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Introduction to Geographic Information System (GIS)

1.1. Definition and Basic Concept of GIS

A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer system for capturing, storing,

checking, and displaying data related to positions on Earth’s surface. GIS can show many
different kinds of data on one map, such as streets, buildings, and vegetation. This
enables people to more easily see, analyses, and understand patterns and relationships.

In other words, GIS is a technological field that incorporates geographical features with
tabular data in order to map, analyses, and assess real-world problems.

In the strictest sense, a GIS is a computer system capable of assembling, storing,

manipulating, and displaying geographically referenced information, i.e. data identified
according to their locations ~ USGS“

https://www.usgs.gov/

❖ GISs are simultaneously the telescope, the microscope, the computer, and the
Xerox machine of regional analysis and synthesis of spatial data. (Ron Abler,
1988)
❖ A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based system that
facilitates the phases of data entry, data analysis and data presentation especially
in cases when we are dealing with georeferenced data.
❖ A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based mapping tool that
enables geographic or spatial data capture, storage, retrieval, manipulation,
analysis, modeling and presentation of the real-world scenario. Basically, GIS is
working on the principle of geography. Geography or GIS is now proving its
potential and widely accepted by interdisciplinary experts at various levels to better
manage the earth’s resources

A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and

analyzing things that exist and events that happen on earth. GIS technology integrates

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common database operations such as query and statistical analysis with the unique
visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by maps - ~ Esri

It is a software package that is helping to digitize the world around us. Digital maps and
location-based information helps government agencies, businesses, and even people like
you and me keep up with the
changing pace of the world
around us. GIS applications
improve efficiencies, reduce
costs, and bring together data
in ways that weren't possible
even 10 years ago.

The key word to this technology

is Geography – this means that
some portion of the data is
spatial. This means that the data is in some way referenced to locations on the earth.
Coupled with this data is usually tabular data known as attribute data.

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Attribute data is defined as information used to create control charts. This data can be
used to create many different chart systems, including percent charts, charts showcasing
the number of affected units, count-per-unit charts, demerit charts, and quality score
charts.

Attribute data can be generally defined as additional information about each of the
spatial features. An example of this would be schools. The actual location of the schools
is the spatial data. Additional data such as the school’s name, level of education taught,
student capacity would make up the attribute data. It is the partnership of these two data
types that enables GIS to be such an effective problem-solving tool through spatial
analysis.

GIS operates on many levels. On the most basic level, geographic information systems
technology is used as computer cartography, that is for straight forward map making. The
real power of GIS, however, is through using spatial and statistical methods to analyses
attribute and geographic information. The end result of the analysis can be derivative
information, interpolated information or prioritized information.

Components of a GIS

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A working GIS integrates five key components: hardware, software, data, people, and
methods.

Software: GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyses, and
display geographic.

Software is the primary focus while setting up

any of the systems. Many GIS software is
available are readily available to start the
work, but only the right ones suffice to tackle
business problems. The software can be
classified into two main types, Licensed and
Freeware. Licensed software requires heavy
investments and have business subscriptions
attached to it, while Freeware is easily
available on the internet marketplace with
minimum or no fees. Good software that handles a large amount of geospatial data, GUI
for manipulating data and querying the environment for analyzing and visualizing large
data sets is a perfect fit for GIS information. Key software components are:
➢ Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information
➢ A database management system (DBMS)
➢ Tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization
➢ A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools
Hardware: Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS runs on a
wide range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers
used in standalone or networked configurations.
Hardware is the second most important part of any GIS Components. Software and
Hardware complement each other when they are deployed correctly, looking at the
compatibility. If there is any mismatch in any of the two components, then the functionality
effects and results are not approximate.
Some organizations have moved over to cloud services like AWS and Azure to create a
virtual environment and balance physical server’s load. It requires huge server stations

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and command centers to handle a large amount of geospatial data and even to keep
everything ongoing in a live environment.
Hardware should be robust and should have the future potential to deal with heavy
software patches and updates. Latest high chip and AI-based processors, Motherboards
and even GPUs are needed in today’s world to handle GIS software and data.
Data: Maybe the most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data and
related tabular data can be collected in-house or bought from a commercial data provider.
Most GIS employ a DBMS to create and maintain a database to help organize and
manage data. Geospatial data is like the blood of any GIS Components. Field workers,
Drones, Satellites and SONAR – LIDAR Technology are used to collect geospatial data.
This data format varies from tool to tool and depends upon the source from where the
data is extracted.
The data that a GIS operates on consists of any data bearing a definable relationship to
space, including any data about things and events that occur in nature. At one time this
consisted of hard-copy data, like traditional cartographic maps, surveyor’s logs,
demographic statistics, geographic reports, and descriptions from the field. Advances in
spatial data collection, classification, and accuracy have allowed more and more standard
digital base-maps to become available at different scales.
People
GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system and
develop plans for applying it to real-world problems. GIS users range from technical
specialists who design and maintain the system to those who use it to help them perform
their everyday work.
GIS Analysts and Technicians play along with the GIS data to analyse and monitor
various forms of data sets. GIS developers and database administrators look after the
frontend and the backend part of the setup. Project Managers and Architects deal with
architecture and project planning by keeping the actionable scope in the picture.
Methods (Procedures): There should be a defined business process for any system to
function to approximate the desired results efficiently. Organizations nowadays use
various standardized process models to build a system that is still in a transition phase.

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A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which
are the models and operating practices unique to each organization.
1.2 Origin of GIS, History of GIS and geospatial technology
Historical Development of GIS
The first example of linking the 'what' with 'where' takes us all the way back to 1854 and
a cholera outbreak. At the time, people believed that the disease was being spread
through the air. But an enterprising English Doctor, Dr Jon Snow wasn’t convinced. So,
he decided to map the outbreak locations, the roads and the property boundaries and the
water pumps. And, when he did, he made a amazing discovery. A pattern emerged. This
pattern proved that the disease was not in fact airborne but was being communicated via
water and even more specifically by one infected water pump. John Snow’s cholera map
was a major event connecting the what with the where.
Not only was this the beginning of spatial analysis, it also marked a whole new field of
study:

Figure 1: Dr Jon Snow’s original map showing

the outbreak of cholera against the location of the
water pumps.

Figure 2: Dr Jon Snow’s original map with heat

map analysis showing the outbreak of cholera
against the location of the water pumps.

1854 - 1960
During the next hundred years or so, there was
limited development in GIS. Mapping was paper
based and there was no computer mapping. By
the 1950s, maps were starting to be used in
vehicle routing, development planning and
locating points of interest.
1960 - 1975

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In the period between 1960 to 1975 three major technological advancements in new
computer technology led to the birth of modern GIS. Those were: the ability to output map
graphics using line printers; advances in data storage and the processing power of
mainframe computers. We now had the ability to record coordinates as data inputs and
perform calculations on those coordinates.
Roger Tomlinson, widely acclaimed as the ‘Father of GIS’, during his time with the
Canadian Government in the 1960s, was responsible for the creation of the Canadian
Geographic Information System (CGIS). CGIS was unique in that it implemented a
layering approach to map handling.
The US Census Bureau was also an early adopter of the core principles of GIS. The
Bureau began to digitize Census boundaries, roads and urban areas.
The Ordnance Survey GB began to develop their topographic mapping. They used
computers to simplify the process of updating future map editions and in 1971, digital
mapping was introduced to OS large-scale map production.
1975 - 1990
This era saw the creation of GIS software. Jack Dangermond, co-founder of Esri Inc had
studied environmental science, landscape architecture and urban design. In his own
words: “I had some notion of applying computer mapping to my profession”. So, in 1967
he headed off to Harvard where he worked in the Laboratory for Computer Graphics. In
the mid-1970s, the Laboratory developed the first vector GIS called ODYSSEY GIS.
By the late 1970s, the progress in computer memory and improved computer graphic
capabilities led to the creation of commercial GIS Software. One of the vendors, was Esri,
which is now the largest GIS software company in the world, recognized as a world
leading expert in GIS, that has played a key role in the history of GIS.
1990 - 2010
The adoption of GIS into the mainstream took off between 1990-2010. This was facilitated
by a number of IT advancements: computers were getting cheaper, faster and more
powerful; there were an increasing number of GIS software options and digitized mapping
data was more readily available. These advancements, together with the launch of new
earth observation satellites and the integration of remote sensing technology with GIS,

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saw more and more applications being developed. GIS found its way into classrooms, to
businesses and to governments across the world.
2010 - 2018
Due to the increased adoption of GIS over the previous twenty years, open-source GIS
was born. GIS data has become more and more universal, for instance, Landsat satellite
imagery is now accessible to all. GIS is now online, in the cloud, and on your mobile.
Today
Today, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and spatial analysis are being used by
everyone whether we realize or not. Have you noticed that location-based search facility
in Google? Do you use an app on your phone to get you from A to B? Do you track your
parcel delivery or the taxi you booked? All these examples use spatial information to get
you the best answer or the most up to date information.
GIS gives people the ability to create their own digital map layers to help solve real-world
problems. GIS has also evolved into a means for data sharing and collaboration, inspiring
a vision that is now rapidly becoming a reality a continuous, overlapping, and
interoperable GIS database of the world, about virtually all subjects. Today, hundreds of
thousands of organizations are sharing their work and creating billions of maps every day
to tell stories and reveal patterns, trends, and relationships about everything.

1.3. Functions and benefits of GIS.

A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer system for capturing, storing,
checking, and displaying data related to positions on Earth’s surface. By relating
seemingly unrelated data, GIS can help individuals and organizations better understand
spatial patterns and relationships.
A powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving, transforming, and displaying
spatial data from the real world. A GIS has four main subsystems. These are:
❖ A data input subsystem (Data Capture)
❖ A data storage and retrieval subsystem
❖ A data manipulation and analysis subsystem
❖ A data output and display subsystem

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Data Input Subsystem: Data input subsystem was collects and processes spatial data
from various sources. That allows user to import, create and edit spatial and tabular data.
The data inputs are usually derived from a combination of hard copy maps, aerial
photographs, remotely sensed images, reports, survey documents, etc.
Data Storage and Retrieval Subsystem: A data storage and retrieval subsystem that
organizes data in a manner that allows storage, retrieval, updating and editing. This
component usually involves use of a database management system (DBMS) for
maintaining attribute data.
Data Manipulation & Analysis Subsystem: It provides to tools to examine
characteristics of data and model building capabilities (classification, modelling
functions). This subsystem is commonly thought of as the heart of a GIS, and usually
differentiates it from other database information systems and computer-aided drafting
(CAD) systems.
Data Output and Display Subsystem: The data output subsystem allows the user to
generate graphic designing/displaying maps, graphics, text and tabular reports
representing derived information products.

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Data Conversion: It is very important function as it facilitates to analyze data, which are
collected from different sources in better way. Such as Jpeg file can be converted into tiff
format, conversion of projection to have all data in same projection system through
georeferencing.
The data can be converted from raster to vector such as image to polygon/line or vice
versa vector to raster such as polygon to raster format. Data can also be converted from
raster to raster or vector to vector data as per the need of software and analysis.

Benefits of GIS
A geographic information system (GIS) is a system that creates, manages, analyzes,
and maps all types of data. GIS connects data to a map, integrating location data (where
things are) with all types of descriptive information (what things are like there). This
provides a foundation for mapping and analysis that is used in science and almost every
industry. GIS helps users understand patterns, relationships, and geographic context.
The benefits include improved communication and efficiency as well as better
management and decision making.
❖ Make Better Business Decisions
By mixing regional and location-related information with other company information
companies can gain critical ideas that help their businesses succeed. With spatial
issues companies can select trading places, assistance areas and clients of interest,
and existing the details in thematic maps and reviews to accomplish faster and better
company choices.
❖ Improve Functional Performance & Reduce Cost
The details provided by GIS is used to greatly improve operational preparing and
control, and to re-engineer and improve company procedures. It gives you solutions
for redirecting optimization, and servicing preparing and confirming.
❖ Enhance Customer Service and Increase Sales
Understanding your clients, providing them with the best possible assistance and
finding more people like them is central to increasing revenue. GIS helps organization
to recognize their best clients and use spatial issues to determine regional areas
where similar census apply in order to focus on industry development.

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❖ Better & More Cost-effective Plan Citizens

Government companies, especially municipality, face remarkable difficulties in the
economy. They have to face providing increasing communities, with higher objectives
of assistance, while dealing with reducing sources. GIS provides an efficient remedy
to improving key resident services such as permit/licensing, preparing, servicing,
features control and trains and buses.
1.4. Scope and application areas of GIS
A GIS is an operational system that allows resource managers to use some of the
tools and skills that geographers use, and a little bit more. Using GIS software, you
can put maps and other geographic data into the computer. After you have the data
in the computer, you can store, retrieve, and edit that data.
Scope of GIS is unlimited. Following are few of the domains:
❖ Civil Engineering
❖ Public Works Administration
❖ Property Mapping
❖ Telecom Services
❖ Academic Research
❖ Agriculture
❖ Transportation Planning
❖ Environmental Impact Analysis
❖ Fisheries
❖ Disaster Management
❖ Insurance
❖ Property Taxation
❖ Mining
❖ Geology
All of these domains require GIS based information outputs. In terms of application of
GIS, the scope is unlimited.
Application Areas of GIS
Mapping: GIS can be used to provide a visual interpretation of data. Google Maps is
an excellent example of a web-based GIS mapping solution that people use for

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everyday navigation purposes. However, smart mapping technology has significantly

advanced and is used in products like Nobel’s GeoViewer, which gives cities,
municipalities and private industry an in-depth look at electric and water district assets
in the field.
Telecom and Network Services: Organizations can incorporate geographic data into
their complex network design, optimization, planning, and maintenance activities. This
data enhances telecom processes through better customer-relationship management
and location services.
Accident Analysis and Hot Spot Analysis: GIS data helps to identify accident
locations, and road networks can be optimized using data intelligence. This
intelligence helps to improve road safety measures and allows better traffic
management.
Urban planning: GIS data analyzes urban growth and the direction of expansion.
When appropriately applied, it can discover new sites for further development,
considering various factors that are necessary for successful building.
Transportation Planning: GIS data is commonly used for managing transportation
issues. With the addition of environmental and topical data in a GIS platform,
companies can plan for a new road or rail route.
Environmental Impact Analysis: Data gathered via GIS applications is vital for
conserving natural resources and protecting the environment. Impact statements
assess the magnitude of human impact on the environment, which GIS integration
helps indicate.
Agricultural Applications: GIS data helps create more efficient farming techniques,
alongside analyzing soil data in an advanced fashion. This can increase food
production in different parts of the world.
Disaster Management and Mitigation: Efficient GIS systems protect the
environment and are developed to assist risk and disaster management.
Navigation: Web-based navigation maps use GIS data to provide the public with
useful information. Web maps are regularly updated per GIS information and are used
consistently in everyday life.

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Flood damage estimation: Governments use GIS data to map flood risk areas and
can use the information to coordinate relief efforts.
Natural Resources Management: With the help of GIS information, forests can be
adequately maintained and managed. It is especially crucial for the allocation and
geographic distribution of water, one of the more critical environmental constituents.
Banking: Banking has evolved to become market-driven, and a bank’s success
depends mainly on its ability to provide customer-driven services. GIS data plays an
essential role in planning, organizing, and decision making in the banking industry.
Taxation: GIS data helps solve taxation problems and maximize government income.
It is used for building permits and engineering and offers a system for managing
property tax on a geographic basis.
Surveying: Surveying involves measuring the location of objects on earth, and more
organizations are using Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) for this function.
This data incorporated into a GIS system can estimate area and prepare digital maps.
Geology: Geologists use GIS data to analyze soil, assess seismic information, and
create 3D displays of geographic features. It can also be used to analyze rock
characteristics, and identify the best location for different functions.
Assets Management and Maintenance: GIS data helps organizations become more
efficient with finite resources. With an understanding of the population at risk, planners
can allocate resources more efficiently.
Planning and Community Development: GIS data helps us understand and meet
global challenges. As GIS technology rapidly advances, there are various innovative
applications in the planning sector. GIS tools can be used to integrate geographic
intelligence into planning processes, and have the potential to change how we think
and behave.
Dairy Industry: The dairy industry uses GIS data for distribution, production, and
identifying the location of shops. It is a useful tool for planning in the field of dairy farm
management and allows for better decision making.
Irrigation Water Management: The availability of water directly affects crop
production in a given region. GIS data can identify significant crops and determine
yield, involving efficient techniques for spatial and time domain.

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Pest Control and Management: Pest control is essential to agricultural production,

and GIS technology plays a vital role in mapping out infested areas. Organizations
can consequently develop more effective pest management plans.
Advantages of GIS
➢ Exploring both geographical and thematic components of data in a holistic way
➢ Stresses geographical aspects of a research question
➢ Allows handling and exploration of large volumes of data
➢ Allows integration of data from widely disparate sources
➢ Allows analysis of data to explicitly incorporate location
➢ Allows a wide variety of forms of visualization
Limitations of GIS
➢ Data are expensive
➢ Learning curve on GIS software can be long
➢ Shows spatial relationships but does not provide absolute solutions
➢ Origins in the Earth sciences and computer science. Solutions may not be
appropriate for humanities research
1.5. Data base management system (DBMS) and concept of spatial
and attribute data
A Database Management System (DBMS) is a set of computer programs that controls
the creation, maintenance, and the use of the database of an organization and its end
users. It allows organizations to place control of organization-wide database development
in the hands of database administrators (DBAs) and other specialists. DBMSes may use
any of a variety of database models, such as the network model or relational model. In
large systems, a DBMS allows users and other software to store and retrieve data in a
structured way. It helps to specify the logical organization for a database and access and
use the information within a database. It provides facilities for controlling data access,
enforcing data integrity, managing concurrency controlled, restoring database.
The ability to query and retrieve data based on some user defined criteria is a necessary
feature of the data storage and retrieval subsystem. Data retrieval involves the capability
to easily select data for graphic or attribute editing, updating, querying, analysis and/or
display. The ability to retrieve data is based on the unique structure of the DBMS and

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command interfaces are commonly provided with the software. Most GIS software also
provides a programming subroutine library, or macro language, so the user can write their
own specific data retrieval routines if required.
Querying is the capability to retrieve data, usually a data subset, based on some user
defined formula. These data subsets are often referred to as logical views. Often the
querying is closely linked to the data manipulation and analysis subsystem. Many GIS
software offerings have attempted to standardize their querying capability by use of a
Standard Query Language (SQL). This is especially true with systems that make use of
an external relational DBMS. Through the use of SQL, GIS software can interface to a
variety of different DBMS packages. This approach provides the user with the flexibility
to select their own DBMS. This has direct implications if the organization has an existing
DBMS that is being used for to satisfy other business requirements. Often it is desirable
for the same DBMS to be utilized in the GIS applications. This notion of integrating the
GIS software to utilize an existing DBMS through standards is referred to as corporate or
enterprise GIS. With the migration of GIS technology from being a research tool to being
a decision support tool there is a requirement for it to be totally integrated with existing
corporate activities, including accounting, reporting, and business functions.
There is a definite trend in the GIS marketplace towards a generic interface with external
relational DBMS's. The use of an external DBMS, linked via a SQL interface, is becoming
the norm. A flexibility as such is a strong selling point for any GIS. SQL is quickly
becoming a standard in the GIS software marketplace.

Spatial data
Spatial data is any type of data that directly or indirectly references a specific geographical
area or location. Sometimes called geospatial data or geographic information, spatial data
can also numerically represent a physical object in a geographic coordinate system.
However, spatial data is much more than a spatial component of a map.
Spatial data is any data with a direct or indirect reference to a specific location or
geographical area. Spatial data is often referred to as geospatial data or geographic
information. A spatial database management system (SDBMS) is an extension, some
might say specialization, of a conventional database management system (DBMS).

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Every DBMS (hence SDBMS) uses a data model specification as a formalism for software
design, and establishing rigor in data management.
Spatial data consists of points, lines, polygons or other geographic and geometric data
primitives that we can map by location. It is possible to maintain spatial data as vector
data or raster data. Each provides information connected to geographical locations.
Vector data consist of sequential points or vertices to define a linear segment. It has an x
coordinate and a y coordinate. Furthermore, raster data consists of a matrix of cells or
pixels arranged into rows and columns. Each cell contains a value representing
information.
There are several spatial data types, but the two primary kinds of spatial data are
geometric data and geographic data.
Geometric data is a spatial data type that is mapped on a two-dimensional flat surface.
An example is the geometric data in floor plans. Google Maps is an application that uses
geometric data to provide accurate direction. In fact, it is one of the simplest examples of
spatial data in action.
Geographic data is information mapped around a sphere. Most often, the sphere is
planet earth. Geographic data highlights the latitude and longitude relationships to a
specific object or location. A familiar example of geographic data is a global positioning
system.
❖ Georeferencing and geocoding
Similar processes, georeferencing and geocoding, are important aspects of geospatial
analysis. Both geocoding and georeferencing involve fitting data into the real world by
using appropriate coordinates, but that is where the similarity ends.
Georeferencing concentrates on assigning data coordinates to vectors or rasters. This
approach helps accurately model the planet's surface.
Geocoding, on the other hand, provides address and location descriptors. These can
include information about cities, states, countries, and so on. Each exact coordinate
references a specific location on the earth's surface.
Spatial data can exist in a variety of formats and contains more than just location specific
information.
Vector

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Vector data is best described as graphical

representations of the real world. There are three
main types of vector data: points, lines, and
polygons. Connecting points create lines, and
connecting lines that create an enclosed area create
polygons. Vectors are best used to present
generalizations of objects or features on the Earth’s
surface. Vector data and the file format known as
shapefiles (.shp) are sometimes used
interchangeably since vector data is most often
stored in .shp files.
❖ Raster
Raster example Raster data is data that is presented in a grid of pixels. Each pixel within
a raster has a value, whether it be a colour or unit of
measurement, to communicate information about the
element in question. Raster typically refer to imagery.
However, in the spatial world, this may specifically refer to
orthoimage which are photos taken from satellites or other
aerial devices. Raster data quality varies depending on
resolution and your task at hand.

A common example of spatial data can be seen in a road map. A road map is a two-
dimensional object that contains points, lines, and polygons that can represent cities,
roads, and political boundaries such as states or provinces. A road map is a visualization
of geographic information. Spatial data, also known as geospatial data, is a term used to
describe any data related to or containing information about a specific location on the
Earth’s surface.
The location information is provided in maps by using Points, Lines and Polygons. This
includes management, manipulation and customization, analysis, and creating visual

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displays. A user will typically use multiple spatial datasets at one time and compare them
or combine them with one another. Each spatial dataset may be referred to as a layer.
In a GIS, the location information is provided in maps by using Points, Arcs and
Polygons. These geometric descriptions are the basic data elements of a map.
Points: Point data is most commonly used to represent nonadjacent features and to
represent discrete data points. Points have zero
dimensions; therefore, you can measure neither
length or area with this dataset, usually have a
single X, Y coordinate. Examples would be
schools, points of interest, and in the example
below, bridge and culvert locations. Point
features are also used to represent abstract
points. For instance, point locations could
represent city locations or place names.
Arcs (Line): On a map, a shape defined by a
connected series of unique x,y coordinate pairs.
An arc may be straight or curved. A coverage
feature class that represents lines and polygon
boundaries. One line feature can contain many
arcs. Arcs are topologically linked to nodes and
to polygons. Their attributes are stored in an arc
attribute table (AAT). Nodes indicate the endpoints and intersections of arcs; they do not
exist as independent features. Together, the from-node and the to-node define the
direction of the arc.

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Polygons: Polygons are used to

represent areas such as the boundary
of a city (on a large-scale map), lake,
or forest. Polygon features are two
dimensional and therefore can be
used to measure the area and
perimeter of a geographic feature.
Polygon features are most commonly
notable using either a thematic
mapping (subjective) symbology
(colour schemes), patterns, or in the case of numeric gradation, a colour gradation
scheme could be used.

With maps presented at a larger scale, city locations are represented as a polygon to
show the extent of each city. Map made with Natural Earth Data.
Both line and point feature data represent polygon data at a much smaller scale. They
help reduce clutter by simplifying data
locations. As the features are zoomed
in to, the point location of a school is
more realistically represented by a
series of building footprints showing
the physical location of the campus.
Line features of a street centerline file
only represent the physical location of
the street. If a higher degree of spatial
resolution is needed, a street curb
width file would be used to show the
width of the road as well as any
features such as medians and rights-
of-way (or sidewalks).
Geographic Coordinate System

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To identify exact locations on the surface of the Earth, a geographic coordinate system is
used. Normally, an x and y-axis are used in mathematical systems, but in geography, the
axes are referred to as lines of latitude (horizontal lines that run east-west) and longitude
(vertical lines that run north-south). Each axis represents the angle at which that line is
oriented with respect to the center of the Earth, and so the units are measured in degrees
(°)
Attribute Data Types for GIS
Attribute data are descriptions or measurements of geographic features in a map. It refers
to detailed data that combines with spatial data. Attribute data helps to obtain the
meaningful information of a map. Every feature has characteristics that we can describe.
For example, assume a building. It has a built year, the number of floors, etc. Those are
attributes. Attributes are the facts we know, but not visible such as the built year. It can
also represent the absence of a feature.
Attribute data is information appended in tabular format to spatial features. The spatial
data is the where and attribute data can contain information about the what, where, and
why. Attribute data provides characteristics about spatial data.
Types of Attribute Data
Attribute data can be store as one of five different field types in a table or database:
character, integer, floating, date, and BLOB.
Character Data: The character property (or string) is for text-based values such as the
name of a street or descriptive values such as the condition of a street. Character
attribute data is stored as a series of alphanumeric symbols.
Aside from descriptors, character fields can contain other attribute values such as
categories and ranks. For example, a character field may contain the categories for a
street: avenue, boulevard, lane, or highway. A character field could also contain the rank,
which is a relative ordering of features. For example, a ranking of the traffic load of the
street with “1” being the street with the highest traffic.
Character data can be sorted in ascending (A to Z) and descending (Z to A) order. Since
numbers are considered text in this field, those numbers will be sorted alphabetically
which means that a number sequence of 1, 2, 9, 11, 13, 22 would be sorted in ascending
order as 1, 11, 13, 2, 22, 9.

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Because character data is not numeric, calculations (sum, average, median, etc.) can’t
be performed on this type of field, even if the value stored in the field are numbers (to do
that, the field type would need to be converted to a numeric field). Character fields can
be summarized to produced counts (e.g. the number of features that have been
categorized as “avenue”).
Numeric Data: Integer and floating are numerical values (see: the difference between
floating and integer values). Within the integer type, this is a further division between
short and long integer values. As would be expected, short integers store numeric values
without fractional values for a shorter range than long integers. Floating point attribute
values store numeric values with fractional values. Therefore, floating point values are for
numeric values with decimal points (i.e numbers to the right of the decimal point as
opposed to whole values).
Numeric values will be sorted in sequentially either in ascending (1 to 10) or descending
(10 to 1) order.
Numerical value fields can have operations performed such as calculating the sum or
average value. Numerical field values can be a count (e.g. the total number of students
at a school) or be a ratio (e.g. the percentage of students that are girls at a school).

Date/Time Data: Date fields contains date and

time values.
BLOB Data: BLOB stands for binary large object
and this attribute type is used for storing
information such images, multimedia, or bits of
code in a field. This field stores object linking and
embedding (OLE) which are objects created in
other applications such as images and
multimedia and linked from the BLOB field.

❖ Difference Between Attribute Data and Spatial Data

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Attribute data refers to the characteristics of geographical features that are quantitative
and/or qualitative in nature while spatial data refers to all types of data objects or elements
that are present in a geographical space or horizon. Thus, this is the main difference
between attribute data and spatial data.

Definition and Concept of Remote Sensing

Remote sensing is the process of detecting and monitoring the physical

characteristics of an area by measuring its reflected and emitted radiation at a distance
(typically from satellite or aircraft). Special cameras collect remotely sensed images,
which help researchers "sense" things about the Earth.

Remote sensors collect data by detecting the energy that is reflected from Earth. These
sensors can be on satellites or mounted on aircraft. It can be either passive or active.
Passive sensors respond to external stimuli. They record natural energy that is reflected
or emitted from the Earth's surface. The most common source of radiation detected by
passive sensors is reflected sunlight.

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In difference, active sensors use internal stimuli to collect data about Earth. For example,
a laser-beam remote sensing system projects a laser onto the surface of Earth and
measures the time that it takes for the laser to reflect back to its sensor. Remote sensing
has a wide range of applications in many different fields

Remote sensing is the acquiring of information from a distance. NASA observes Earth
and other planetary bodies via remote sensors on satellites and aircraft that detect and
record reflected or emitted energy. Remote sensors, which provide a global perspective
and a wealth of data about Earth systems, enable data-informed decision making based
on the current and future state of our planet.

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Source: https://earthdata.nasa.gov/learn/backgrounders/remote-sensing

Some examples are:

❖ Cameras on satellites and airplanes take images of large areas on the Earth's
surface, allowing us to see much more than we can see when standing on the
ground.
❖ Sonar (Sound Navigation and Ranging) systems on ships can be used to create
images of the ocean floor without needing to travel to the bottom of the ocean.
❖ Cameras on satellites can be used to make images of temperature changes in the
oceans.

Some specific uses of remotely sensed images of the Earth include:

❖ Large forest fires can be mapped from space, allowing rangers to see a much
larger area than from the ground.
❖ Tracking clouds to help predict the weather or watching erupting volcanoes, and
help watching for dust storms.
❖ Tracking the growth of a city and changes in farmland or forests over several years
or decades.
❖ Discovery and mapping of the rugged topography of the ocean floor (e.g., huge
mountain ranges, deep canyons, and the “magnetic striping” on the ocean floor).

9.1.3. who use remote sensing and why?

Remote sensing is the process of detecting and monitoring the physical characteristics of
an area by measuring its reflected and emitted radiation at a distance (typically from
satellite or aircraft). Special cameras collect remotely sensed images, which help
researchers "sense" things about the Earth.

❖ The geographer, who looks for changes on the Earth's surface that need to be
mapped;
❖ The forester, who needs information about what type of trees are growing and if
they have been affected by disease, fire or pollution;

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❖ The environmentalist, who wants to detect, identify and follow the movement of
pollutants such as oil slicks on the ocean;
❖ The geologist, who is interested in finding valuable minerals;
❖ The farmer, who wants to keep an eye on how his crops are growing and if they've
been affected by drought, floods, disease or pests;
❖ The ship captain, who needs to find the best route through the northern ice packs;
❖ The firefighter, who sends out his crews based on information about the size and
movement of a forest fire.

Remote sensing is the art and science of making measurements of the earth using
sensors on airplanes or satellites. These sensors collect data in the form of images and
provide specialized capabilities for manipulating, analyzing, and visualizing those images.
Remote sensed imagery is integrated within a GIS

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