Pointers to Review:

a. Female reproductive system

b.Endocrine system
c. Nervous system
Type of test questions:
a. Crossword puzzle for the female reproductive system
b. 30 items multiple choice for Endocrine system
c. 9 items questions to ponder based on the concept
map about the Nervous system
THE
NERVOUS https://www.uc.edu/cont
SYSTEM ent/dam/uc/ce/images/OL
LI/Page%20Content/The
%20Nervous%20System.
pdf

COMPILED BY HOWIE BAUM

https://www.research
gate.net/publication/3
53837793_The_Endoc
rine_System_COMPIL
ED_BY_HOWIE_BAUM
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Questions to Ponder:

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Answers to questions to ponder:
1. The CNS is composed of the brain and spinal cord.
2. The brain’s function – receives and processes sensory information, initiates responses, stores
memories, and generates thoughts and emotions.
3. The spinal cord’s function is to conduct signals to the brain and from the brain and control reflex
activities.
4. The sensory division’s function is to carry signals or impulses from the sensory organs to the
brain for perception or interpretation.
5. The motor division’s function is to carry impulses from the CNS to the muscles and glands.
6. The motor division is composed of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous
system.
7. The somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements like walking, eating, writing, etc.
8. The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary responses like breathing, heartbeat, eye
reflexes, blinking of the eyes, etc.
9. The difference between sympathetic division and parasympathetic division is that the
sympathetic is in a stress state response (fight or flight) while the parasympathetic is in a
relaxation response (rest or digest).
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is the most complex
body system !!

Constantly alive with electricity, the nervous

system is the body’s prime communication and
coordination network.

It is so vast and complex that, an

estimate is that all the individual nerves
from one body, joined end to end, could
reach around the world two and a half
times.

The Brain and Spinal Cord are the Central

Nervous System.

Nerves and Sensory Organs Make Up the

Peripheral Nervous System.
Together, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
transmit and process sensory information and coordinate bodily functions.

The brain and spinal cord (the CNS) function as the control center.

They receive data and feedback from the sensory organs and nerves throughout the body,
process the information, and send commands back out.

Nerve pathways of the PNS carry the incoming and outgoing signals.
The Spinal Cord Transmits Signals to and
from the Brain and Commands Reflexes

The spinal cord is an elongated cylinder of neuron

cell bodies, bundles of axons and other cells,
protected by connective tissue and bone.

It connects to the brain at the medulla oblongata

and runs down the vertebral column, the hollow
tunnel enclosed within the vertebrae of the spine.

The spinal cord is part of the central nervous

system and serves as a kind of superhighway.

Sensory information and motor commands travel up

and down, heading to and from the brain. These
signals speed in and out of the spinal cord via spinal
nerves—the “on-ramps and off-ramps” that branch
out to supply the limbs, torso, and pelvis.

Some incoming signals demand a simple,

immediate response. The spinal cord can shoot
out a reflex command without bothering the
brain, called a Reflex Arc.
Spinal nerves

The 31 pairs of peripheral spinal nerves

emerge from the spinal cord through
spaces between the vertebrae.

Each nerve divides and subdivides into

several branches; the dorsal branches
serve the rear portion of the body, while
the ventral serve the front and sides.

The branches of one spinal nerve may

join with other nerves to form meshes
called plexuses where information is
shared.

The plexuses send signals along

secondary nerve branches to areas of
complex function or movement.
 The Neurons of the Spinal Cord
Form Neural Tracts

The long cylinder of the spinal cord consists mostly of

bundles of axons that extend up and down to carry
signals to or from the brain.

In a spinal cord cross-section, the axon pathways

appear as “white matter” (myelin sheaths make the
axons white) surrounding the “gray matter” of the
neuron cell bodies.

The white matter forms three columns (funiculi) on each

side of the spinal cord: the posterior (dorsal), anterior
(ventral), and lateral columns.

Distinct neural tracts run through these three columns.

Each tract consists of axons that carry similar types of

signals in the same direction.

Ascending tracts carry sensory input up to the brain.

Descending tracts send motor commands downward to

the body.
Spinal reflexes

A reflex is a rapid, involuntary,

predictable response to a stimulus.

Most reflexes are concerned with

survival and defending the body
against damage and harm, such as
coughing to remove irritants from the
lower airways and sneezing to clear
the nasal airways.

Spinal reflexes involve circuits of

sensory nerve fibers that feed
information to the spinal cord and
then connect directly, or via an
intermediate neuron, to motor
nerve fibers, so that the resulting
instructions for movement go
directly out from the cord to the
relevant muscles and not to the Tapping the patellar tendon below the kneecap stretches the
brain, to be activated. front thigh muscle. This stimulates microsensors in the
This is called a Reflex Arc. tendon and muscle that transmit nerve signals to the spinal
cord. Motor nerve fibers relay signals straight back to the
muscle, which contracts and causes a slight kick.
 CAUSES OF SPINAL NERVE PAIN WHICH CAN CAUSE PAIN IN THE BODY WHERE
THE NERVE GOES

All of the nerves (shown in yellow, below) come out from the Spinal column and go to the different parts of
the body.

As people age, the jelly-like material between the discs can dry out which makes them thinner, letting the
vertebrae move closer to each other. This is how they can start to pinch a nerve and cause pain where the
nerve goes to.

The same thing can happen if a person does any extra heavy lifting and causes damage to a disc.

If a person lifts
something too heavy
that causes damage to
the discs in the spine,
the location is described
with the letter and
number of the 2
vertebrae involved such
as L5 -S1.
 Neurons in Nervous Tissue Relay Rapid-Fire Signals.

All nervous tissue, from the brain to the spinal cord to the furthest nerve branch, includes cells called
neurons.

Neurons are charged cells: they conduct electrical signals to pass information through the body.

A typical neuron consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon with an axon terminal.
 Neuron Anatomy
 Extensions outside the cell
body

 Dendrites – conduct
impulses toward the cell
body

 Axons – conduct impulses

away from the cell body
 WITHOUT SCHWANN WITH SCHWANN
The Schwann cells produce a fatty material CELLS CELLS
called Myelin which is a good insulator
along the Axon of the Neuron cell.

Because of it’s insulating properties, it

keeps the electrical signal strong and also
moving faster along the Axon, as compared
to a Neuron without the Myelin, as shown in
the diagram at the right.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a potentially

disabling disease of the brain and spinal
cord (central nervous system).

In MS, the immune system attacks the

protective sheath (myelin) that covers
nerve fibers and causes
communication problems between your
brain and the rest of your body.

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/neurons
 Chemical Signals: Neurons Transmit
Information Through Neurotransmitters
When an electrical signal reaches the axon terminal
of a neuron, it stimulates the release of special
chemicals called neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitters travel across synapses to the

other neurons or to target cells, stimulating or
inhibiting signals and responses.

Acetylcholine, epinephrine and

nor-epinephrine and serotonin are among the
most common neurotransmitters.

Some neurotransmitters are more prominent in

certain parts of the nervous system because they
specialize in carrying messages within the brain, or
between neurons and muscular tissue or other types
of tissue.

These chemicals are key to the nervous system’s

regulation of body movement and internal functions.
Nervous system messages travel
through neurons as electrical signals.

When these signals reach the end of a

neuron, they stimulate the release of
neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitters travel across synapses,

spaces between neurons, or between
neurons and other body tissues and cells.

They can be classified into two

types: excitatory or inhibitory.

Excitatory neurotransmitters stimulate

electrical signals in other neurons and
encourage responses from body cells.

Inhibitory transmitters discourage

signals and cellular responses.

Through these chemicals, the nervous

system regulates the activity of muscles,
glands, and its nerve pathways.
 THE BRAIN
In some ways, the human brain resembles a computer.
But in addition to logical processing, it is capable of complex development, learning,
self-awareness, emotion, and creativity.

Every second, millions of chemical and electrical signals pass around the brain and the
body’s intricate nerve network.

But nervous tissue is delicate and needs physical protection and a reliable blood supply.
It turns out that the human
brain is very fragile. It weighs
about 1.5 kg.

It has a consistency
somewhat like jello: soft and
squishy.

Without preservation and

chemical hardening, you
couldn't pick a brain up.

The 3 layers around the

brain as well as the skull
and the Cerebrospinal fluid,
protect the brain in case of
impact from a sports injury
or from a car accident.
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID FLOW

CSF is a clear liquid, which is renewed

four to five times a day.

It is produced in clusters of thin-

walled capillaries called the Choroid
Plexuses

It contains proteins and glucose that

provide energy for brain cell function
as well as lymphocytes that guard
against infection.

Circulation of the fluid is aided by

pulsations of the cerebral arteries.
Twelve pairs of cranial nerves connect the brain to eyes, ears, and other sensory organs
and to head and neck muscles.
 The Brain Connects Perceptions to Complex
Thought, Memory, and Emotion

The nervous system does more than route information and

process commands.

Why do certain smells immediately raise particular

memories?

The answer appears to lie in the limbic system. The

limbic system forms two paired rings within the
brain, consisting of the hippocampus, the amygdala,
the cingulate gyrus, and the dentate gyrus, along
with other structures and tracts.

As with other brain segments, the limbic system is involved

in multiple nervous system functions and levels of activity.

It helps to process both memory and olfaction—our

sense of smell—and it manages a range of emotions.
The aroma rising from a pot on the stove may send
your hand reaching for a spoon. It may also call up a
dinner from earlier times, and make you happy,
regretful, or nostalgic.
 The brain directs our body’s internal functions.

It also integrates sensory impulses and information to form

perceptions, thoughts, and memories.

The brain gives us self-awareness and the ability to speak

and move in the world.

Its four major regions make this possible:

1) The cerebrum, with its cerebral cortex, gives us

conscious control of our actions.

2) The diencephalon mediates sensations, manages

emotions, and commands whole internal systems.

3) The cerebellum adjusts body movements, speech

coordination, and balance

4) The brain stem relays signals from the spinal cord and
directs basic internal functions and reflexes.
 The Seat of Consciousness: High Intellectual Functions Occur
in the Cerebrum

The cerebrum is the largest brain structure and

part of the forebrain (or pros-encephalon).

Its prominent outer portion, the cerebral

cortex, not only processes sensory and
motor information but enables
consciousness, our ability to consider
ourselves and the outside world.

It is what most people think of when they

hear the term “grey matter.”
White matter is buried deep in the brain,
while gray matter is mostly found on the
brain's surface, or cortex. There is
about 50% of each type in the brain.

The spinal cord, which transmits nerve

impulses to and from the rest of the
body, has the opposite arrangement:
gray matter at its core with insulating
white matter on the outside

The cortex tissue consists mainly of neuron

cell bodies, and its folds and fissures (known
as gyri and sulci) give the cerebrum its
trademark rumpled surface.

Grey matter contains most of the brain's

neuronal cell bodies. The grey matter
includes regions of the brain involved in
muscle control, and sensory perception
such as seeing and hearing, memory,
emotions, speech, decision-making, and
self-control.
 The lobes are functional
segments.

The cerebral cortex has a left They specialize in various areas of

and a right hemisphere. thought and memory, of planning
and decision-making, and of
Each hemisphere can be divided speech and sense perception.
into four lobes:

1) Frontal lobe

2) Temporal lobe

3) Occipital lobe

4) Parietal lobe
 THE CEREBELLUM FINE-TUNES BODY
MOVEMENTS AND MAINTAINS BALANCE
The cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain.

It sits below the posterior (occipital) lobes of the

cerebrum and behind the brain stem, as part of the
hindbrain.

Like the cerebrum, the cerebellum has left and right

hemispheres. A middle region, the vermis, connects them.

Within the interior tissue rises a central white stem, called

the arbor vitae because it spreads branches and sub-
branches through the hemispheres.

The primary function of the cerebellum is to maintain

posture and balance. When we jump to the side, reach
forward, or turn suddenly, it subconsciously evaluates
each movement.
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ous/brain
The cerebellum then sends signals to the cerebrum,
indicating muscle movements that will adjust our position
 The Brain Stem Relays Signals Between the Brain and
Spinal Cord and Manages Basic Involuntary Functions

The brain stem connects the spinal cord to the higher-thinking centers
of the brain.

It consists of three structures: the medulla oblongata, the pons, and

the midbrain. The medulla oblongata is continuous with the spinal
cord and connects to the pons above. Both the medulla and the pons
are considered part of the hindbrain.

The midbrain, or mesencephalon, connects the pons to the

diencephalon and forebrain.

Besides relaying sensory and motor signals, the structures of

the brain stem directs involuntary functions.

 The pons helps control breathing rhythms.

 The medulla handles respiration, digestion, circulation,

and reflexes such as swallowing, coughing, and sneezing.

 The midbrain contributes to motor control, vision, and

hearing, as well as vision- and hearing-related reflexes.
 A Sorting Station: The Thalamus Mediates
Sensory Data and Relays Signals to the Conscious
Brain

The diencephalon is a region of the forebrain, connected

to both the midbrain (part of the brain stem) and the
cerebrum.

The thalamus forms most of the diencephalon. It

consists of two symmetrical egg-shaped masses, with
neurons that radiate out through the cerebral cortex.

Sensory data floods into the thalamus from the

brain stem, along with emotional, visceral, and
other information from different areas of the brain.

The thalamus relays these messages to the

appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex.

It determines which signals require conscious awareness,

and which should be available for learning and memory.
 The Hypothalamus Manages Sensory Impulses, Controls Emotions,
and Regulates Internal Functions
The hypothalamus is also part of the diencephalon, a region of
the forebrain that connects to the midbrain and the cerebrum.
It helps to process sensory impulses of smell, taste,
and vision and manages emotions such as pain and
pleasure, aggression and amusement.

The hypothalamus is also our visceral control center,

regulating the endocrine system and internal functions that
sustain the body day to day.

It translates nervous system signals into activating or

inhibiting hormones that it sends to the pituitary gland.

These hormones can activate or inhibit the release of pituitary

hormones that target specific glands and tissues in the body.

Meanwhile, the hypothalamus manages the autonomic

nervous system, devoted to involuntary internal
functions. It signals sleep cycles and other circadian
rhythms, regulates food consumption, and monitors
and adjusts body chemistry and temperature.
 Sight, Sound, Smell, Taste, and Touch:
How the Human Body Receives
Sensory Information

The nervous system must receive and

process information about the world
outside in order to react, communicate,
and keep the body healthy and safe.

Much of this information comes through

the sensory organs: the eyes, ears,
nose, tongue, and skin.

Specialized cells and tissues within these

organs receive raw stimuli and translate
them into signals the nervous system can
use.

Nerves relay the signals to the brain, which

interprets them as sight (vision), sound
(hearing), smell (olfaction), taste (gustation),
and touch (tactile perception).
 Understanding Sensation: Processing

Processing: Our
five senses (vision,
audition, etc.) have
special receptors
(example: the eye’s
rods & cones),
which detect &
transmit sensory
information

©
Sensation & Perception Processes
The occipital lobe is one of
the four major lobes of the
cerebral cortex in the brain of
mammals.
It is the visual processing
center of the mammalian
brain containing most of the
anatomical region of the
visual cortex.
HOW OUR VISION
WORKS

Light travels from

our eye to our Brain

Optic nerve
Made up of axons
of ganglion cells,
it carries neural
messages from
each eye to the
brain

Optic chiasm
Point where part
of each optic
nerve crosses to
the other side of
the brain
 The Ear Uses Bones and Fluid to Transform Sound
Waves into Sound Signals

The outer ear funnels the waves down the ear canal (the external
acoustic meatus) to the tympanic membrane (the “ear drum”).

The tympanic membrane transfers these vibrations to three small

bones, known as auditory ossicles, found in the air-filled cavity of
the middle ear.

These bones – the malleus, incus, and stapes – carry the

vibrations and knock against the opening to the inner ear.

The inner ear consists of fluid-filled canals, including the spiral-

shaped cochlea. As the ossicles pound away, specialized hair cells
in the cochlea, detect pressure waves in the fluid.

They activate nervous receptors, sending signals through the

cochlear nerve toward the brain, which interprets the signals as
sounds.
 To help with our Balance, the Anterior,
Posterior, and lateral (horizontal) semi-
circular ducts (tubes) are arranged at
right angles to each other so they
represent all 3 planes in space – X, Y,
and Z.
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 Specialized Receptors in the Skin Send Touch
Signals to the Brain
The skin consists of three major tissue layers: the
outer epidermis, middle dermis, and inner hypodermis.

Specialized receptor cells within these layers detect tactile sensations

and relay signals through peripheral nerves toward the brain.

The presence and location of the different types of receptors make

certain body parts more sensitive.

Merkel cells, for example, are found in the lower epidermis of

lips, hands, and external genitalia.

Meissner corpuscles are found in the upper dermis of hairless

skin — fingertips, nipples, and the soles of the feet.

Both of these receptors detect touch, pressure, and

vibration.

Other touch receptors include Pacinian corpuscles, which also

register pressure and vibration, and the free endings of
specialized nerves that feel pain, itch, and tickle.
 Olfaction: Chemicals in the Air
Stimulate Signals the Brain Interprets
as Smells
The sense of smell is called olfaction.

It starts with specialized nerve receptors located

on hair-like cilia in the epithelium at the top of
the nasal cavity.

When we sniff or inhale through the nose, some

chemicals in the air bind to these receptors.

That triggers a signal that travels up a nerve

fiber, through the epithelium and the skull bone
above, to the olfactory bulbs.

The olfactory bulbs contain neuron cell bodies

that transmit information along the cranial
nerves, which are extensions of the olfactory
bulbs.

They send the signal down the olfactory nerves,

toward the olfactory area of the cerebral cortex.
 Home of the Taste Buds: The
Tongue Is the Principal Organ of
Gustation
What are all those small bumps on the top
of the tongue? They’re called papillae.

Many of them, including circumvallate

papillae and fungiform papillae, contain
taste buds.

When we eat, chemicals from food enter the

papillae and reach the taste buds.

These chemicals (or tastants) stimulate

specialized gustatory cells inside the taste
buds, activating nervous receptors.

The receptors send signals to fibers of the

facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves.

Those nerves carry the signals to the

medulla oblongata, which relays them to the
thalamus and cerebral cortex of the brain.
A 5th taste has been discovered which is
called Umami.

It is a taste similar to that of eating foods

with a small amount of Monosodium
Glutamate (MSG) in it.
The Amygdala are the red spots shown
at right and are responsible for the
recognition of fear and negative emotions
as well as facial recognition.

Facial expression is one or more

motions or positions of the muscles
beneath the skin of the face.

These movements convey the emotional

state of an individual to observers and
are a form of nonverbal communication.

They are a primary means of conveying

social information between humans.
WHY DO OUR EMOTIONS CHANGE WHEN
WE BECOME A TEENAGER?
Adolescents differ from adults in the way they behave, solve
problems, and make decisions. There is a biological
explanation for this.

New findings show that the greatest changes to the parts of

the brain that are responsible for functions such as self-
control, judgment, emotions, and organization occur
between puberty in the teen years and even into their 20’s.

Scientists have identified a specific region of the brain

called the amygdala (shown in red, above) which is
responsible for instinctual reactions including fear
and aggressive behavior. This region develops early.

However, the frontal cortex, the area of the brain that

controls reasoning and helps us think before we act,
develops later. This part of the brain is still changing
and maturing well into adulthood.
Teens also differ from adults in their ability to read and understand emotions in the faces
of others.

Recent research shows that teens and adults use different regions of the brain in
responding to certain tasks.

During medical testing, teens often misread facial expressions, with those under the
age of 14 more often seeing sadness, anger, or confusion instead of fear.

Older teenagers answered correctly more often and exhibited a progressive shift of
activity from the amygdala to the frontal lobes.

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