IB SEHS CC Answers To Theme C

Oxford Resources for IB
Sports, Exercise and Health Science Course

Companion – 2024 Edition
Answers
Theme C: Sports psychology and motor learning
Note that some of the example answers provided are longer than would be required in an exam.
Some parts of answers are given in brackets to indicate non-required learning.
C.1.1 Personality
C.1.1 Practice questions (p418)

1. a.
Markscheme
confidentiality ✔
e.g. participants have the right to confidentiality
use of results ✔
e.g. the results can be attributed to the treatment used
predicting performance ✔
e.g. error and bias will always be present in any assessment of personality
Reference to athlete not required.
Outline required.
b.
Markscheme
a positive mood is more likely to prime us to remember positive previous outcomes, and increase our confidence
to perform ✔
positive emotions can help to focus on one source of information while excluding others, screening out cues that
Oxford Resources for IB DP Sports, Exercise and Health Science 2024 Edition © Oxford University Press 2024.
interfere with performance and attending to facilitating cues ✔
a negative mood is more likely to prime us to remember negative memories of past failures, and thus reduce our
feelings of confidence to perform ✔
negative emotions, such as anxiety, can have a detrimental effect on attention (and concentration) ✔
e.g. a university student basketball player who is worried about their exam results might have less concentration
during the execution of a free throw in the last seconds of a game and this results in them missing their shot
(and their team losing the game) ✔
Accept any appropriate example.
Award max [2] if no example is given.
2.
Markscheme
social learning theory explains behaviour in terms of observational learning ‹modelling› and social reinforcement
‹feedback› ✔
Specific attitudes and behaviours toward sport and exercise are learned:
through modelling / observational learning ✔
reinforcement ✔
social comparison ✔
people’s social learning history determines their attitudes and behaviour in sport and exercise settings ✔
can have a positive / negative effect on sport and exercise behaviour ✔
sport / exercise example ✔
C.1.1 Self-study questions (p420)

1. Personality is defined as “those relatively stable and enduring aspects of individuals which
distinguish them from other people, making them unique, but at the same time permit a
comparison between individuals”. Therefore, personality is sum of characteristics (for example,
the “big five”) that make someone unique. It also means that there are stable and enduring
characteristics that form someone’s personality. While aspects of an individual’s personality can
be changed, it requires concerted effort over an extended period to do so. Finally, it means that
individuals may think, act and feel in a predisposed manner to certain social events.
2. Lewin’s interactionist equation is B=f (P,E) where behaviour (B) is a function (f) of the person
(P) and the environment (E).
(According to this interactionist view, personality is best understood as a complex, ongoing
interaction between a person and the environment in which they function.)
3. An individual with a high level of extraversion, known as an extravert, is typically outgoing and
someone who seeks out and enjoys interacting at a social level with others.
An individual with a high level of introversion, known as an introvert, is someone who enjoys
spending time on their own, undertaking activities by themselves, and who can find social
gatherings daunting and challenging to navigate.
4. Openness to experience—Those who measure highly on this trait will be more open to trying
different activities and sports and appear curious and inventive. They may enjoy putting forward
ideas or suggestions in a team setting.
Conscientiousness—Someone high in this trait will be organized, focus on details, and exhibit
high levels of goal directed behaviour. They are likely to value being instructed or coached in a
way that reflects this. Someone who is less conscientious may appear to care less about their
performance and be markedly less organized.
Extraversion—An extrovert may be eager to start conversations and get to know their
teammates and does not feel inhibited by being the centre of attention. If an extravert has
strong interpersonal skills and is socially intelligent, they can make a positive contribution to
team morale. Introverts may require more social distance in a team setting and appreciate the
opportunity to opt-in or out of certain activities.
Neuroticism—Individuals who are neurotic may be prone to excessive worry, get irritated, feel
despondent at times, and appear stressed. This can be tricky for sports coaches and PE teachers
to manage, particularly because performing can provoke many of these emotions in people who
are not normally neurotic. To help with this, a coach/PE teacher can demonstrate that they have
prepared well, can plan effectively, that aspects of someone’s performance have shown
improvement and that they have controlled what they can control.
Agreeableness—An individual high in this trait wants the group to have a harmonious
relationship and actively behaves in ways to foster this environment. Someone who is
disagreeable can put their own interests before others. Disagreeable people are known to be
competitive and can be suspicious of other people’s motives. Interestingly, both agreeable and
disagreeable people can be effective leaders in situations that suits their respective personalities.
5. Personality viewed from a social learning theory perspective is mainly cognitive because it
involves thoughts, emotions and reflection. It includes the following dimensions:
 competencies and skills
 beliefs and expectancies
 behavioural (evaluative) standards
 personal goals.
According to social learning theory, how you are perceived at a given task informs your
appreciation and impression of your own skills and competencies. You can get this information
from a number of sources. Your personality may appear different across contexts. An individual
may appear neurotic and disagreeable in one context but agreeable and open in another.
Personality can be influenced by change. Individuals can learn to improve and change their
competencies. Based on an individual’s perceived competencies, they make predictions about
how well they can perform at a given task. Individuals use criteria to judge their own evaluative
and behavioural standards and respond (emotionally and cognitively) in a satisfied or dissatisfied
manner depending on their perception of the event. Individuals construct—or learn to construct
—goals to take agency of their behaviour. This is a powerful learning tool which can influence
how you behave and think.
C.1.1 Data-based questions (p420)

1. a. Non-type D
b. Type D
2. The non-type D group eat fruit and vegetables more often, are less likely to smoke cigarettes and
take anxiety-reducing medication less often. The opposite is the case for the type D group for all
three variables.
3. Social learning theory suggests that people learn by observing and imitating the behaviour of
others. According to social learning theory, personality is shaped by a person’s expectations
about the world, the people they observe, and the environment. Individuals learn not only
specific behaviours, but also the consequences of those behaviours through observation and
learning. This can influence various aspects of personality, such as self-discipline, rule-following,
and trust in positive outcomes. Therefore, social learning theory highlights the impact of
observation and imitation on the development of personality traits (and behaviours) within a
social context. With reference to the data presented in Figure 9 and Table 2, according to social
learning theory, changing the type D dimension of personality is certainly possible. It is likely to
be facilitated by a skilled teacher, instructor or psychologist who understands how to facilitate a
change in someone’s health and exercise beliefs. While each individual is likely to require a
slightly different approach derived from social learning theory, it is likely to include challenging
one’s self concept, forming an accurate picture of what could change by developing evaluative
behavioural standards, modelling and supporting behavioural change, and goal setting.
C.1.2 Mental toughness

1.
Example answer
This argument suggests that the culture in sport is one where there is stigma associated with athlete mental
health issues. Therefore, any desire to obtain professional help is undermined by the fear of being labelled
“mentally weak”. However, the notion that mental health and mental toughness are contradictory in elite sport
may be too simplistic. A key factor for elite athletes is achieving optimal balance between preventing mental
health issues and successfully reaching optimal performance. Therefore, it could be argued that mental
toughness may facilitate the attainment of mental health. For example, interventions with elite athletes that are
marketed as targeting and enhancing their mental toughness could be used as a “hook” to attract elite athletes
into settings that can open dialogue on the importance of mental health. Given that elite athletes are not
exempt from experiencing mental health issues and may not feel comfortable seeking help for a mental health
problem, it is important to encourage help-seeking behaviours among elite athletes. Thus, while some have
suggested that mental toughness and mental health are contradictory in elite sport, others argue mental
toughness can act as a positive indicator of mental health.
2.
Example answer
When you expect something to go wrong, you are creating what is called a self-fulfilling prophecy, which means
that expecting something to happen actually helps cause it to happen. Negative self-fulfilling prophecies lead to
a vicious cycle: the expectation of failure leads to actual failure, which lowers self-image and increases
expectations of future failure. This can impact on an athlete’s performance. For example, when sports coaches
have low expectations of an athlete, it can lead to a decrease in the athlete’s motivation, self-confidence, and
their performance. Also, if a coach has low expectations of an athlete during coach-athlete interactions, the
athlete may behave in ways that confirm those expectations, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy. Therefore, it is
important for sports coaches to foster an environment that promotes positive expectations and belief in the
athletes.

1. Attributes of mental toughness include:
 self-belief
 determination
 resilience
 handling pressure
 coping skills
 remaining focussed
 persistence.
2. The relationship between mental toughness and mental health is still unclear. While some have
suggested the terms are contradictory in elite sport, others suggest mental toughness can be
associated with positive mental health outcomes, such as being associated positively with
motivation, self-efficacy, thriving, sleep quality, and psychological wellbeing, and negatively with
stress and depression. While overall findings suggest mental toughness may be beneficial, there
may be some negative aspects. For example, stubborn persistence through injury is not always
conducive to adaptive outcomes. Whilst mental toughness has the potential to help athletes
through injury, high levels have been associated with negative behaviours during rehabilitation
(for example, less adherence to recovery protocols). Self-compassion has been proposed to help
circumvent these potential pitfalls and complement the injury recovery process.
3. High-stress sporting situations can range from loss or injury, longer than usual competitions,
adverse weather conditions, unwanted attention from the media, or the need for a quick
decision or change in tactic when under pressure from the opponent. These situations require
the personal attributes that tend to be associated with the term mental toughness. Being
resilient (an aspect of mental toughness) is necessary to bounce back after a loss or injury. Being
able to endure physical and emotional discomfort and be persistent (two attributes of mental
toughness) are needed during longer matches or adverse weather conditions. A strong sense of
confidence and ability to remain focussed are needed to ignore the distraction of unwanted
media attention. Remaining composed and being flexible enough to quickly change tactic when
under pressure from an opponent are also attributes of mental toughness. In summary, mental
toughness can enable athletes to continue to perform at their optimum even when in high-stress
situations.
4. Possible characteristics include:
 confidence (has a strong sense of self-belief and wish for challenge)
 positivity (approaches challenges with optimism rather than being discouraged, and always
seeks improvement)
 composure and focus (keeps calm and focussed on the next play/point)
 resilience (bounces back from unexpected setbacks)
 flexible (can adjust quickly to a change in conditions or opponents)
 committed (keeps the goal in mind and is persistent and consistent in training).
5. In a self-fulfilling prophecy, an individual’s expectations eventually result in confirming the
expectations. For example, a football coach believes that Player A has the most potential to
succeed in the long term out of all the players on the team. This leads the football coach to give
much more feedback, encouragement, and praise to Player A than to the other players on the
team. As a result, Player A improves the most, which seems to confirm the football coach’s initial
prediction. In reality, Player A improves most not because of their higher potential, but because
they accessed more feedback and were motivated by the extra praise and encouragement.

1. Group 1 (experimental)
2. Possible answers include:
 At the two-month follow-up point (at time 3), the experimental group (Group 1) mean
mindfulness score was higher (59.2) than the control group (Group 2) mean mindfulness
score (51.2).
 At the two-month follow-up point , the experimental group mean mental toughness score
was higher (53.3) than the control group mean mental toughness score (46.2).
 In terms of changes in scores from post-intervention (time 2) to two-month follow-up, the
experimental group mean mindfulness score increased by 0.2 whereas the control group
mean mindfulness score increased by 0.6. The experimental group mean mental toughness
score increased by 1.2, whereas the control group mean mental toughness score increased
by only 0.3.
 The greater improvement observed for both mindfulness and mental toughness for the
experimental group following the mindfulness training intervention was maintained and
slightly improved at the two-month follow-up. In comparison, the control group mean scores
were lower (than the experimental group) and similar from post-intervention to the two-
month follow-up.
3. The data in Table 3 suggests that mindfulness-based programmes can be used to develop
attributes associated with “mental toughness”. However, it should be noted that as there is no
consensus on the construct of mental toughness, the validity of the measures used in
experiments needs to be met with some caution. Mindfulness-based programmes address three
aspects in athletes: attention, intentions and attitudes. Here are some examples of how it can
work. By training the skill of present-moment attention and awareness, athletes are more likely
to be able to control their emotions. This can help them, for example, stay composed and
focussed on skill execution in a critical moment. By clarifying their intentions, athletes are better
able to stay focussed on their goals when experiencing setbacks in training or competition. By
cultivating attitudes of acceptance, non-judgement and self-compassion, athletes can strengthen
their resilience. For example, they may be more able to be flexible, bounce back and manage
disappointments such as injuries or losses. Therefore, it is likely that mindfulness-based
programmes can help develop mental toughness in sports.
C.2.1 Motor learning processes

1. C
2.
Markscheme
Environment:
limit the space available to participants, e.g. in netball, have attackers and defenders in specific zones so that
players focus on their own tasks
OR
increase the space available, e.g. by decreasing the number of participants or increasing pitch/court size ✔
physical factors of the environment such as surface/weather/playing surface e.g. performing on a hard flat
surface to make it easier for performers ✔
Task:
the coach can modify the equipment to make it more challenging, e.g. using a lighter ball in field hockey to
improve first touch
OR
the coach can modify the equipment to make it easier, e.g. increase the size of the golf ball (use a tennis ball)
and the size of the golf club ✔
modify the rules e.g. no tackling allowed ✔
modify the time permitted in task ✔
Award max [2] if no examples are given

1. Variability is an important part of skill learning for several reasons:
 Variability can be used as an indicator of learning. In ecological or non-linear approaches to
skill learning, novices are thought to initially “freeze” their movements to simplify control
before gradually releasing or unfreezing their movements over time. For example, when
learning to play the piano, learners will often want to perform the same movement with
each hand, which means more limited variability, before they become able to use each hand
more independently.
 However, more traditional or linear approaches to skill learning propose that performance
becomes more consistent and less variable as skill increases. For example, a novice learning
the top-spin forehand stroke in tennis will become more consistent about where the ball
strikes on the racquet.
 Despite some differences in the interpretation of variability in evaluating learning, however,
there is increasing recognition from all perspectives that movement variability can be both
functional and healthy. Indeed, with the countless components and configurations of the
human movement system (between the cells, joints, muscles, ligaments, and so on) and the
many task and environmental factors alongside these (for example, equipment and weather
conditions), it is accepted that each movement execution will be different from the next. For
instance, this means that no two golf shots can ever be exactly the same, even if we were to
keep the conditions, hole distance, and club the same. While there will be more limited
variability for skilled performance at the time the ball is hit (because otherwise the golfer
may miss the ball), there will still be slight differences (for example, in point of contact or
grip). These differences will likely be greater at other parts of the swing, for example, when
drawing the club back at the start.
 Because variability is an inherent part of movement, it is important that learning reflects and
encourages these changing conditions to increase the learner’s capacity to adapt, while also
monitoring variability to use as an indicator of learning and performance.
2. In sporting environments, there are often many stimuli present for us to see, hear, touch, smell,
or think about. For example, opponent tactics, teammates, stadium music or anxiety about
appearance. Depending on the circumstances, some of these may be more important for
performance. Selective attention is critical for sport performance because it helps us to “zoom
in” or focus on relevant stimuli, information, or behaviours that aid performance, while filtering
out those that do not. For instance, during a basketball free throw, the shooter must learn to
selectively focus on task-relevant stimuli or actions—such as focusing in on their pre-
performance routine, executing their shot, or aiming for the basketball hoop—rather than
defensive strategy, coach instructions, defensive players, or spectator noise, which are not
relevant specifically to the free throw-shooting task.
3. The psychological refractory period refers to a “bottleneck” in cognitive resources when two
stimuli that require fast responses are presented one after another. In short, because an initial
stimulus is still being perceived and/or the response to that stimulus is still being selected or
executed, the processing of a second stimulus is put on hold until the first is completed. Possible
examples include:
 A defender reacting to an offensive player faking or feigning a pass to one teammate (the
first stimulus), which causes them to miss another offensive player cutting to the basket
(second stimulus).
 A beginner soccer player dribbling the football (first stimulus), which requires considerable
concentration when learning, so that they are slow to react and see when their teammate
becomes open for a pass and in a position to score (second stimulus).
4. Linear pedagogy refers to more traditional methods of instruction—characterized by verbal
instructions, demonstrations, and drills—to teach motor skills. It is typically underpinned by
cognitive models of skill acquisition (for example, Fitts and Posner’s 1967 three-stage model)
with performance improving uniformly over time.
Nonlinear pedagogy is related to constraints-led approaches with coaches using constraints (for
example, from the task or environment) to help learners self-organize functional or effective
movement. It is underpinned by theories of ecological psychology and dynamical systems and
emphasizes that information in the environment can be directly perceived (does not need to be
interpreted or remembered).
Coaches or instructors from both perspectives may use the same techniques (for example, verbal
instructions or cones) but for different reasons. In the real-world, the distinctions between these
two approaches are likely to be less stark with coaches using elements of both.
5. Ecological dynamics theory is a theory of motor learning/control that emphasizes perception–
action coupling (with limited role for cognition, interpretation, or memory). According to this
theory, an exercise leader could manipulate constraints to promote certain healthy movements
in a session. Therefore, ecological dynamics theory can help an exercise leader support
individuals to lead an active life by providing a framework for understanding the complex,
dynamic interactions between the individual, the environment, and the task. That is, ecological
dynamics theory offers a practical framework for exercise leaders to design training
environments and support individuals in leading an active life by understanding the interactions
between the individual and their environment.
(This theory could also be used in urban planning. For example, good design of public spaces
may afford or, indeed, promote opportunities for physical activity, such as space or features for
running, jumping and playing.)

1. a = Foreperiod (waiting time)
b = Reaction time
c = Motor time (or motor reaction time)
d = Movement time
2. When an individual participates in sport, they must respond to a stream of stimuli. If these are
well-spaced with time to respond to each stimulus in turn, reaction time seems to be unaffected.
But often a second stimulus arrives before the individual has a chance to complete, or even
initiate a response to the first stimulus.
For example, the psychological refractory period is used in basketball when a player fakes a shot.
The defender reacts to the fake shot and the actual shot. However, due to the psychological
refractory period, the defender may be unable to react in time to the actual shot because their
brain is still processing the fake shot, causing a delay in their response.
(This shows how the brain needs time to process and respond to different stimuli, which can
impact performance in fast-paced sports such as basketball, squash, soccer, hockey and
badminton).
C.2.2 Attentional control

1. A
Markscheme
selective attention involves focusing on relevant information <listening for the gun>;
selective attention involves ignoring/filtering out irrelevant information <crowd noise>;
a sprinter who is focused on the relevant information/sound of the gun is likely to have a faster response time
OR
a sprinter who ignores the irrelevant information, e.g., crowd noise, is likely to have a faster response time;
racing on a day without additional environmental factors e.g., poor weather/noisy crowd is likely to have a faster
response time;
selective attention improves with experience/training therefore a more experienced sprinter may improve their
response time;
2.

1. Dimensions include: concentration, selective attention, and divided attention.
2. Methods include:
 Effective concentration: For example, when playing badminton decide to concentrate and
focus only on one thought at a time.
 Controlled distraction: This involves directing your attention effectively to avoid distraction
undermining the successful outcome. For example, in golf direct attentional focus to
consider natural features (for example, width of fairway), hazards (for example, sand bunker
locations), and environmental factors (for example, wind direction).
 Performance goals that direct attention: Performance goals can direct attention towards
task-relevant information around desirable, relevant, and controllable outcomes. For
example, in tennis “always keep my eye on the ball during the swing”.
 Trigger words to direct attention: For example, using the words “target” and “balance”
when preparing to take a penalty shot in soccer or hockey.
 Routines to promote control of attentional resources: These can help you to focus on
relevant performance information, prevent over-thinking, and deactivate anxious thoughts.
 Mental practice: This helps anticipate distractors and prevent them from negatively
impacting performance.
3. In sports, at low levels of arousal, a performer may pick up both appropriate and inappropriate
cues. That is, the performer may be distracted by irrelevant cues. As arousal increases,
attentional focus narrows, allowing the performer to focus on relevant cues, which can lead to
improved performance. However, if arousal continues to increase, attentional narrowing may
become excessive, causing the performer to ignore important cues, which can lead to a
deterioration in performance. Therefore, there is an optimal level of arousal at which an
athlete’s performance is at its best, and this optimal level can vary from individual to individual
and across different sports.
4. External focus refers to concentration on the intended effect of a movement (for example,
motion of golf club, spin of a ball, force exerted against an object). A proximal external focus is
close to the body, while a distal external focus is far from the body. For example:
 In a study about playing darts, participants who directed their attention to the target (the
dart board)—a distal external focus—enhanced their accuracy when compared with focusing
their attention on the flight of the dart—a proximal external focus.
 Another study examined the external focus distance effect in kayakers performing wild
water racing (sprint time for a 100-metre sprint). The distal external focus was “focus on the
finish” throughout the race. This was compared with a proximal external focus of attention,
“focus on the paddle”. The distal external focus condition resulted in significantly shorter
sprint times than the proximal external focus condition. That is, the distal external focus
resulted in faster 100-metre sprint times during kayaking. This demonstrates the importance
of adopting a distal external focus, rather than proximal external focus, for athletes
performing an open, continuous skill under time pressure.
5. Various types of attentional focus are appropriate for specific sports and activities. This has led
to viewing attentional focus along two dimensions: width (broad or narrow) and direction
(external or internal).
 A broad attentional focus allows a person to perceive several occurrences simultaneously.
This is important in sports where athletes are competing in a rapidly changing environment
where they must respond to multiple cues. For example, an ice hockey player dribbling the
puck along the ice, avoiding and moving past opponents and trying to shoot at goal.
 A narrow attentional focus occurs when you respond to only one or two cues. For example,
a focus on the flight of the shuttlecock when playing badminton.
 An external attentional focus directs attention outwards. For example, focus on an
opponent’s movements in baseball.
 An internal attentional focus is directed inwards to thoughts and feelings. For example,
when a high jumper prepares to start their run-up.

1. Internal focus of attention—group 1.
2. 12.8−7.7=5.1
3. Discussion points include:
 Practicing both internal and external focus of attention can help improve stability/balance in
older individuals over time.
 An initial external focus of attention appears to have slightly lower stability/balance than an
internal focus of attention.
 With practice over four weeks, an external focus of attention improves stability/balance
more than an internal focus of attention.
 Four weeks of practice improves anterior-posterior stability more for both groups compared
to the improvement shown for their medial-lateral stability.
 Over four weeks of practice, the stability score showing the least improvement was the
medial-lateral stability score for the group with internal focus of attention.
 The data from this study show how apparently minor variations (focus on hand compared to
focus on glass) in the individual’s focus of attention can impact postural stability.
C.3.1 Achievement motivation
C.3.1 Practice question (p501)
Example answer
Need achievement theory is an interactional view that considers both personal and situational factors as
important predictors of behaviour. Five components make up this theory:
1. Personality factors. Individuals have two underlying achievement motives—to achieve success and to avoid
failure.
2. Situational factors. Individuals consider the probability of success in the situation and the incentive value of
success. For example, situations that offer a 50–50 chance of succeeding provide high achievers the most
incentive.
3. Resultant tendencies. High achievers seek out challenges because they enjoy competing against others of
equal ability or performing tasks that are not too easy or too difficult. Low achievers opt for easy tasks where
success is guaranteed or for unrealistically hard tasks, where failure is almost certain and no one expects
them to win.
4. Emotional reactions. This relates to how much pride and shame an athlete experiences. High achievers focus
more on pride, whereas low achievers focus more on shame (and worry).
5. Achievement-related behaviours. This component considers how the other four components interact to
influence behaviour.

1. Motivation is a complex phenomenon so there are multiple possible definitions. One definition
of motivation is “the direction and intensity of effort, especially the direction and intensity of
one’s effort across time”.
2. Theories of motivation include:
 intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
 need achievement theory
 goal orientation theory.
(Also accept others such as cognitive evaluation theory.)
3. The “additive principle” suggests that intrinsic motivation can be boosted by extrinsic
motivators.
4. Task-oriented goals are centred around the belief that effort leads to success, and the focus is
on the intrinsic value of progress. Ability is shown by developing new skills, improving level of
competence, or achieving a sense of mastery.
Ego-oriented goals focus on one’s ability and sense of self-worth. Ability is shown by doing
better than others, surpassing the norm, or achieving success with little effort.
5. A high ego orientation is characterized by a strong emphasis on outperforming others and
gaining recognition, often leading to a focus on winning and a fear of failure.
On the other hand, a low ego orientation involves less concern about outperforming others and
seeking external validation, and a greater emphasis on personal development, learning, and
mastery. Athletes with a low ego orientation are more likely to be intrinsically motivated and
focused on self-improvement rather than comparison with others.
6. A high ego orientation in sports can lead to anxiety because it makes athletes overly focused on
winning, being better than others, and seeking approval. This intense focus on external
validation and performance can create pressure and fear of failure, which in turn can lead to
anxiety. Athletes with a high ego orientation may worry a lot about not meeting expectations,
making mistakes, or losing, which can negatively impact their mental well-being and
performance.

1. 12 years old age group
2. 14 years old age group: 4.1−2.8=1.3
3. Possible comparison points include:
 The task motivational climate was highest in the 12 years old age group at the beginning of
the year.
 The task motivational climate at the beginning of the year lowered with increasing age.
 At the beginning of the year, the ego motivational climate was lower than the task
motivational climate for all age groups.
 The ego motivational climate did not change from the 12 years old age group to the 14 years
old age group , whereas the task motivational climate lowered with increasing age, from 4.0
to 3.6 to 3.5.
 At the end of the year, the ego motivational climate was lower for all age groups in
comparison with the task motivational climate.
 At the end of the year, the ego motivational climate increased with increasing age, from 2.4
to 2.5 to 2.7, whereas the task motivational climate lowered from 3.8 to 3.5 from 12 years to
13 years, and then did not change from 13 years to 14 years (remained at 3.5).
 The standard deviations were similar across age groups for both task and ego motivational
climate.
 Overall, the task motivational climate was consistently higher than ego motivational climate
across all age groups.
4. Possible discussion points include:
 The motivational climate is the social environment created by the physical education (PE)
teacher (and peers) and which students perceive.
 A mastery-based motivational climate reflects an individualistic reward structure (personal
improvement through effort) and is characterized by effort-based goals and rewards as well
as learning and improvement.
 A performance-based climate reflects competitive reward structures (comparison of
performance to others), emphasizes social comparison, and rewards students for out-
performing others.
 Where PE teachers create a mastery motivational climate, intrinsic and self-determined
forms of motivation are more likely.
 Within PE, it has long been proposed that the implementation of TARGET principles will aid
PE teachers in creating a mastery climate and, in turn, enhance enjoyment of PE lessons.
Manipulating TARGET structures to be mastery focused has been found to improve students’
motivation in and enjoyment of PE lessons.
C.3.2 Self-determination

1.
Markscheme
perception of competence enables them to perceive benefits of training;
perception of autonomy means they are able to do something they find personally satisfying;
perceived relatedness means they enjoy engaging with their social circle / team at training;
2.
Example answer
(Refugees are people who have been forced to relocate from their home country. They may arrive in their host
country after migration through other countries or living in refugee camps for significant periods amidst
hazardous conditions. Among other things, refugees can experience and/or witness violence, torture, injury,
imprisonment, and homelessness. One of the most vulnerable groups of refugees is female youth, who must
cope with identity disruption, making social connections with peers and adults, adapting to a new school system
and possible learning a new language.)
Sport and physical education (PE) offer potential support for those from refugee backgrounds to help cope with
various resettlement challenges. Many of the benefits of sport, exercise, and physical activity are similar to the
factors that help refugees better resettle in their host country, including enhanced autonomy, a sense of
belonging, connections with peers and adults, and resilience. For example, autonomy can help to protect against
negative psychological outcomes and can be fostered by autonomy-supportive coaches and PE teachers. Feeling
a sense of belonging can also aid resettlement and could be a product of group physical activity participation (for
example, in a sports team or in a PE class). Additionally, social support from peers and adults (for example,
sports coaches and PE teachers) is crucial for psychological well-being and adaptation. In sport and PE,
supportive environments that welcome refugees are more conducive to positive physical activity experiences.
Those from refugee backgrounds may benefit from opportunities to be autonomous, learn in sports and PE in a
non-judgmental environment, and connect with teammates/classmates. For example, to facilitate choice and
autonomy, PE teachers and coaches could provide refugees with leadership opportunities and coach decision-
making skills. Sports coaches/PE teachers could also have participants choose a skill to focus on first, like
shooting, passing, or dribbling. For those with limited control over their situation, an autonomy-supportive
environment could increase motivation and well-being.

1. The six types of motivation according to the different degree of self-determination from non-
regulatory to intrinsic are amotivation, external regulation, introjected regulation, identified
regulation, integrated regulation, and intrinsic motivation.
2. Integrated regulation is the most autonomous and internalized form of extrinsic motivation. This
occurs when personally endorsed behaviours become coherent with other dimensions of the
self.
On the other hand, introjected regulation refers to behaviour that is internally controlled or self-
imposed, such as acting out of feelings of guilt avoidance. It is characterized by feelings of
internalized pressure, such as “I should…”.
3. An autonomy-supportive coaching style prioritizes the athlete’s autonomy over controlling
behaviours, emphasising the importance of providing choices, encouraging self-initiation, and
acknowledging the athlete’s perspective. It has been observed that such a style can cultivate
self-determined motivation, improve psychological well-being, and enhance sports performance,
thereby creating an environment conducive to positive youth development. An autonomy-
supportive coaching style, which encourages athletes’ self-initiation and decision-making,
promotes intrinsic motivation, satisfaction of basic psychological needs, and leads to positive
outcomes.
A controlling coaching style pressures athletes to act, think, or feel in specific and prescribed
ways. It is characterized by dictating athletes’ practice routines and using disciplinary measures
for motivation, was common. This approach is increasingly viewed as detrimental to athletes’
intrinsic motivation and psychological needs, thereby affecting their overall performance and
well-being.
4. Self-determination theory is best suited to explain exercise behaviours as different people
exercise for different reasons and thus different types of motivation. There are also different
levels of motivation (high versus low). For example, some people participate in exercise because
they truly enjoy the activity (intrinsic motivation), some people exercise to lose weight or avoid
being labelled as lazy or unfit (introjected), some people exercise because they know that
exercise can bring about healthy body and mind (identified) and some exercise to avoid nagging
or scolding from significant others (external). Understanding the different types of motivation
allows for prediction of the outcomes such as enjoyment, effort exertion, boredom, and
persistence in the activity.
5. The inherent nature of sport participation offers joy, interest, satisfaction and excitement. Many
young people participate in sport mostly due to intrinsic motivation. When young athletes get
involved with training and competition, there are many factors that could decrease their intrinsic
motivation due to the sport context, such as coaches, rewards, status, parental pressure and the
nature of competition. In other words, the three psychological needs are not being satisfied and
could be frustrated. This will decrease the intrinsic motivation of the young athlete and, at the
same time, increase their extrinsic motivation. It is therefore important for people who work
with young athletes to know and understand self-determination theory so that they can provide
an autonomy-supportive environment and coaching style to satisfy the three psychological
needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness. When young athletes are autonomously
motivated, they show greater persistence, higher engagement, improved performance and
enhanced well-being. They are therefore less likely to dropout or experience burnout and
negative effects.

1. Dropout players
2. Difference = 6.98−6.58=0.40
3. The scores for competence in both groups seem to be similar but the relatedness scores for the
persistent players is much higher than the dropout players.
4. The needs satisfaction for autonomy and relatedness are much higher in the persistent players
compared to the dropout players, although the need for competence is similar on both groups.
Therefore, the persistent players have higher intrinsic motivation in soccer and therefore are
more likely to continue in the sport. The dropout players (thinking of stopping playing) have
lower intrinsic motivation with lower scores for relatedness and autonomy (but similar scores for
competence).
C.3.3 Motivational climate
Example answer
If the PE teacher places more emphasis on effort, improvement/individual improvement, learning, cooperation,
and self-referenced goals during the lesson, then a mastery climate develops. In contrast, if the PE teacher
emphasizes normative comparison, competition, winning, and other-referenced goals, then an ego motivational
climate develops. For example, a PE teacher who praises students for their effort and improvement during their
basketball lesson, rather than just their performance, fosters a mastery climate. On the other hand, a PE teacher
who mainly rewards and praises only the best performers during the basketball lesson is promoting an ego
motivational climate.

1. Goal orientations are a measure of an individual’s dispositional tendency to be task/mastery or
ego oriented. Individuals can be high in both, low in both, or high in one and low in the other, as
they are independent constructs. Although there is some evidence that goal orientations can be
influenced over time, they are relatively stable and unlikely to change in the short term.
Motivational climate is an individual’s perception of the climate/learning environment created
by the teacher, coach, peers, or parents and guardians.
Consistent with task and ego goal orientations, two climates have been found to be dominant in
sport and educational environments: a performance (ego) climate and a mastery (task) climate.
In a performance climate, comparison with others is the most important source of information
for self-evaluation. The focus is on winning. In a mastery climate, performance is evaluated in
terms of personal mastery and improvement and not in comparison to others.
2. To create a mastery climate teachers and coaches can emphasize personal progress and self-
referenced improvement, whilst de-emphasizing comparisons and competition with others.
Manipulating the task, authority, recognition, grouping, evaluation, and time structures
(TARGET) in achievement situations, to be mastery focused has been found to improve
participants’ motivation. The pedagogical strategies to create a mastery climate are identified in
the answer to question 3.
3. Task—self-referenced goals, differentiated for different abilities
Authority—students given leadership roles and involved in decision-making
Recognition— private recognition of improvement and effort
Grouping— mixed ability and cooperative groups
Evaluation— self-referenced, private consultations with teacher based on improvement and
effort scores
Time— flexible time for task completion
4. If teachers have a good understanding of motivational climate, they will be aware that defining
success in their lessons in a mastery way, by emphasising pupils’ self-referenced effort and
improvement, is inclusive of all pupils and allows everyone to be successful. If, however, success
is defined as being the best in comparison to others, only one pupil can succeed at any one point
in time. If pupils feel successful and competent in PE lessons, they are more likely to exert effort
and to be physically active in lessons, and subsequently in their own time.
5. In achievement situations, like PE lessons, individuals aim to demonstrate competence and to
avoid demonstrating incompetence. An ego involving motivational climate is one where the
participants perceive the focus to be on competing against others to outperform them and
comparing their ability with others. If perceptions of ability are high, and the participant thinks
that they have a good chance of winning, they are more likely to exert effort and attribute any
success to high ability. However, when perceptions of ability are low, participants are more likely
to withdraw effort (or disrupt the lesson) in an attempt to avoid demonstrating incompetence in
comparison with others.

a. i. Student 1—high task, high ego
ii. Student 2—low task, high ego
iii. Student 3—high task, low ego
b. i. Mean ego = 3.66
ii. Mean task = 3.88
c. i. Student 2
ii. Because they are judging their ability against others and basing their judgment on the results
rather than their performance.
C.4.1 Arousal and anxiety

1.
Markscheme
Appropriate examples include:
pounding heart;
increased sweating / sweaty palms;
dry throat/mouth;
shakes;
butterflies in stomach;
2.
Markscheme
the optimum level of arousal for the weightlifter will tend to be high
OR
initially as arousal increases performance increases «to an optimum level» ✔
above this level of arousal their performance will tend to deteriorate again ✔
there will be individual differences in optimal arousal ✔
a weightlifter feeling under aroused will tend to perform poorly ✔
Award [1 max] for labelled graph

[2 max]

1. a. Stress: a response to environmental stressor involving interaction between the individual
and environment (which may not necessarily be negative).
b. Arousal: the immediate fight/flight response typically characterized by heightened activation
of sympathetic nervous system. (“Typically” because sometimes aspects of parasympathetic
system may be activated. For example, when heart is slowed or stopped causing dizziness
and fainting when shocked).
c. Anxiety: a subjective evaluation of a situation concerning jeopardy to one’s self-esteem
during performance or social situations, physical danger, or insecurity and uncertainty.
(Note that anxiety is multidimensional—cognitive and somatic. Cognitive anxiety, also
known as ‘worry’, is a chain of thoughts and images that causes negative emotions and is
relatively uncontrollable).
2. Selye’s idea of a “non-specific threat response” does not appear to hold true because it was
based on the concept that the body’s response to stress is the same regardless of the source of
the stress. However, research has shown that the body’s response to stress is more complex and
can vary depending on the specific nature of the stressor. For example, the body’s response to a
physical threat may involve the “fight-or-flight” response, while the response to a long-term
psychological stressor may involve different physiological mechanisms. This suggests that the
body’s response to stress is not entirely non-specific, but can be influenced by the nature of the
stressor. For example, when encountering a stressor, the body evaluates the potential threat and
determines the most effective way to manage it. The body’s immediate physiological reaction to
a threatening situation is activated, which is analogous to the fight-or-flight response. However,
the subsequent stage in the process likely involves the body’s efforts to counteract the
physiological changes and, if the stressor persists, this can, for example, lead to exhaustion. This
process demonstrates that the body’s response to stress is not non-specific, but rather involves a
series of complex physiological adaptations that can vary depending on the nature and duration
of the stressor. Thus, humans think about the nature of stressors which influence how they
respond. This individual interpretation is referred to as “transactional model” meaning that
different individuals may interpret differently and respond differently.
3. The three main criticisms are:
 Critics question if optimal arousal always occurs at the mid-point of the curve. They argue
that one curve does not explain the different optimal levels of arousal needed for simple and
complex tasks. For instance, fine movements and complex skills may require a different level
of arousal compared to tasks that require a high level of arousal, such as tackling in
American football.
 The theory does not account for the different optimal levels of arousal needed for various
sports or activities. Each sport may require a different peak performance arousal level. For
example, a boxer may have a different optimal arousal level compared to a snooker player.
The theory does not adequately address this specificity of arousal levels for different
activities.
 The theory suggests that performance gradually improves or declines with arousal levels.
However, this is not always the case, as sudden drops in performance can occur. (This has
led to the development of alternative theories, such as catastrophe theory, to better explain
these sudden changes in performance.)
Other major criticisms include:
 Real world performances are often comprised of several components, so performance is
multi-faceted.
 Arousal is not accurately defined as different elements may change independently of each
other.
4. a. Physiology: heart rate increase, sweating increase
b. Biochemistry: epinephrine and cortisol concentrations increases
c. Emotions (feelings): nervous, excited
d. Cognitions (thoughts): worry, threat/challenge
e. Behaviour: want to go to the toilet, tremors
5. Issues include:
 Cognition is critical feature in stress and anxiety. Therefore, aspects of self-report must be
included within research to comprehend the “transaction”, through cognitive appraisal, that
is taking place.
 It is important to combine data from different measurement types and see where they
converge to improve confidence in findings.

1.
2. 21.25 (arousal increasing) and 12.75 (arousal decreasing)

3. Arousal was increasing.
4. Performance (basketball shot score) significantly decreases, from 24.00 to 11.37 (more than 50%
reduction).
5. Basketball scores increased progressively from max−40 to max−10, and then decreased
significantly. The highest basketball score was 24. This highest score was achieved at
max−10intensity and was increasing up to that point. Above max−10 (from max−10to
maximum) there was a significant decline in basketball shot performance scores. Therefore, this
data suggests that the best physical arousal for performing in high-anxiety conditions is
max−10.
C.4.2 Coping

1.
Example answer
Problem-focused coping involves efforts to alter or manage the problem that is causing the stress for the
individual concerned. Emotion-focused coping entails regulating the emotional responses to the problem that
causes stress for the individual. An example of problem-focused coping in sort is an athlete using mental imagery
as part of their planning and preparing for a competition to address the stressor. An example of emotion-
focused coping is an athlete seeking emotional support and using relaxation techniques to deal with
performance anxiety.
2.
Example answer
(All sports participants demand high-quality officiating. This can lead to pressure on officials to always “get it
right.” The cognitive and physical demands are challenging and a source of stress and anxiety. Acute stressors
such as making an error, receiving verbal abuse from coaches, athletes, or spectators, and being evaluated by an
assessor/evaluator are often experienced during athletic competition. This stressful context may affect the
official’s emotional well-being, job satisfaction, and performance. They therefore need coping strategies to help
deal with the stress and anxiety. Sports officiating requires maintaining concentration and attentional focusing,
vigilance, and heightened arousal. Sports officials are required to maintain vigilance over complex activities and
player interactions. When sports officials are exposed to high levels of acute stress, however, they often engage
in introspective thoughts and self-talk, thereby compromising these cognitive processes. The result can be
slower reactions, poorer external focusing on the contest/game/event, and poorer officiating performance. It is
essential, therefore, for sports officials to maintain optimal cognitive functioning by successfully managing
stressful events that are inherent in competitive sport. Stress is inherent in sports officiating due to the
perception of athletes, coaches and spectators that sports officials can commit errors and cause injustice, usually
by applying a rule inaccurately or unfairly, or by making a “ wrong” call. This stress can lead to anxiety and to
poor performance by sports officials. If the sports officials have ineffective coping the result can be slower
information processing, less accurate decision-making, burnout and, eventually, quitting officiating. It is argued
that effective coping strategies among sports officials will likely reduce stress, foster effective officiating
performance, and reduce the rate of dropping out from sports officiating.)
Sports officiating is a potentially stressful activity. Examples of sources of stress leading to anxiety include:
making a wrong decision; verbal abuse by players/coaches; verbal abuse by spectators; and arguing with
players/coaches. There are some effective responses to stress and anxiety, which are integral to the coping
process of officials. For example, preventive officiating, is a game-management strategy that enables the sports
official/referee/umpire to allow the contest to progress with as little interference as possible. For instance, a
basketball referee may announce to a player “watch your hands” rather than call a foul and therefore interrupt
the flow of the game. Preventive officiating may help reduce stress and anxiety in sports officials.
Other strategies include avoidance coping and approach coping. Approach coping consists, primarily, of actively
processing the stressful situation and thinking about ways to deal with it and is usually most effective when the
stressor must be confronted quickly. The sports official who argues with a coach who disagrees with an
officiating decision is using approach coping. Avoidance coping, on the other hand, consists of ignoring or
reinterpreting the stressful situation, or reducing its importance. For example, the game official who “allows”
the coach or player to express disappointment, even anger, in response to the call is using avoidance coping.
However, it is important for the sports official to remain fair and unbiased during acute stress moments. Another
coping strategy that could be employed by sports coaches is focusing on the task at hand and ignoring or
psychologically distance themselves from the emotional outbursts and abusive comments by players, coaches,
and/or spectators.
An example of a problem-focused coping strategy is when a sports official tries to manage the situation of abuse,
by explaining their contentious decision or to warn the person that was becoming abusive either verbally or
nonverbally (for example, nod of the head, serious look). An emotion-focused coping strategy could also be used
by a sports official, where they aim to manage the provoked stress by distancing themselves from their own
emotions, creating a “bubble” or “shell”. This would involve the sports official being neutral in all circumstances,
staying confident in their knowledge and abilities as an official, and/or to concentrating on the task at hand.
Other sports officials use humour as a coping strategy to diminish the “drama” of the potentially stressful
situation.

1. Coping refers to constantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage specific
external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the
person.
2. Initially, in the primary appraisal phase, the individual evaluates whether the situation is
relevant to them, and if so, whether it is stressful. If the situation or event is evaluated as
stressful, the individual appraises what kind of stressor is involved. This may be a past stressor—
something that has happened (for example, experiencing a defeat in a competition) or a future
stressor—something the individual is anticipating might happen.
This is followed by the secondary appraisal phase, in which the individual evaluates whether
they are able to control the transactional relationship between themselves and the environment.
In addition, the individual assesses whether their coping resources are sufficient to meet the
demands. Resources might include specific skills, strategies, social support, experience,
knowledge, organizational factors, time and money.
3. Self-talk can be expressed internally or out loud where the sender of the message is also the
receiver. Examples of self-talk might be “I can do this” or “there is no way I can do this”. With
endurance tasks, two key mechanisms have been proposed through the psychobiological model
of endurance performance: the increase in motivation to perform, which is described as the
maximum effort an individual is willing to exert in order to succeed in the task, and the
regulation of perceived exertion, which determines the conscious decision of individuals to
terminate effort. With endurance running motivational self-talk can be used to cope with a range
of factors such as perceived exertion (a key determinant of endurance performance), blister
discomfort, adverse conditions, and mental fatigue. Self-talk strategies can help a runner manage
the demands of an endurance run by influencing their thoughts and performance. For example,
using self-talk in the second person, such as addressing oneself as “you”, can provide a distanced
perspective, promoting clearer thinking, better choices, and enhanced performance during the
endurance run. Therefore, self-talk can be used to shift attention from negative thoughts during
the endurance run to more productive and present-focused cues, helping the runner stay
motivated and maintain good form during the endurance run. By practicing and implementing
self-talk plans, a runner can effectively combat negative thoughts and improving their
performance during an endurance run. Therefore, using self-talk strategies, such as motivational
and instructional cues, can help an individual stay focused, regulate their feelings, and perform
better during the demands of an endurance run.
4. Learning how to manage the demands of sport or exercise can benefit individuals by developing
transferable life skills. These skills include the ability to perform under pressure, be organized,
meet challenges, communicate with others, and handle both success and failure. Research has
shown that skills learned in sports, such as teamwork, goal setting, problem solving, decision
making, leadership, time management, and self-discipline, can be transferred to other areas of
life. For example, participating in sports can help individuals improve their cardiovascular
function, aerobic and metabolic fitness, reduce adiposity, and enhance their postural balance,
which are beneficial for overall health and well-being. Additionally, sports can help individuals
learn how to balance multiple responsibilities, manage their time effectively, and handle the
pressure of competing, which are valuable skills in various aspects of life, including work and
personal relationships. Therefore, learning to manage the demands of sport or exercise can
contribute to the development of important life skills that can be applied in different areas of
life.
5. Emotion-focused coping strategies attempt to manage the emotional consequences of the
stressor (emotion). For example, listening to your favourite music during the warm-up for a
basketball game.
Problem-focused coping strategies attempt to influence the person–situation relationship
(problem). For example, seeking guidance from your trampoline coach to improve take-off
technique for a forward somersault.

1. a. Imagery
b. Seeking support
2. Group 1 had the lowest effect of coping and group 3 the highest effect of coping using relaxation
as a coping strategy. Increasing level of resilience was associated with more effective coping
when using relaxation as a coping strategy.
The lowest variability using relaxation as a coping strategy was in group 1 and the highest
variability was in group 3. Increasing variability when using relaxation as a coping strategy is
associated with increasing level of resilience.
3. Possible discussion points include:
 In the low resilience group, the most effective coping strategy is seeking support, and the
least effective coping strategy is relaxation.
 In the medium resilience group, the most effective coping strategy is imagery, and the least
effective coping strategy is relaxation.
 In the high resilience group, the most effective coping strategy is imagery, and the least
effective coping strategy is seeking support.
 The coping strategy that increased effectiveness the most from the low resilience group to
the high resilience group was imagery, with an increase of 0.59.
 Comparison of similar data shows an increase of 0.49 for relaxation, a decline of 0.04 for
seeking support, and an increase of 0.11 for logical analysis.
 Seeking support as a coping strategy is more effective when moving from a low resilience
level to a medium resilience level, but then declines to its least effectiveness with the high
resilience group.
 Logical analysis as a coping strategy shows the least variability out of the four strategies with
the low resilience and medium resilience groups, whereas the strategy with the least
variability for the high resilience group was using imagery as a coping strategy.
 In summary, it seems reasonable to suggest that the data shows using imagery as a coping
strategy is most effective with adult athletes who have higher levels of resilience, and
seeking social support is most effective with low resilience adult athletes.
C.5.1 Goal setting

1.
Markscheme
e.g. personal best ✔
Accept any appropriate example containing reference to judgement against a self-referenced numeric value.
2.
Example answer
Some athletes feel less satisfied when a difficult goal is achieved than when an easier goal is achieved. This
phenomenon—which seems counter-intuitive—is known as the goal-setting paradox. One explanation is that,
once the higher goal has been attained, the athlete may feel deflated with a negative mood state (a subjective
outcome where the athlete feels low).
Consider the example of an injured athlete, where goal-setting negotiation during recovery from injury between
the athlete and their coach is involved. The goal-setting paradox should encourage the coach to question their
goal-setting approaches with their athletes. Should they set higher goals but face the possibility of the athlete
feeling deflated once the goal is met, or should they set lower goals that could result in the athlete feeling
better? From an injury recovery perspective, this is important because coaches working with athletes have a
duty of care to preserve and optimize the athlete’s sense of well-being.
Therefore, the dilemma for athletes and their coaches is as follows. Should athletes and coaches set higher goals
and risk the athletes feeling worse if they do not achieve those tough goals and or the athlete can feel
disappointed that they are not good enough? Or should the athlete and coach set lower, more achievable goals
that can make athletes feel better because they are more likely to achieve them, which can boost their
confidence and make them feel successful?
Athletes and coaches have to find the right balance between setting challenging goals that push the athlete to
improve and setting goals that the athlete can realistically achieve, helping the athlete feel good about their
progress and keeping the athlete motivated to train and compete.

1. Goal setting works by helping athletes to:
 Direct their action by focussing their attention.
 Increase effort and intensity.
 Encourage persistence.
 Promote new task or problem-solving strategies.
2. Olympic athletes might use process, performance, and/or outcome goals.
3. Guidelines for setting effective goals include having:
 specific goals
 moderately difficult but realistic goals
 both short-term and long-term goals with clear stepping stones to success
 a combination of process, performance and outcome goals
 both training and competition goals
 goals recorded and getting regular feedback on progress
 strategies to achieve goals
 individual commitment and adequate support.
4. The goal-setting paradox is where people who set more challenging goals for themselves do
better but feel worse. In other words, the high goals they set lead to better objective outcomes
but worse subjective outcomes.
5. Open goals are open-ended and exploratory in nature. For example, “see how quickly you can
run 100 metres”.
“Do your best” goals can be seen as a more specific type of goal that is tied to a previous
performance. For example, a goal to “do your best” playing a round of golf may be perceived as
doing as well as, or better than yesterday’s round.

1. 6.11−2.44=3.67
2. For the process goals group, the score for enjoyment increased by 0.1 from pre to post.
However, for the outcome group and control group there was a reduction in enjoyment from pre
to post by 3.03 and 1.01 respectively.
3. Enjoyment is a very similar concept to intrinsic motivation, so the data from this study shows
that goal setting can impact on someone’s enjoyment, therefore their intrinsic motivation.
However, goal setting does not always have a positive effect. The data from this study shows that
setting goals using “process goals” has a negligible (very small) positive effect on enjoyment, but
setting goals using “outcome goals” has a larger negative effect on enjoyment. This is in
comparison to the “no goal setting” control group, which seems to have a small negative effect
on enjoyment across the intervention. In summary, goal setting can be useful if it is carried out
appropriately. However, it can have detrimental effects if carried out poorly.
C.5.2 Imagery

1.
Markscheme
concentration enhancement ✔
higher self-confidence ✔
more effective skill acquisition ✔
better emotional control / reduce anxiety / increase relaxation ✔
improved practice strategy ✔
better coping with pain and injury ✔
2.
Example answer
The PETTLEP model of imagery takes into account many different domains for increasing the performance of
athletes. These domains include physical features, the environment, task-related aspects, timing, learning,
emotion, and perspective. By including these elements in their imagery practice, athletes can make the images in
their minds more similar to real experiences. This can help athletes feel more prepared, confident, and ready to
perform, all of which can help athletes perform better in their sport.
Physical component—To make the experience as realistic as possible, imagery interventions should incorporate
elements such as possible implements and appropriate clothing for the practiced sport. For example, a
basketball player would imagine being dressed in their basketball kit with the basketball in their hand.
Environment component—Although the distinct components of the model have an effect taken one by one, a
greater benefit is obtained by including more of them. For example, wearing hockey clothing and performing
imagery on the hockey pitch will improve hockey performance more compared to performing imagery at home
with everyday clothing.
Task component—The imagined task should resemble the real performance of such a task, that is, imagery
integrated with physical/technical training. For example, combining imagery with physical/technical practice to
improve jumping skills in rhythmic gymnastics.
Timing component—The sport performance action should be imaged at the correct speed to improve
performance.
Learning component—Imagery content should be adapted to the stage of learning of the athlete to enhance
learning and skill performance. For example, as a novice soccer player progresses and masters a skill, they should
adapt the imagery to reflect their improvement in performance.
Emotion—For imagery to be efficient in improving sport performance, it should be based on positive images.
That is, the athlete should imagine performing the movement in a successful and rewarding way. For example,
successfully hitting a winning shot in badminton.
Perspective component—Perspective refers to the way imagery is viewed. Kinaesthetic imagery is characterized
by an internal and first-person view of the performer. Visual imagery can be internal (first person) or external
(third person), depending on if the athlete is imagining performing the task from their eye perspective or as from
a distance. It may be beneficial for athletes to combine alternative perspectives together instead of using
preferentially only one. For example, a first-person perspective may be more beneficial for tackling in American
football, whereas a third person might be better for tasks where form and positioning are important such as
heading the ball in soccer.

1. Internal imagery is imagining something happening as if watching through one’s own eyes.
External imagery is imagining something happening as if watching it on a television.
2. Imagery can be used to think about how you might plan for, stay calm and focussed during, or
overcome difficult situations. It could also be used to imagine carrying out or learning a skill or
strategy. Finally, it might also be used to motivate yourself by imaging being successful, or to
illicit relaxation or to raise energy levels.
3. According to Lang’s bio-informational theory (1977) imagery works because imagining doing
something can activate similar neural networks and response characteristics (for example,
physiological activity, resulting behaviours) as actually doing the activity. This allows certain
behaviours and reactions associated with real experiences to be strengthened or modified with
imagery use.
4. The acronym PETTLEP stands for Physical, Environment, Task, Timing, Learning, Emotion,
Perspective.
5. The PETTLEP imagery guidelines help athletes to include all the key elements that have been
associated with effective imagery. The PETTLEP model is based on the theory of functional
equivalence. This means many of the factors shown to be useful in physical practice should also
be applied in imagery practice. The acronym PETTLEP highlights each of the elements that should
be attended to when designing imagery interventions. For example, the “P” for “Physical”
highlights that the physical nature of the imagery is dependent upon the task. You must
determine whether relaxation or increased arousal is beneficial prior to imaging.

1. 20–21 years age group
2. The mean KI scores for each of the age groups decreased progressively from high to low, from
the youngest to the oldest age groups. The youngest age group (12 to 13 years) had the highest
mean of 2.61, and the oldest age group (20 to 21 years) had the lowest mean of 2.01.
3. Discussion points include:
 The average scores for external visual imagery and internal visual imagery are somewhat
variable as the athletes get older, but after an initial increase, mean values drop back again.
 The average scores for external visual imagery ability are similar between 12 to 13-year-olds
and 20 to 21 year-olds (2.53 and 2.50 respectively).
 While for internal visual imagery ability, the 20 to 21-year-olds have a lower mean score
compared to the 12 to 13-year-olds (−0.21 points).
 Finally, there is a clear and progressive reduction in kinaesthetic imagery ability from 12 to
13 years to 20 to 21 years (−0.60 points).

IB SEHS CC Answers To Theme C

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Oxford Resources for IB

Sports, Exercise and Health Science Course

C.1.1 Practice questions (p418)

C.1.1 Self-study questions (p420)

C.1.1 Data-based questions (p420)

C.1.2 Mental toughness

C.1.2 Practice questions (p441)

C.1.2 Self-study questions (p443)

C.1.2 Data-based questions (p443)

C.2.1 Motor learning processes

C.2.1 Practice questions (p473)

C.2.1 Self-study questions (p475)

C.2.1 Data-based questions (p475)

C.2.2 Attentional control

C.2.2 Practice questions (p489)

C.2.2 Self-study questions (p491)

C.2.2 Data-based questions (p491)

C.3.1 Achievement motivation

C.3.1 Practice question (p501)

C.3.1 Self-study questions (p503)

C.3.1 Data-based questions (p503)

C.3.2 Practice questions (p513)

C.3.2 Self-study questions (p515)

C.3.2 Data-based questions (p515)

C.3.3 Practice questions (p521)

C.3.3 Self-study questions (p523)

C.3.3 Data-based questions (p523)

C.4.1 Arousal and anxiety

C.4.1 Practice questions (p545)

Award [1 max] for labelled graph

C.4.1 Self-study questions (p547)

C.4.1 Data-based questions (p547)

2. 21.25 (arousal increasing) and 12.75 (arousal decreasing)

C.4.2 Practice questions (p569)

C.4.2 Self-study questions (p571)

C.4.2 Data-based questions (p571)

C.5.1 Goal setting

C.5.1 Practice questions (p587)

C.5.1 Self-study questions (p589)

C.5.1 Data-based questions (p589)

C.5.2 Practice questions (p595)

C.5.2 Self-study questions (p597)

C.5.2 Data-based questions (p597)

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