentence and can be replaced by a single word or another constituent.
• Key Features:
o Focuses on grouping words that act together as a unit (e.g., noun phrase, verb phrase).
o Represents the sentence structure as a tree-like diagram, where the root node is the entire
sentence and branches represent sub-constituents.
o Examples of constituents: noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AdjP), adverb
phrase (AdvP).
• Example:
Sentence: "The red car is parked in the driveway."
Constituent Tree:

2. Dependency-Based Representation:
This approach emphasizes the grammatical relationships between individual words in a sentence. It focuses on
how each word depends on another (its head) to form a complete grammatical unit.
• Key Features:
o Represents the sentence as a directed graph, where words are nodes and arrows show dependency
relations between them (head -> dependent).
o Focuses on grammatical roles like subject, object, modifier.
o Can be more efficient for representing complex sentence structures and long-distance
dependencies.
• Example:
Sentence: "The red car is parked in the driveway."
Dependency Graph:
Q. State and explain different evaluation metrics available for model?

Evaluating a machine learning model's performance is crucial to understand its effectiveness and identify areas
for improvement. Here's an overview of different metrics used for model evaluation, categorized by the type of
machine learning task:
1. Classification Metrics:
These metrics are used for models that predict discrete categories (classes).
• Accuracy: The proportion of correct predictions made by the model. It can be misleading for imbalanced
datasets.
• Precision: Measures the proportion of positive predictions that are actually correct (out of all predicted
positives).
• Recall (Sensitivity): Measures the proportion of actual positive cases that are correctly identified by the
model (out of all actual positives).
• F1 Score: A harmonic mean of precision and recall, combining their importance into a single metric.
• AUC-ROC (Area Under the Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve): A metric that considers all
classification thresholds and evaluates the model's ability to distinguish between classes.
2. Regression Metrics:
These metrics are used for models that predict continuous values.
• Mean Squared Error (MSE): Measures the average squared difference between predicted and actual
values. Lower MSE indicates better performance.
• Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE): The square root of MSE, expressed in the same units as the target
variable.
• Mean Absolute Error (MAE): Measures the average absolute difference between predicted and actual
values. Less sensitive to outliers than MSE.
• R-Squared (Coefficient of Determination): Represents the proportion of variance in the target variable
explained by the model. Ranges from 0 (no explanation) to 1 (perfect explanation).
3. Clustering Metrics:
These metrics are used for models that group data points into clusters.
• Silhouette Coefficient: Measures how well each data point is assigned to its cluster compared to
neighboring clusters. Higher values indicate better clustering.
• Calinski-Harabasz Index: Compares the average distance between clusters to the within-cluster
variance. Higher values indicate better separation between clusters.
• Davies-Bouldin Index: Similar to Calinski-Harabasz, but considers the ratio of within-cluster scatter to the
distance between cluster centers. Lower values indicate better clustering.
4. Other Important Metrics:
• Loss Function: The function the model optimizes during training to minimize error.
• Log Loss (for classification): Measures the penalty for incorrect predictions.
• Cross-Validation: A technique to evaluate model performance on unseen data by splitting the dataset into
training and validation sets.
Q. Explain 2 components of statistical parsing model:
1. Generative 2. Evaluative.

In statistical parsing models, two key components work together to achieve accurate parsing:
1. Generative Model:
This component defines the probability of a sentence being generated by a specific grammar. It essentially
captures the "rules of the game" for how sentences are formed in a particular language.
• Core Function:
o Assigns a probability score to each possible parse tree for a given sentence.
o Uses a Context-Free Grammar (CFG) or a similar formalism to represent the grammatical structure
of sentences.
o Often leverages statistical techniques like Hidden Markov Models (HMMs) or Probabilistic Context-
Free Grammars (PCFGs) to incorporate probabilities into the grammar rules.
• Example:
Consider the sentence "The red car is parked." A generative model might assign a higher probability to a parse tree
where "the red car" forms a noun phrase (NP) subject than one where "red" modifies "parked" as an adverb.
2. Evaluative Model:
This component takes the probabilities generated by the generative model and selects the most likely parse tree
for the sentence. It acts as the "decision maker" based on the probabilities assigned by the generative model.
• Core Function:
o Analyzes the probability scores of all possible parse trees for a sentence.
o Employs algorithms like the Viterbi algorithm or chart parsing to efficiently search for the parse tree
with the highest probability.
o This parse tree is considered the most likely grammatical structure for the sentence.
• Example:
Building upon the previous example, the evaluative model might determine that the parse tree with "the red car"
as an NP subject has a higher probability score than other options. It would then select this parse tree as the most
likely interpretation of the sentence.
Q. Explaining brief parser evaluation

Parser evaluation is crucial for assessing the effectiveness of a parser in uncovering the grammatical structure of
sentences. Here's a breakdown of the key points:
Why Evaluate Parsers?
• To measure the accuracy of a parser in assigning correct syntactic structures to sentences.
• To compare the performance of different parsers on the same task.
• To identify areas for improvement in parser development.
Common Evaluation Metrics:
• Attachment Accuracy: Measures the percentage of words correctly assigned to their syntactic heads
(dependencies) in the parse tree.
• Label Accuracy: Measures the percentage of words correctly labeled with their part-of-speech (POS) tags
in the parse tree.
• Parsing Accuracy: Overall percentage of sentences for which the parser outputs the correct complete
parse tree.
• F1 Score: A harmonic mean of precision and recall, combining their importance for evaluating the balance
between correctly identified structures and missed ones.
Evaluation Corpora:
• Parsers are evaluated on benchmark datasets (corpora) containing human-annotated sentences with their
corresponding gold-standard parse trees.
• Examples include Penn Treebank, English Proposition Bank (PropBank), and Universal Dependencies (UD).
Challenges in Evaluation:
• Metrics may not capture all aspects of parsing quality.
• Parsing ambiguity: Sentences can have multiple valid parse trees, making it difficult to define a single
"correct" answer.
• Evaluation corpora may not be representative of real-world language.
Types of Evaluation:
• Intrinsic Evaluation: Measures parser performance on isolated sentences without considering a specific
downstream task.
• Extrinsic Evaluation: Evaluates the impact of parsing accuracy on the performance of another NLP task,
such as machine translation or question answering.
Q. Explain brief inside outside algorithm.

The Inside-Outside algorithm is a powerful tool in statistical parsing, particularly within the context of
Probabilistic Context-Free Grammars (PCFGs). It serves two main purposes:
1. Computing Parse Probabilities:
o It calculates the probability of any given sub-structure (subsentence) appearing in a valid parse tree
for a sentence.
o This provides valuable insights into the likelihood of different grammatical arrangements within the
sentence.
2. Expectation-Maximization (EM) Algorithm:
o The inside-outside algorithm is a crucial component of the EM algorithm, a technique used to train
PCFGs from unlabeled data.
o By estimating the expected counts of grammar rule applications in different contexts, the EM
algorithm refines the probabilities associated with each rule in the PCFG.
Core Idea:
• The algorithm works by recursively filling two dynamic programming tables:
o Inside Table: Represents the probability of generating any possible sub-structure (from start to end
of the sub-string) for a sentence.
o Outside Table: Represents the probability of generating the remaining sentence after reaching a
specific point in the parse.
• By combining the information from both tables, we can compute the probability of a complete parse tree
for the entire sentence.
Benefits:
• Efficient Probability Calculation
• EM Algorithm Integration
Drawbacks:
• Computational Complexity
• Limited Interpretability
Q. Differentiate self-training and co training.

Self-Training vs. Co-training

Feature Self-Training Co-training

Uses a single model and its own

Utilizes two or more models trained on
Concept predictions to create pseudo-labeled
complementary data views.
data.

- Train models A & B on separate feature sets from

- Train model on labeled data.
labeled data.
- Predict unlabeled data.
- Model A predicts labels on unlabeled data.
- Use high-confidence predictions as
Process - Model B predicts labels on same unlabeled data. -
pseudo-labels.
- Use high-confidence agreements as reliable
- Retrain with original + pseudo-labeled
labels.
data.
- Retrain A & B with original + reliable labels.

Simpler to implement, effective with Less error propagation, potentially learns more
Advantages
large unlabeled data from unlabeled data

Prone to error propagation, limited More complex to implement, requires separate

Disadvantages
improvement feature sets

Limited labeled data, not easily

Suitable for Good understanding of data, separable feature sets
separable features
Q. What are multi word expressions of experience characteristics?

Multi-word expressions (MWEs) can be used to describe various characteristics of experiences. Here are some
categories and examples:
Intensity:
• Extremely happy: Elated, overjoyed, ecstatic
• Moderately sad: Downcast, melancholic, blue
• Highly surprised: Astonished, dumbfounded, flabbergasted
Duration:
• Short-lived experience: Fleeting moment, passing fancy, brief encounter
• Long-lasting impact: Profound effect, lasting impression, lifelong memory
Emotional Tone:
• Positive experience: Thrilled to bits, on cloud nine, over the moon
• Negative experience: Devastated, heartbroken, crushed
• Neutral experience: Uneventful, commonplace, ordinary
Sensory Details:
• Visually striking experience: Breathtaking view, dazzling display, mesmerizing spectacle
• Auditory experience: Earsplitting noise, soothing melody, cacophony of sounds
• Tactile experience: Velvety smooth, rough and scratchy, bone-chilling cold
Action and Change:
• Rapid development: Exponential growth, meteoric rise, sudden surge
• Gradual transformation: Incremental progress, slow and steady change, gradual evolution
Social Interaction:
• Meaningful conversation: Heart-to-heart talk, stimulating discussion, lively exchange
• Tense argument: Heated debate, bitter exchange, verbal sparring
Uniqueness:
• Once-in-a-lifetime experience: Unforgettable moment, extraordinary event, unparalleled adventure
• Commonplace experience: Everyday occurrence, routine activity, mundane happening

These are just a few examples, and the possibilities are vast. You can combine these MWEs to create even more
nuanced descriptions of experiences. Here are some additional points to consider:
• Figurative Language: Similes, metaphors, and idioms can also be used to describe experiences in a
creative way (e.g., "felt like a fish out of water," "a weight lifted off my shoulders").
• Verb Choice: Verbs can significantly impact the description of an experience (e.g., "sauntered" vs.
"rushed").
• Descriptive Adjectives: Adding details with adjectives can enrich the portrayal of the experience (e.g., "a
vibrant sunset," "a chilling wind").
Q. Explain brief lexical idiomatic city synthetic pragmatic statistical semantic called idiomaticity.

Idiomaticity refers to the non-literal or figurative meaning conveyed by a word, phrase, or expression. It goes
beyond the individual meanings of the words involved and creates a new, often culturally-specific understanding.
Here's a breakdown of related terms that highlight different aspects of language use:
• Lexical Idiomaticity: Focuses on idiomatic expressions that function as single lexical units (e.g., "kick the
bucket").
• Syntactic Idiomaticity: Refers to idiomatic expressions that have a specific grammatical structure (e.g.,
"It's raining cats and dogs").
• Semantic Idiomaticity: Deals with the non-compositional meaning of idiomatic expressions, where the
whole is greater than the sum of its parts (e.g., "spill the beans").
• Pragmatic Idiomaticity: Considers the use of idiomatic expressions in context and their appropriateness
for a specific situation (e.g., using "break a leg" to wish someone good luck).
• Statistical Idiomaticity: Leverages statistical methods to identify idiomatic expressions based on their
frequency of co-occurrence or deviation from expected word combinations.
• City: This term isn't directly related to idiomaticity but refers to a specific location or urban environment. It
can, however, influence language use, with cities often having their own slang or idiomatic expressions.
These terms all contribute to understanding the richness and complexity of language, where meaning extends
beyond the literal level. Idioms are a prime example of this, as they convey a specific meaning that can't be
derived from the individual words alone.

Q. Explain the following light verb construct what noun automatic combined or multi word expression
classifications.

The phrase "light verb construct what noun" can be broken down and analyzed using several classification
systems for multi-word expressions (MWEs):
1. Light Verb Construction: This refers to a specific type of MWE where a main verb (light verb) lacks
inherent meaning on its own and relies on a noun phrase (what noun) to provide the core meaning.
Examples include "make a decision," "take a break," and "get a degree."
2. Syntactic Classification: Here, the focus is on the grammatical structure of the MWE. In this case, it's a
verb phrase (VP) with a specific pattern: Light Verb + Determiner (optional) + Noun.
3. Semantic Classification: This classification looks at the meaning of the MWE as a whole. In this case, it
expresses an action or process related to the following noun (e.g., "make a decision" implies choosing,
"take a break" implies resting).
4. Non-compositional vs. Compositional: Idiomatic expressions are typically non-compositional, meaning
their meaning cannot be derived simply by adding the meanings of individual words. Light verb
constructions, however, are generally considered compositional. The meaning of the MWE can be
understood by combining the meaning of the light verb and the noun.
5. Lexical vs. Idiomatic: Light verb constructions are not idiomatic. Idioms have a fixed, non-literal meaning
that cannot be understood from the individual words. Light verb constructions, while potentially figurative,
retain a more transparent relationship between their components.
Q. What is word similarity state and explain different method to find out the similarity between the words?

Word similarity refers to the degree of semantic closeness between two words. It goes beyond just matching
spellings and considers the meaning, context, and relationships between words. Here are some methods to find
word similarity:
1. Lexicon-Based Methods:
• Leverage pre-existing knowledge resources like dictionaries, thesauri, and WordNets.
• These resources encode semantic relationships between words (synonyms, hypernyms, hyponyms, etc.).
• Similarity is measured based on the presence and depth of these relationships in the resource.
• Example: "Car" and "vehicle" are synonyms in WordNet, indicating high similarity.
2. Distributional Semantics:
• This approach is based on the idea that words with similar meanings tend to appear in similar contexts.
• Techniques like word embedding (e.g., Word2Vec, GloVe) learn vector representations of words based on
their co-occurrence patterns in a large corpus.
• Similarity is calculated by measuring the distance between these word vectors in the high-dimensional
space.
• Example: "King" and "queen" might have similar word embeddings because they often appear in similar
contexts like "royalty" or "throne."
3. Information-Theoretic Methods:
• These methods utilize information theory concepts like entropy and mutual information to quantify word
similarity.
• They consider the information content of words and how much information they share in a corpus.
• Example: "Doctor" and "nurse" might be considered similar based on their shared information content
within the medical domain.
4. Hybrid Approaches:
• Combine aspects of different methods for a more comprehensive understanding of similarity.
• May involve integrating lexicon-based knowledge with distributional semantics or information-theoretic
measures.
Q. Explained Kolmogorov complexity.

Kolmogorov complexity, named after Andrey Kolmogorov, is a theoretical concept in computer science and
information theory that attempts to quantify the inherent information content of an object, such as a piece of text,
a computer program, or any other digital entity. It essentially asks: how much information is minimally needed
to describe an object in its entirety?
Here's a breakdown of the key points:
• Core Idea: The Kolmogorov complexity (denoted by K(x)) of an object (x) is the length of the shortest
possible computer program that can output (generate) that object. This program is written in a specific
universal reference language (like a Turing machine) that can be used to describe any computation.
• Interpretation: A lower Kolmogorov complexity indicates a simpler object, requiring less information to
specify. Conversely, a higher complexity implies a more intricate object with more information needed for
its complete description.
• Incompressibility: Objects with a Kolmogorov complexity equal to their own length are considered
incompressible. They cannot be described any more concisely than by simply listing their elements.
• Theoretical Significance: While calculating the exact Kolmogorov complexity of an object is
mathematically impossible, the concept is valuable for understanding the fundamental limits of
information compression and randomness.
Examples:
• The string "00000000" has a low Kolmogorov complexity. A simple program that repeatedly outputs "0"
eight times can generate it.
• A complex computer program has a high Kolmogorov complexity. The program itself is the shortest
possible description of its functionality.
Applications:
• Algorithmic Information Theory: Provides a theoretical framework for studying the relationship between
information, randomness, and complexity.
• Data Compression: Helps understand the theoretical limits of data compression algorithms.
• Program Verification: Can be used to analyze the complexity of programs and potentially identify
inefficiencies.
Limitations:
• Intractability: Calculating the exact Kolmogorov complexity of an object is computationally impossible for
most practical cases.
• Dependence on Reference Language: The complexity depends on the chosen universal reference
language.
Q. Define information distance from 2 strings.

Information distance, in the context of strings, refers to a metric that quantifies how different two strings are. It
essentially measures the amount of information or effort needed to transform one string into another. Here are
two common ways to define information distance between strings:
1. Edit Distance:
o This metric counts the minimum number of single-character edits (insertions, deletions, or
substitutions) required to change one string into the other.
o Common edit distance algorithms include Levenshtein distance, Damerau-Levenshtein distance,
and Hamming distance (applicable for binary strings only).
o Example: Consider strings "kitten" and "sitting". The edit distance is 3 (one substitution "k" to "s"
and two deletions of "e").
2. Information Theory-based Measures:
o These metrics leverage concepts from information theory to quantify the difference between the
probability distributions of the two strings.
o Examples include:
▪ Kullback-Leibler (KL) Divergence: Measures the directed information divergence between
the probability distributions of the two strings.
▪ Jensen-Shannon (JS) Divergence: Represents the average amount of information
divergence between the distributions of the two strings and a midpoint distribution.
o These measures are generally more complex to calculate than edit distance but can capture more
nuanced differences between strings, especially when considering character probabilities.
Choosing the appropriate information distance metric depends on your specific application:
• Edit distance is suitable when the focus is on the minimum number of edits required to transform one
string into another (e.g., spell checking, speech recognition).
• Information theory-based measures are useful when the underlying probability distributions of the
characters are important (e.g., natural language processing tasks like machine translation or document
classification).
Q. What is speech recognition system explain the components of it along with diagrammatic representation?

Speech recognition, also known as Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR), is a technology that converts spoken language into text.
It allows machines to understand and process spoken words, enabling various applications like voice assistants, dictation
software, and automated call centers. Here's a breakdown of the key components involved in a speech recognition system, along
with a diagrammatic representation:
Components:
1. Signal Acquisition:
o The process begins by capturing the speech signal using a microphone.
o This analog signal needs to be converted into a digital format suitable for further processing.
2. Preprocessing:
o The raw audio signal is preprocessed to remove noise and enhance the speech components.
o Techniques like filtering, equalization, and noise reduction are often employed.
3. Feature Extraction:
o This stage extracts meaningful features from the preprocessed audio that represent the characteristics of the
spoken sounds.
o Common features include Mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCCs) that capture the spectral information of
the speech signal.
4. Acoustic Modeling:
o This component uses statistical models to predict the likelihood of observing a specific feature sequence given a
particular phoneme (unit of sound).
o Hidden Markov Models (HMMs) are a widely used approach for acoustic modeling.
5. Language Modeling:
o A language model predicts the likelihood of a word or phrase following another word or phrase in a sequence.
o This helps to constrain the recognition process and reduce errors by considering the grammatical and statistical
probabilities of word sequences.
6. Decoder:
o The decoder combines the information from the acoustic model and the language model to determine the most
likely sequence of words that corresponds to the speech signal.
o Techniques like Viterbi algorithm or beam search are often used for decoding.
7. Output:
o The final output of the speech recognition system is the recognized text corresponding to the spoken input.
Diagrammatic Representation:
Q. Draw basic system architecture of speech recognition system and explain the same.

Here's a breakdown of a basic speech recognition system architecture along with a diagrammatic representation:
Components:
1. Signal Acquisition:
o The process starts by capturing the speech signal using a microphone.
o This analog audio signal needs to be converted into a digital format for further processing.
2. Preprocessing:
o The raw audio is preprocessed to remove noise and enhance the speech components.
o Techniques like filtering, equalization, and noise reduction are commonly used.
3. Feature Extraction:
o This stage extracts informative features from the preprocessed audio that represent the characteristics of
the spoken sounds.
o Mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCCs) are a popular choice, capturing the spectral information of the
speech signal.
4. Acoustic Modeling:
o This component uses statistical models to predict the likelihood of observing a specific feature sequence
given a particular phoneme (unit of sound).
o Hidden Markov Models (HMMs) are a widely used approach for acoustic modeling.
5. Language Modeling:
o A language model predicts the likelihood of a word or phrase following another word or phrase in a
sequence.
o This helps to constrain the recognition process and reduce errors by considering the grammatical and
statistical probabilities of word sequences.
6. Decoder:
o The decoder combines the information from the acoustic model and the language model to determine the
most likely sequence of words that corresponds to the speech signal.
o Techniques like Viterbi algorithm or beam search are often used for decoding.
7. Output:
o The final output of the speech recognition system is the recognized text corresponding to the spoken input.
Diagram:
Explanation:
1. The microphone captures the sound waves of the spoken language and converts them into an electrical
signal.
2. Preprocessing prepares the audio for further analysis by removing noise and irrelevant information.
3. Feature extraction identifies key characteristics of the speech signal, such as the energy distribution at
different frequencies (MFCCs). These features become the input for the next stages.
4. The acoustic model analyzes the features and predicts the likelihood of each phoneme sequence based
on statistical models like HMMs.
5. The language model considers the sequence of phonemes and predicts the probability of different word
sequences that could have produced those phonemes. This injects grammatical and statistical
knowledge.
6. The decoder combines the probabilities from both models to determine the most likely sequence of words
that corresponds to the speech input. Decoding algorithms like Viterbi search efficiently navigate this
process.
7. Finally, the system outputs the recognized text, representing the spoken language in written form.

Q. Write a short note on acoustic model.

Acoustic Model: The Foundation of Speech Recognition

An acoustic model (AM) is a crucial component in any speech recognition system. It acts as a bridge between the
raw audio signal and the underlying linguistic units of speech. Here's a concise overview of its role:
Function:
• Analyzes the features extracted from preprocessed speech audio.
• Predicts the likelihood (probability) of a specific sequence of phonemes (basic units of sound) given those
features.
Underlying Techniques:
• Hidden Markov Models (HMMs): A popular approach, HMMs represent phonemes as hidden states and
model the transitions between them based on the extracted features.
• Deep Learning Models: Gaining traction, deep learning architectures like convolutional neural networks
(CNNs) can learn complex relationships between features and phonemes without relying on handcrafted
models like HMMs.
Significance:
• Provides the foundation for speech recognition by translating the acoustic characteristics of speech into a
sequence of probable phonemes.
• Accuracy of the acoustic model significantly impacts the overall performance of the speech recognition
system.
Additional Notes:
• Acoustic models are trained on large amounts of speech data with corresponding phonetic transcriptions.
• The features used by the model can significantly influence its performance. Common features include
Mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCCs).
• Continuous advancements in machine learning are leading to more sophisticated acoustic models with
improved accuracy and robustness.