Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction

I. What is the meaning of disaster?

Disaster is defined as “a sudden, calamitous event, bringing great damage,
loss, destruction and devastation to life and property” (Asian Disaster Preparedness
Center – ADPC, 2012). Its origin can be natural, such earthquakes, floods, and
hurricanes, or of human origin, such as explosions, nuclear accidents and terrorist
acts.
From a socio-cultural perspective, disaster is defined as “a serious disruption
of the functioning of society, causing widespread human, material or environment
losses, which exceed the ability of the affected people that cope, using their human
resources” (Adelman, 2011).
Relative to disaster, a salient factor that needs to be addressed properly is
disaster risk. Disaster risk is defined as “the probability that a community’s
structure or geographical area is to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of a
particular hazard, on account of its nature, construction and proximity to hazardous
area” (ADPC, 2012). In other words, disaster risk signifies the possibility of adverse
effects in the nature. It is derived from the interaction of social and environmental
processes, from the combination of physical hazards and the vulnerability of
exposed elements.
Nature of Disaster
____________________________________________________________

Natural Disasters- originates from the different “forces” of nature (geological,

meteorological, hydro meteorological and biological). These include earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, typhoons, and cyclones.
Human-made Disasters- occur due to people’s actions against human, material
and environment. These include transport and industrial accidents, such as, air and
train crashes, chemical spills and building collapses. Terrorism is also categorized
as human-made disaster.
Natural Types of Disasters
 Agricultural diseases and pets  Tsunamis
 Storm surge  Wildfires
 Drought and water shortage- El  Sinkholes
Niño  Emergency diseases
 Earthquakes (pandemic influenza)
 Hurricanes and tropical storms  Extreme heat
 Landslide and debris flow  Floods and flash floods
 Thunderstorms and lightning  La Niñ a
 Tornadoes

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 Human-made and Technological Types of Diseases

 Hazardous materials
 Power service disruption and blackout
 Nuclear power plant and nuclear blast
 Radiological emergencies
 Chemical threat and biological weapons
 Cyber attacks
 Explosion
 Civil unrest

Different Risk Factors Underlying Disaster

A number of factors make it more likely that those affected will have more severe
and longer- lasting stress reactions after disasters. These risk factors are
summarized in a study made by ADPC, 2012:
1. Severity of exposure- amount of exposure to the disaster is highly related to
risk of future mental problems. At highest risk are those that go through the
disaster themselves. Next are those in close with victims. At lower risk of
lasting impact are those who only had indirect exposure, such as news of the
severe damage. Injury and life threat are factors that lead most often to
mental health problems. Studies have looked at severe natural disasters, such
as the 1990 earthquake in Baguio, Mt. Pinatubo Eruption in 1991, mudslides
in Ormoc City, and the 2013 devastating Super Typhoon Yolanda in Tacloban.
The findings show that at least half of the survivors suffer from distress or
mental health that needs clinical care.
2. Gender and family- almost always, women or girls suffer more negative
effects than do men or boys. Disaster recovery is more stressful when children
are present in the home. Women with spouses also experience more distress
during recovery. Having a family member in the home who is extremely
distressed is related to more stress for everyone. Marital stress has been
found to increase after disasters.
3. Age- Adults who are in the age range of 40-60 are likely to be more distressed
after disasters, the thinking is that if one is in that age range, he/she has more
demands from job and family. In general, children show more severe distress
after disasters than do adults. Higher stress in the parents is related to worse
recovery in children.

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 4. Developing Countries- disasters in
developing countries, like the Philippines, have
more severe mental health impact than do disasters in developed countries.
This is true even with less serious disasters.

5. Low or negative social support- support of others can be both a risk and a
resilience factor. Social support can weaken after disasters. This may be due
to stress and the need for members of the support network to get on with their
own lives. Sometimes the responses from others disasters victims rely on for
support are negative. For example, someone may play down their problems,
needs, or pain or expect them to recover more quickly than is realistic. This is
strongly linked to long-term distress in trauma survivors.

Other factors specific to the survivor

Several factors related to a survivor’s background and resources are
important for recovery from disaster. Recovery is worse if survivors:
 Were not functioning before the disaster
 Have had no experience dealing with disaster
 Must deal with other stressors after the disaster
 Have poor self-esteem
 Think they are uncared for by others
 Think they have little control over what happens to them
 Lack capacity to manage stress
Other factors have also been found to predict worse outcomes:
 Bereavement (death of someone close)
 Injury to self or another family member
 Life threat
 Panic, horror, or feeling like that during disaster
 Being separated from family (especially among youth)
 Great loss of property
 Displacement (being forced to leave home)

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 Effects of natural disasters on
human life

1. Displaced Populations
One of the most immediate effects of natural disasters is population
displacement. When countries are ravaged by earthquakes or other powerful
forces of nature, many people have to abandon their homes and seek shelter in
other regions. A large influx of refugees can disrupt accessibility of health care
and education, as well as food supplies and clean water.

2. Health Risks
Aside from the obvious immediate danger that natural disasters present, the
secondary effects can be just as damaging. Severe flooding can result in
stagnant water that allows breeding of waterborne bacteria and malaria-carrying
mosquitos. Without emergency relief from international aid organizations and
others, death tolls can rise even after the immediate danger has passed.

3. Food Scarcity
After natural disasters, food often becomes scarce. Thousands of people around
the world go hungry as a result of destroyed crops and loss of agricultural
supplies, whether it happens suddenly in a storm or gradually in a drought. As a
result, food prices rise, reducing families’ purchasing power and increasing the
risk of severe malnutrition or worse. The impacts of hunger following an
earthquake, typhoon or hurricane can be tremendous, causing lifelong damage
to children’s development.

4. Emotional Aftershocks
Natural disasters can be particularly traumatic for young children. Confronted
with scenes of destruction and the deaths of friends and loved ones, many
children develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a serious psychological
condition resulting from extreme trauma. Left untreated, children suffering from
PTSD can be prone to lasting psychological damage and emotional distress.

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 How and when an event
becomes a Disaster
An event, either human-made or natural, becomes a disaster when it is
sudden or progressive, causing widespread human, material or environment
losses. A typhoon like Yolanda is a natural phenomenon. It became disaster
due to several factors: its strength (290km./hr.); the storm surge it brought was
sudden and unexpected; and its devastating effect to human, material, and
environment. More than 7,000 people perished. The entire city of Tacloban was
literally flattened to the ground.
Another example is typhoon Ondoy that struck the country in 2009. The
Philippines is visited by typhoons on the average of 20 every year. Hence,
typhoons are considered natural events in this country. However, typhoon Ondoy
turned into a disaster because of the amount of precipitation brought by its
torrential rains that lasted for several days causing floods and flash floods in
Metro Manila. Thousands of houses were submerged in the flood water.
Hundreds of shelters along river banks and steros were washed out. Power and
water supplies were cut off for several weeks. Hundreds of lives perished.

A television program like Wow Wowie, hostd by Willie Revillame, a popular

singer-comedian was a common social event in the Philippines entertainment
world. It became so popular that thousands of fans flock to ULTRA (a huge event
venue during that time) to watch the noon time variety show every day, except
Sundays. That event turned out to a disastrous tragedy when there was a
human-induced disturbance among watching crowd that causes a stampede.
Many spectators were hurt and some died which led to the dissolution of the said
TV program.

Activity #1
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 Divide the class in to four groups. Each group must
conduct a research and present some event in the Philippines context that turned
to a disaster. Classify such events whether they are natural or human-made.

Areas/Locations Exposed to Hazards

 Exposed to Natural Hazards

Areas/Location Exposed to:
coastal areas storm surge, tsunami or tidal waves
Reclaimed areas Flooding, sinkhole
Near fault lines Earthquakes
On the foot of denuded mountains Mudslide/landslide
Near volcanoes (danger zone) Volcanic eruption-pyroclastic materials,
lahar flow, lava flow and ash fall
River banks and esteros Flooding, flash floods
open field Thunderstorm, hailstorm, blizzard
 Exposed to man-made hazard
Areas/ Locations Exposed to:
Near oil depots Oil spill, pollution
near mining projects Toxic waste- heavy metal,
lead, ,mercury, nitric acid, etc.
near in chemical plants Chemical fumes, chemical waste
near factories Factory waste, pollution
Unsafe building structures Fire
Public places in Mega Cities terrorism

Disasters from Different Perspectives

1. Physical Perspective- it views disaster as a phenomenon that can cause
damage to physical elements such as buildings, infrastructures, including people
and their properties. Physical effects are the visible and quantifiable effects of a
disaster. Assessment of disaster is focused on the following common questions:
 How many families are affected? (displacement, injury, death)
 How many houses are damaged or washed out? (in case of super
typhoons)
 How many building collapsed or are damaged? (in case of an earthquake)

 How many roads, bridges, dams and other infrastructures are damaged?
(in case of floods, lahar flows and earthquakes)

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  What is the extent of damage in
agricultural industry? (Crop losses, damaged fish
cages, washed out rice fields, etc.)

2. Psychological Perspective- shows that disasters can cause serious mental

health consequences for victims. These consequences take the form of Post-

Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and variety of disorders and symptoms

which have been less investigated. The more stress, defined in a variety of ways,
within the disaster, the more likely there are to be emotional consequences.

Psychological effects of a disaster are the following:

 Emotional effects: Shock, terror, irritability, blame, anger, guilt, grief or
sadness, numbing, helplessness, loss of pleasure derived from familiar
activities, difficulty feeling happy, difficulty feeling loved.
 Cognitive effects: Impaired concentration, impaired decision-making
ability, memory impairment, disbelief, confusion, nightmares, decreased
self-esteem, decreased self-efficacy, self-blame, intrusive thoughts,
memories, dissociation (e.g. tunnel vision, dreamlike or ‘spacey’ feeling).
 Physical effects: Fatigue, exhaustion, insomnia, cardiovascular strain,
startle response, hyper arousal, increased physical pain, decreased
appetite, vulnerability to illness.
 Interpersonal effects: Increased relational conflict, social withdrawal,
reduced relational intimacy, alienation, impaired work performance
decreased satisfaction, distrust, externalization of blame, externalization of
vulnerability, feeling abandoned.

3. Socio-Cultural Perspective- What the people living at risk know and do about
natural hazards and disaster risks is mediated by a range of factors including
social conditions (such as age, gender, wealth, ethnicity) and cultural settings
(language, beliefs, traditions, customs). In most places people are also more or
less exposed by information and ideas coming from the “outside”- the world
outside their own cultural setting. In this perspective, a disaster is analyzed
based on how people respond having as parameter their social conditions and
cultural settings. These two factors are important determinants of the degree of
risk, resilience and vulnerability of those affected. That is why some ethnic
groups.

4. Economic Perspective- it defined disaster as a natural event that causes a

perturbation to the functioning of the economic system, with a significant negative
impact on assets, production factors, output, employment and consumption. One
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 salient component of assessing the
impact of disaster impact from this view is defined
direct economic cost and indirect losses. Direct economic cost is the value of
what has been damaged or destroyed by the disaster. This should be seriously
considered is disaster risk management and assessment. However, to get the
whole picture indirect losses is crucial in assessing disaster seriousness. This is
done by evaluating the main indirect is crucial in his is done assessing disaster
seriousness. This is done by evaluating the main indirect consequence of a
disaster. One example is when a head of family a job due to isolation or the
workplace itself is affected. The value of losses is measured is measured vis-à-
vis time period and salary including perks and allowances.

5. Political perspective- natural disasters are commonly thought to be less

politically contentious than armed conflicts. Yet, a closer look reveals that
politically are deeply wedded to both the impact of a natural disaster and the
subsequent delivery of humanitarian assistance. Govermentality or deliverance
of government services to constituents can be a plus or minus factor in disaster
risk reduction and management. Government interventions should be present in
following phases of Disaster Risk Reduction and Management: 1) Prevention, 2.)
Mitigation 3.) Preparedness and 4.) Recovery. Failure to do so adversely affect
the capacity and opportunities of those affected to cope with and recover from
the impacts of disaster.

6. Environmental Perspective- the Millennium Declaration recognizes the risk to

development stemming from disasters and calls on the global community to
“intensify our collective efforts to reduce the number and effects of natural
hazards and man-made disasters.”

Quiz # 1

1. Explain the meaning of disaster.

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 2. Differentiate the risk factors
underlying disaster.
3. Describe the effects of disaster of human’s life.
4. Explain how and when an event becomes a disaster.

Exposure and Vulnerability

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 Exposure refers to the 'elements at
risk' from a natural or man-made hazard event. Elements at
risk include the following:
1. Human beings;
2. Dwellings and households and communities;
3. Buildings and structures
4. Public facilities and infrastructures assets;
5. Public and transport system;
6. Agricultural commodities; and
7. Environment assets.
Elements at risk can also refer to intangible elements such as economic activities and
infrastructure networks.

Vulnerability- is defined as “the characteristics and circumstances of a community,

system or asset that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard”. As
indicated by United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR),
“there are many aspects of vulnerability arising from various physical, social, economic,
and environment management”.

Reasons Why Certain Sectors of Society Are More Vulnerable To Disaster

than Others

Vulnerability can be seen as the result of a process in which various different things
cause a population to be more vulnerable. These can be split into demographic and
socio-economic. They can also be discussed through the level of community
preparedness and the ability of a community to manage the after effects of a hazard
event.
Demographic factors

Population density the more dense the population the more efficient a response can
be.
Age of population very old and very young populations are less mobile and able to
respond to hazard events well.

Distribution of population regardless of density, populations may be distributed

differently within the hazard area e.g. elderly people on lower floors of apartment
buildings, or concentrations of highly vulnerable people in poorer areas of a city.

Socio-economic factors

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 Wealth low income populations are less likely to be well
prepared.

Education programs such as California's earthquake day can instruct populations on

how to deal with hazard events.

Nature of society in highly centralised government structures, efficient response may

be the result. However, it can also lead to bureacracy and a lack of autonomous
decision making, which slows down relief efforts.

Understanding of the area recent migrants are likely to struggle to cope compared to
established populations.

Community preparedness

Building codes - Japan's rigorous (and applied!) building codes protect most buildings
from collapse during earthquakes. In the 1995 Kobe earthquake, most of the deaths
occurred in older parts of the city.

Scientific monitoring and early warning systems - established monitoring can

prepare people e.g. the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami had no early warning system; a
similar event in the Pacific would have been monitored and action taken to evacuate
coastal areas.

Communication networks - Countries with good quality and widespread networks

allow messages to be quickly shared. This links closely with the 'information flows' of
Global Interactions Part 3 (see case study of Haiti).

Emergency planning - where monitoring and communication is in place, the

emergency planning is likely to prepare for such events and take action based on data,
rather than prediction. Many countries undertaken emergency practice days for many
events, e.g. the Bank Station terrorism exercise in London in 2003

Dealing with the after-effects

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 Insurance cover - individuals purchase insurance to
mitigate the loss, thus preparing them better for similar future events

Emergency personnel - this is the after effect of training undertaken as part of

community preparedness. The availability of such personnel will vary depending on the
time of day and location of the hazard event.

Aid requests - outside help is necessary during a disaster. However, this is sometimes
slow to be requested resulting in further deaths and loss of property.

Sectors of a population can refer to many factors:

 Age
 Gender
 Disabilities
 New migrants
 Socio-economic status (e.g. level of education, profession)
 Income

Vulnerability to Specific Hazards

There are many aspects of vulnerability, arising from various physical, social,
economic, and environmental factors. Examples may include:

 Poor design and construction of building and other infrastructures;

 Inadequate protection measures of assets;
 Lack of public information and awareness;
 Limited official recognition of risks and preparedness measures, and
 Disregard for wise environment management. (ADPC, 2012)

According to the UNISDR, there are four (4) main types of vulnerability:
1. Physical Vulnerability may be determined by aspects such as population
density levels, remoteness of a settlement, the site, design and materials used
for critical infrastructure and for housing (UNISDR).
Example: Wooden homes are less likely to collapse in an earthquake, but are
more vulnerable to fire.

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 2. Social Vulnerability refers to the
inability of people, organizations and societies to
withstand adverse impacts to hazards due to characteristics inherent in social
interactions, institutions and systems of cultural values. It is linked to the level of
well being of individuals, communities and society. It includes aspects related to
levels of literacy and education, the existence of peace and security, access to
basic human rights, systems of good governance, social equity, positive
traditional values, customs and ideological beliefs and overall collective
organizational systems (UNISDR).
Example: When flooding occurs some citizens, such as children, elderly and
differently-able, may be unable to protect themselves or evacuate if necessary.
3. Economic Vulnerability. The level of vulnerability is highly dependent upon the
economic status of individuals, communities and nations The poor are usually
more vulnerable to disasters because they lack the resources to build sturdy
structures and put other engineering measures in place to protect themselves
from being negatively impacted by disasters.
Example: Poorer families may live in squatter settlements because they cannot
afford to live in safer (more expensive) areas.
4. Environmental Vulnerability. Natural resource depletion and resource
degradation are key aspects of environmental vulnerability.
Example: Wetlands, such as the Caroni Swamp, are sensitive to increasing
salinity from sea water, and pollution from storm water runoff containing
agricultural chemicals, eroded soils, etc.

Elements at Risk and Exposed to Hazards

Persons, houses, buildings, infrastructures, transportation systems, financial

establishments, crops, environmental sources of living, and others like societal
components exposed to known hazard, which are likely to be adversely affected by the
impact of a hazard.

Risk Factors
Risk signifies the possibility of adverse effects in the future. It is derived from the
interaction of social and environmental processes, from the combination of physical
hazards and the vulnerabilities of exposed elements. The following is a discussion of
the three factors of risk presented in a Triagram:

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 Triagram of Disaster Risk
(Source: Geoscience, Australia)

This diagram illustrates the concept of risk which combines an understanding of the
likelihood of a hazardous event occurring with an assessment of its impact where:

Risk = hazard x exposure x vulnerability

Capacity

The left side of the Triagram shows the different natural hazards that may occur in an
area at any period of time. The base of the diagram indicates the different elements
exposed to hazard/disaster. on the right side, factors and elements of vulnerability are
presented.

Philippine Exposure and Vulnerabilities to Natural Disasters

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 According to a report, eight of 10 world
cities most exposed to natural hazards are in the
Philippines and more than half of the 100 cities most exposed to earthquakes, storms
and other disasters are in four Asian nations, according to research (Philippine Star,
2014).

The study, published by risk analysis firm Verisk Maplecroft, analyzed the threat
posed by storms, floods, earthquakes, tsunamis, fires, volcanoes and landslides in
more than 1,300 cities.

The study found that the 10 cities most at risk are Port Vila in Vanuatu, followed
by Tuguegarao in Cagayan, Lucena in Quezon province, (4) Manila, (5) San
Fernando in Pampanga, (6) Cabanatuan in Nueva Ecija, (7) Batangas, (8) Taipei,
(9)San Carlos (The report did not indicate which province in the Philippines but most
likely in Pangasinan). And 10 Naga in Bicol Region.

The study also found that of the 100 cities with the greatest exposure to natural
hazards, 21 are in the Philippines, 16 in China, 11 in Japan and 8 in Bangladesh.
Philippine Vulnerabilities To Natural Disasters
The following bullet statements explain why the Philippines is vulnerable to natural
disasters specifically from the effects of Climate Change (Climate Change Primer
Manuscript, 2014):

 The Philippines lies in the Pacific typhoon belt and we are visited by an average
of 20 typhoons every year.
 The rugged nature of our landscape makes our communities very vulnerable to
landslides, mudflows and other disasters.
 The Philippines is an archipelagic country with many small islands.
 Many of our areas are also at or below sea level, and this makes us vulnerable to
flooding and worst, inundation with rise in sea level.
 With one of the longest coastlines in the world at 32,400 kilometers, we have
many areas that are vulnerable to storm surges.
 The Philippines is still a primarily agricultural and fishing economy. Disruptions in
agricultural and fishery production and destruction of our ecosystems will have
devastating effects on our economy and food security.
 Natural hazard risk is compounded in the Philippines by poor institutional and
societal capacity to manage, respond and recover from natural hazard events.

 The Philippines is considered “high risk” in terms of the country’s ability to

manage and mitigate the impacts of natural hazards and in part due to
“entrenched corruption and high levels of poverty” (Rappler, 2014)

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  Aside from being at risk to typhoons,
the Philippines is also at risk to volcanic eruptions ( we
have active volcanoes), quakes (several fault lines were identified) and floods
(we have denuded mountains).

Quiz # 2

Answer the following questions:

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 1. Enumerate the different elements
exposed to hazards.
2. Explain what vulnerability means.
3. Explain why certain sectors are more vulnerable to disaster than others.
4. Accomplish the following table below. Identify the different elements that are
exposed to a particular hazard, and briefly state their vulnerabilities.

Elements Exposed to Hazard Vulnerability

Hazard

5. Explain the (4) types of vulnerability and give examples for each type.
6. Differentiate among hazards, exposure, and vulnerabilities and give examples
from actual situations.

Basic concept of Hazard

Definition of Hazards

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 Hazards are “those element of the
physical environment, harmful to man and caused by
forces extraneous to him”. (Burton et al 1978).
Standards Australia (2000) defines a hazard as:
“A source of potential harm or a situation with a potential to cause loss”.
Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC) describes hazard as:
“A natural event that the potential to cause harm or loss.”
USGS Hazard Terminologies defines hazard as “a phenomenon or situation,
which has the potential to cause the disruption or damage to people, their
property, their services, and their environment “. Most hazards are dormant or
potential, with only a theoretical risk of human. However, once a hazard becomes
“active”, it can create an emergency. A hazardous situation that has come to
pass is called an incident. Hazard and possibility interact together to create risk.

General Classification of Hazards

1. Natural hazards such as earthquakes or floods arise from purely natural

processes in the environment.
2. Quasi-natural hazards such as smog or desertification that arise through the
interaction of natural processes and human activities.
3. Technological (or human-made) hazards such as the toxicity of pesticides
to agricultural lands, accidental leaks of chemicals from chemical laboratories
or radiation from a nuclear plant. These arise directly as a result of human
activities.

Types of Hazards
Hewitt and Burton (1971) provided a typology of hazards as follows.
1. ATMOSPHERIC ATMOSPHERIC
(Single Element) (Combined Elements/Events)
 Excess Rainfall  Hurricanes
 Freezing Rain (glaze)  ‘Glaze’ storm
 Hail  Thunderstorms
 Heavy Snow Falls  Blizzards
 High Wind Speeds  Tornadoes
 Extreme temperature  Heat/Cold Stress

2. Hydrologic 3. Geologic
 Floods- river and coastal  Mass movement
area Landslides
 Wave action Mudslides
 Drought Avalanches
 Rapid glacier advance  Earthquake
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  Volcanic Eruption
 Rapid sediment movement

4. BIOLOGIC 5.Technologic
 Epidemic in humans  Transportation
 Epidemic in plants  Industrial explosions and fire
 Epidemic in animals  Accidental release of toxic
 Locust elements
 Nuclear accidents
 Collapse of public buildings
 Cyber terrorism

Impacts of Various Hazards on Different Exposed Elements

The following are common long term impacts of natural hazards like earthquake,
typhoon, flashflood, volcanic eruption, fire, etc. :

Physical Impact
 Death of people
 Destruction and loss of vital infrastructure like transport system, roads, bridges,
power lines, and communication lines
 Widespread loss of housing
Psychological Impact
 Grief and psychological trauma- Post Traumatic Severe Disorder (PTSD)
 Marital Conflicts
 Depression due to loss of loved ones and properties
 Chronic anxiety among children severely affected
Socio-Cultural Impact
 Displacement of populations
 Loss of cultural identity
 Forced adoption of new sets of culture
 Ethnic conflicts

Economic Impact
 loss of job due to displacement
 loss of harvest and livestock
 loss of farms, fish cages and other sources of living

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  loss of money and other valuables like
jewelries, furniture and appliances
Environmental Impact
 loss of forests due to forest fires
 loss of fresh water due to salination- intrusion of water to fresh water sources
 disturbance of biodiversity
 loss of natural rivers and other tributaries
Biological Impact
 Epidemic to people, flora and fauna
 Chronic and permanent illness due to nuclear radiation
 Mental disorder developed from consumption of contaminated foods
 Proliferation of different viral and bacterial diseases

QUIZ # 3

Answer the following questions:

1. Define what a hazard is.

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 2. Classify the following hazards according their types:
Earthquakes _________________________
Cyclones _________________________
Flash Floods _________________________
Thunderstorms _________________________
Typhoons _________________________
Storm Surge _________________________
Tsunami _________________________
Forest Fire _________________________
Nuclear Leaks _________________________
Cyber Terrorism _________________________

3. By using a table, explain the impact of various hazards stated on different

exposed elements.

Earthquake Hazards

An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking

of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the sudden release of energy in
the Earth's lithosphere that creates seismic waves.

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 Potential Earthquake Hazards

The type of hazard depends on the strength of seismic activity, along with such factors
as local topographic and built features, subsurface geology and groundwater. A large
earthquake will always be followed by a sequence of aftershocks.

Ground Shaking

If an earthquake generates a large enough shaking intensity, structures like buildings,

bridges and dams can be severley damaged, and cliffs and sloping ground
destabilised. Perched or stacked objects may fall and injure or bury anyone close by. In
the largest earthquakes whole districts can be devastated by the multiple
consequences of ground shaking.
Groundshaking will vary over an area due to such factors as topography, bedrock type,
and the location and orientation of the fault rupture. These all affect the way the
seismic waves travel through the ground. For an explanation of the exceptional high
energy of the Christchurch earthquakes in 2011.

Tsunami

Tsunamis are long wavelength oceanic waves generated by the sudden displacement
of seawater by a shallow earthquake, volcanic eruption or submarine landslide. What is
it like to face a tsunami?

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 A number of waves may be produced and
they can travel long distances at high speeds to flood far-off
shores. The height of a tsunami varies and may be affected by the sea floor depth and
shape, and other factors. New Zealand is susceptible to tsunamis originating from
distance sources around the Pacific Ring of Fire as well as from very close to our
coastline. Near source tsunamis will allow for very little warning.

Large earthquakes may generate tsunami waves in enclosed water bodies such as
lakes. In New Zealand there are large lakes that could be affected, for example Lakes
Wakatipu and Wanaka that are near to the Alpine Fault.

Landslides and Rockfalls

Groundshaking due to earthquakes destabilises cliffs and steep slopes, causing

landslides and rockfalls as a significant side-effect. Heavy rain and unconsolidated or
fractured rock are exacerbating factors.

Subsidence and Lateral Spreading

Subsidence, or lowering of the ground surface, often occurs during earthquakes.

This may be due to downward vertical displacement on one side of a fault, and can
sometimes affect a huge area of land. Coastal areas can become permanently flooded
as a result.
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 Subsidence can also occur as ground
shaking causes loose sediments to “settle’ and to lose their
load bearing strength (see liquefaction, below) or to slump down sloping ground .

Lateral spreading occurs where sloping ground starts to move downhill, causing cracks
to open up, that are often seen along hill crests and river banks.

Liquefaction

Liquefaction occurs when waterlogged sediments are agitated by seismic shaking. This
separates the grains from each other, reducing their load bearing capacity. Buildings
and other structures can sink down into the ground or tilt over, whilst underground
pipes and tanks may rise up to the surface.

When the vibrations stop the sediments settle down again, squeezing groundwater out
of fissures and holes in the ground to cause flooding. The aftermath of liquefaction can
leave large areas covered in a deep layer of mud.

Natural Signs of an Impending Tsunami

1. Animal Behavior: some zoologist hypothesize that some animal species like
elephants have the ability to sense subsonic Rayleigh waves from an earthquake
or a tsunami.

2. Strong ground shaking from an earthquake: if you are on the coast and there
is an earthquake, it may have caused a tsunami, so escape immediately to
higher ground or inland, avoiding river valleys;

3. Unusual sea-level fluctuations: a noticeable rapid rise or fall in coastal waters

is a sign that there may be a tsunami approaching. If you see the water recede
quickly and unexpectedly from a beach exposing the ocean floor (the so-
called drawback) or a sudden rise of the sea level, escape immediately to higher
ground or inland, avoiding river valleys;
4. Abnormally huge wave: the first wave in a tsunami wave train is usually not the
largest, so if you see an abnormally huge wave, even bigger waves could be
coming soon. Run immediately to higher ground or inland, avoiding river valleys;
5. Loud ocean roar: if you hear a roaring sound offshore, similar to that of a train
or jet aircraft, a tsunami may be approaching, so escape immediately to higher
ground or inland, avoiding river valleys.

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 How Drawbacks are formed

All waves have a positive and negative peak, i.e. a ridge and a trough. In the
case of a propagating wave like a tsunami, either may be the first to arrive. If the first
part to arrive at shore is the ridge, a massive breaking wave or sudden flooding will be
the first effect noticed on land. However, if the first part to arrive is a trough,
a drawback will occur as the shoreline recedes dramatically, exposing normally
submerged areas. Drawback can exceed hundreds of metres, and people unaware of
the danger sometimes remain near the shore to satisfy their curiosity or to collect fish
from the exposed seabed.
A typical wave period for a damaging tsunami is about 12 minutes. This means
that if the drawback phase is the first part of the wave to arrive, the sea will recede,
with areas well below sea level exposed after 3 minutes. During the next 6 minutes the
tsunami wave trough builds into a ridge, and during this time the sea is filled in and
destruction occurs on land. During the next 6 minutes, the tsunami wave changes from
a ridge to a trough, causing flood waters to drain and drawback to occur again. This
may sweep victims and debris some distance from land. The process repeats as the
next wave arrives.
Seismometers are instruments that measure motion of the ground, including those
of seismic waves generated by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and other seismic
sources. Records of seismic waves allow seismologists to map the interior of the Earth,
and locate and measure the size of these different sources.

Activity # 2
Search and read the account about Super Typhoon Yolanda. Based from discussion of
drawback, what do you think really occurred in Tacloban, Leyte in November 2013?
Was it a storm surge or a tsunami? Explain your answer.
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 Effects of Different Earthquake Hazards
Read the following account and give reactions afterward:
1990 Baguio City Earthquake
(Source: www.citypines.com)

Looking back, it was exactly 4:26 p.m. on Monday, 16 July 1990, that a killer
earthquake unexpectedly hit and extensively devastated the City of Baguio. As
reported, the powerful temblor measured 7.7 in the open-ended Richter scale and
lasted for 45 seconds. It was said to be the most destructive earthquake on record
within the Cordillera Region. There were numerous aftershocks that followed and the
strongest, which occured at 3:15 a.m. of July 18, lasted for eight seconds ... and
measured 5.3 on the Richer scale.

Fearing for their lives, many of Baguio's 120,000 people slept outdoors on Monday
night. The city suffered the most in terms of destruction to properties and numerous
deaths. Many commercial and government buildings, hotels, inns, and residences were
heavily damaged. The death toll continued to rise as rescuers pulled more bodies from
the rubbles. It was estimated that as many as 1,000 people were trapped and killed in
damaged buildings.

The five-star Hyatt Terraces Plaza sustained the worst damage when its terraced front
collapsed onto the lobby area, killing about 50 people. The Baguio Park Hotel along
Harrison Road was a total wreck. The luxurious Nevada Hotel which is located right
across from the main gate of Camp John Hay was ripped in half by the quake, leaving
a huge gash in the middle of the structure. The Saint Vincent Catholic Church along
Naguilian Road was spared by the strong quake, however a portion of its retaining wall

and parking area was damaged and collapsed to the road below. The church, which
has withstood typhoons, bombings during the 2nd World War, and other disasters,
suffered only minor damage.

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 At the University of Baguio (UB), it was
initially reported that 23 people, mostly students, were killed
when the supporting structure of the commerce building gave way. Nearby the FRB
Building also crumbled to the ground. The FRB building and UB are both owned by
Fernando Bautista, Sr. and his family. The Philippine Military Academy at Fort Del Pilar
was also one of the worst hit portions in the city. The parade ground mushroomed into
a tent city where cadets pitched tents after their barracks was destroyed. There were
many other buildings and familiar
landmarks of Baguio which were
damaged and classified as
hazards. These included the
Skyworld Condominium and
Commercial Center along Session
Road, The Royal Inn at Magsaysay
Avenue, and the controversial Baguio
Hilltop Hotel which was constructed
on a hill behind the Baguio Public
Market. Because of the extensive
devastation, Baguio City was
described to be a virtual "war zone."
Also, it was running low on water,
fuel, food, and other miscellaneous
basic necessities to include much-needed medicines for the injured and sick people.

Rescue crews and relief supplies began to trickle into Baguio as hope faded for
hundreds of people believed trapped under collapsed buildings as a result of Monday's
earthquake. Thousands of residents of the city huddled in tattered tents and makeshift
shelters in parks and streets. Drenched by daily rains, many complained that they had
no food, water or medicine. Doctors working under umbrellas and sheets of plastic had
treated nearly 800 of the injured. The city's three hospitals were all damaged and
without power. Aftershocks continued throughout the day. Without electric power,
rescue work at the Hyatt Terraces and Nevada hotels stopped as daylight faded.
Almost no rescue operations were evident at the 20 other hotels and at schools, office
buildings and factories.

The three main access roads to Baguio were blocked by landslides that hundreds of
motorists were stuck along the highways. The roads were totally impassable to
vehicular traffic. People desiring to leave the city had no other alternative but to hike
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 down Kennon Road, Marcos Highway, or
Naguilian Road. Different portions of Kennon Road were
blocked by landslides. This condition also made the delivery of critically needed aid to
the city impossible. Loakan airport had to be temporarily closed to commercial flights to
allow food, supplies, equipment, and rescue personnel to be transported by air using
military and some privately-owned aircraft.

The following 40 photographs show the extensive damage on buildings, structures,

facilities, and roads as a result of this killer earthquake that hit Baguio City which the
residents hope and pray will never ever happen again

Different Earthquake Hazards Maps

1. Earthquake-induced Landslide Susceptibility Map

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Page 29 of 109
 2. Presented below are different Hazards
Maps of the Philippines designed by OCHA Regional
Office for Asia and the Pacific, and PHIVOLCS. Learn to interpret each map by
giving attention to the color codes and scalar system applied.

3. Seismic Hazard and Structure in the Philippines

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4. Floods and landslides hazard map

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Page 32 of 109
 5. Ground Shaking Hazard Map

What to Do Before, During and After an Earthquake

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 What to Do Before an Earthquake

 Make sure you have a fire extinguisher, first aid kit, a battery-powered
radio, a flashlight, and extra batteries at home.
 Learn first aid.
 Learn how to turn off the gas, water, and electricity.
 Make up a plan of where to meet your family after an earthquake.
 Don't leave heavy objects on shelves (they'll fall during a quake).
 Anchor heavy furniture, cupboards, and appliances to the walls or floor.
 Learn the earthquake plan at your school or workplace.

What to Do During an Earthquake

 Stay calm! If you're indoors, stay inside. If you're outside, stay outside.
 If you're indoors, stand against a wall near the center of the building, stand
in a doorway, or crawl under heavy furniture (a desk or table). Stay away
from windows and outside doors.
 If you're outdoors, stay in the open away from power lines or anything that
might fall. Stay away from buildings (stuff might fall off the building or the
building could fall on you).
 Don't use matches, candles, or any flame. Broken gas lines and fire don't
mix.
 If you're in a car, stop the car and stay inside the car until the earthquake
stops.
 Don't use elevators (they'll probably get stuck anyway).

What to Do After an Earthquake

 Check yourself and others for injuries. Provide first aid for anyone who
needs it.
 Check water, gas, and electric lines for damage. If any are damaged, shut
off the valves. Check for the smell of gas. If you smell it, open all the
windows and doors, leave immediately, and report it to the authorities (use
someone else's phone).
 Turn on the radio. Don't use the phone unless it's an emergency.
 Stay out of damaged buildings.
 Be careful around broken glass and debris. Wear boots or sturdy shoes to
keep from cutting your feet.

 Be careful of chimneys (they may fall on you).

 Stay away from beaches. Tsunamis and seiches sometimes hit after the
ground has stopped shaking.

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  Stay away from damaged areas.
 If you're at school or work, follow the emergency
plan or the instructions of the person in charge.
 Expect aftershocks.

Quiz # 4

Answer the following questions

1. Identify various potential earthquake hazards.

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 2. Explain the natural signs of an
impending tsunami.
3. Search and read about the “West Valley Fault” and make a report on it. Print
different kinds of Hazard Map relative to the Fault.
4. In 2004, Phivolcs and the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA),
together with Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), conducted a study
called the Metro Manila Earthquake Impact Reduction Study (MMEIRS). It
analyzed different earthquake scenarios in Metro Manila once an earthquake
tagged as “The Big One” strikes. Search and read the report and record the
predicted impacts of the earthquake.
5. Prepare your own Family Emergency Plan as part of your preparation for the
“The Big One”. Outline the safety measures before, during and after an
earthquake.

Volcanic Hazards

Volcanoes can be exciting and fascinating, but also very dangerous. Any kind of
volcano is capable of creating harmful or deadly phenomena, whether during an
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 eruption or a period of quiescence.
Understanding what a volcano can do is the first step in
mitigating volcanic hazards, but it is important to remember that even if scientists have
studied a volcano for decades, they do not necessarily know everything it is capable of.
Volcanoes are natural systems, and always have some element of unpredictability.

Lava Flows

Lava is molten rock that flows out of a volcano or volcanic vent. Depending on its
composition and temperature, lava can be very fluid or very sticky (viscous). Fluid flows
are hotter and move the fastest; they can form streams or rivers, or spread out across
the landscape in lobes. Viscous flows are cooler and travel shorter distances, and can
sometimes build up into lava domes or plugs; collapses of flow fronts or domes can
form pyroclastic density currents (discussed later).

Most lava flows can be easily avoided by a person on foot, since they don't move much
faster than walking speed, but a lava flow usually cannot be stopped or diverted.
Because lava flows are extremely hot - between 1,000-2,000°C (1,800 - 3,600° F) -
they can cause severe burns and often burn down vegetation and structures. Lava
flowing from a vent also creates enormous amounts of pressure, which can crush or
bury whatever survives being burned.

Pyroclastic Density Currents

Pyroclastic density currents are an explosive eruptive phenomenon. They are mixtures
of pulverized rock, ash, and hot gases, and can move at speeds of hundreds of miles
per hour. These currents can be dilute, as in pyroclastic surges, or concentrated, as in
pyroclastic flows. They are gravity-driven, which means that they flow down slopes.

A pyroclastic surge is a dilute, turbulent density current that usually forms when
magma interacts explosively with water. Surges can travel over obstacles like valley
walls, and leave thin deposits of ash and rock that drape over topography. A
pyroclastic flow is a concentrated avalanche of material, often from a collapse of a lava
dome or eruption column, which creates massive deposits that range in size from ash
to boulders. Pyroclastic flows are more likely to follow valleys and other depressions,
and their deposits infill this topography. Occasionally, however, the top part of a

pyroclastic flow cloud (which is mostly ash) will detach from the flow and travel on its
own as a surge.

Pyroclastic density currents of any kind are deadly. They can travel short distances or
hundreds of miles from their source, and move at speeds of up to 1,000 kph (650
mph). They are extremely hot - up to 400°C (750°F). The speed and force of a
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 pyroclastic density current, combined with its
heat, mean that these volcanic phenomena usually destroy
anything in their path, either by burning or crushing or both. Anything caught in a
pyroclastic density current would be severely burned and pummeled by debris
(including remnants of whatever the flow traveled over). There is no way to escape a
pyroclastic density current other than not being there when it happens!

One unfortunate example of the destruction caused by pyroclastic density currents is

the abandoned city of Plymouth on the Caribbean island of Montserrat. When the
Soufrière Hills volcano began erupting violently in 1996, pyroclastic density currents
from eruption clouds and lava dome collapses traveled down valleys in which many
people had their homes, and inundated the city of Plymouth. That part of the island has
since been declared a no-entry zone and evacuated, although it is still possible to see
the remains of buildings which have been knocked over and buried, and objects that
have been melted by the heat of the pyroclastic density currents.

Pyroclastic Falls

Mount Pinatubo, Philippines. View of World Airways DC-10 airplane setting on its tail
because of weight of June 15, 1991 ash. Cubi Point Naval Air Station. USN photo by
R. L. Rieger. June 17, 1991.

Pyroclastic Falls

Pyroclastic falls, also known as volcanic fallout, occur when tephra - fragmented rock
ranging in size from mm to tens of cm (fractions of inches to feet) - is ejected from a
volcanic vent during an eruption and falls to the ground some distance away from the
vent. Falls are usually associated with Plinian eruptive columns, ash clouds or volcanic
plumes. Tephra in pyroclastic fall deposits may have been transported only a short
distance from the vent (a few meters to several km), or, if it is injected into the upper
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 atmosphere, may circle the globe. Any kind
of pyroclastic fall deposit will mantle or drape itself over the
landscape, and will decrease in both size and thickness the farther away it is from its
source.

Tephra falls are usually not directly dangerous unless a person is close enough to an
eruption to be struck by larger fragments. The effects of falls can be, however. Ash can
smother vegetation, destroy moving parts in motors and engines (especially in aircraft),
and scratch surfaces. Scoria and small bombs can break delicate objects, dent metals
and become embedded in wood. Some pyroclastic falls contain toxic chemicals that
can be absorbed into plants and local water supplies, which can be dangerous for both
people and livestock. The main danger of pyroclastic falls is their weight: tephra of any
size is made up of pulverized rock, and can be extremely heavy, especially if it gets
wet. Most of the damage caused by falls occurs when wet ash and scoria on the roofs
of buildings causes them to collapse.

Pyroclastic material injected into the atmosphere may have global as well as local
consequences. When the volume of an eruption cloud is large enough, and the cloud is
spread far enough by wind, pyroclastic material may actually block sunlight and cause
temporary cooling of the Earth's surface. Following the eruption of Mount Tambora in
1815, so much pyroclastic material reached and remained in the Earth's atmosphere
that global temperatures dropped an average of about 0.5 °C (~1.0 °F). This caused
worldwide incidences of extreme weather, and led 1816 to be known as 'The Year
Without A Summer.'’

Lahars

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Large boulder carried in lahar flow, Muddy River, east of Mount St. Helens,
Washington. Geologists for scale. Photo by Lyn Topinka, USGS. September 16, 1980.

Lahars

Lahars are a specific kind of mudflow made up of volcanic debris. They can form in a
number of situations: when small slope collapses gather water on their way down a
volcano, through rapid melting of snow and ice during an eruption, from heavy rainfall
on loose volcanic debris, when a volcano erupts through a crater lake, or when a crater
lake drains because of overflow or wall collapse.

Lahars flow like liquids, but because they contain suspended material, they usually
have a consistency similar to wet concrete. They flow downhill and will follow
depressions and valleys, but they can spread out if they reach a flat area. Lahars can
travel at speeds of over 80 kph (50 mph) and reach distances dozens of miles from
their source. If they were generated by a volcanic eruption, they may retain enough
heat to still be 60-70°C (140-160°F) when they come to rest.

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 Lahars are not as fast or hot as other
volcanic hazards, but they are extremely destructive. They
will either bulldoze or bury anything in their path, sometimes in deposits dozens of feet
thick. Whatever cannot get out of a lahar's path will either be swept away or buried.
Lahars can, however, be detected in advance by acoustic (sound) monitors, which
gives people time to reach high ground; they can also sometimes be channeled away
from buildings and people by concrete barriers, although it is impossible to stop them
completely.

Gases

Lake Nyos, Cameroon, Gas Release August 21, 1986. Dead cattle and surrounding
compounds in Nyos village. September 3, 1986. Image by USGS.

Sulfur Dioxide

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 Sulfur dioxide issuing from fumaroles of the
Sulfur Banks at the summit of Kilauea volcano, Hawaii.
Photo © Jessica Ball.

Gases

Volcanic gases are probably the least showy part of a volcanic eruption, but they can
be one of an eruption's most deadly effects. Most of the gas released in an eruption is
water vapor (H2O), and relatively harmless, but volcanoes also produce carbon dioxide
(CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), fluorine gas (F2), hydrogen fluoride
(HF), and other gases. All of these gases can be hazardous - even deadly - in the right
conditions.

Carbon dioxide is not poisonous, but it displaces normal oxygen-bearing air, and is
odorless and colorless. Because it is heavier than air, it collects in depressions and can
suffocate people and animals who wander into pockets where it has displaced normal
air. It can also become dissolved in water and collect in lake bottoms; in some
situations, the water in those lakes can suddenly 'erupt' huge bubbles of carbon
dioxide, killing vegetation, livestock and people living nearby. This was the case in the
overturn of Lake Nyos in Cameroon, Africa in 1986, where an eruption of CO 2 from the
lake suffocated more than 1,700 people and 3,500 livestock in nearby villages.

Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide are both sulfur-based gases, and unlike carbon
dioxide, have a distinct acidic, rotten-egg smell. SO 2 can combine with water vapor in
the air to form sulfuric acid (H 2SO4), a corrosive acid; H2S is also very acidic, and
extremely poisonous even in small amounts. Both acids irritate soft tissues (eyes,
nose, throat, lungs, etc.), and when the gases form acids in large enough quantities,
they mix with water vapor to form vog, or volcanic fog, which can be dangerous to
breathe and cause damage to the lungs and eyes. If sulfur-based aerosols reach the
upper atmosphere, they can block sunlight and interfere with ozone, which have both
short and long-term effects on climate.

One of the nastiest, although less common gases released by volcanoes is fluorine gas
(F2). This gas is yellowish brown, corrosive and extremely poisonous. Like CO 2, it is
denser than air and tends to collect in low areas. Its companion acid, hydrogen fluoride
(HF), is highly corrosive and toxic, and causes terrible internal burns and attacks
calcium in the skeletal system. Even after visible gas or acid has dissipated, fluorine
can be absorbed into plants, and may be able to poison people and animals for long

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 periods following an eruption. After the 1783
eruption of Laki in Iceland, fluorine poisoning and famine
caused the deaths of more than half the country's livestock and almost a quarter of its
population.

Ballistic Projectiles
The volcanic ballistic projectiles represent a hazard due to their high velocities and
temperatures. They may affect people, ecology, infrastructure, and aircraft. In order to
avoid volcanic ballistic projectile-related hazards, a map can be constructed. A volcanic
ballistic projectiles hazard map depicts the likely distribution and maximum range of
ballistic projectiles under given explosive scenarios. Different level hazard zones
shown on the map allow local inhabitants and concerned authorities to make
development, protection, and mitigation plans, and to define restricted areas.

In order to determine the potential areas where the ballistics may fall, it is necessary to
estimate their maximum range under different explosive scenarios. Explosive
magnitude scenarios are defined by their characteristic kinetic energy. Therefore, the
ballistic projectiles reach maximum distance from the source according to the
maximum energy for each scenario. The trajectories described for the ballistic
projectiles are determined by gravity and drag forces. Drag force depends, among
other factors, on the drag coefficient (a function of the geometry of the ballistics). The
maximum range of the projectiles depends also on the initial kinetic energy, the
“launching” angle, the ballistic diameter, and the wind velocity. Another relevant aspect
is that drag force is proportional to the air density (which decreases with altitude), and
so projectiles with a given velocity (or kinetic energy) reach larger distances and
heights at volcanoes with higher altitudes. This fact is important in the case of Volcán
de Fuego de Colima (México) where the crater altitude is 3860 m above sea level. This
work presents a useful hazards map for Volcán de Fuego de Colima based on ballistic
data from this and other volcanoes.

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Hazard Zoning for Ballistic Impact during Volcanic Explosion

Signs of an impending volcanic eruption

According to the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), the

government agency tasked with monitoring earthquakes and volcanoes in the country,
the following are commonly observed signs that a volcano
is about to erupt. These may vary from one volcano to another.

1. Increase in the frequency of volcanic quakes with rumbling sounds; occurrence

of volcanic tremors;
2. Increased steaming activity; change in color of steam emission from white to
gray due to entrained ash;
3. Crater glow due to presence of magma at or near the crater;
4. Ground swells (or inflation), ground tilt and ground fissuring due to
magma intrusion;
5. Localized landslides, rockfalls and landslides from the summit area which
not attributable to heavy rains;
6. Noticeable increase in the extent of drying up of vegetation around the
volcano’s upper slopes;
7. Increase in the temperature of hot springs, wells crater lake near the volcano;
8. Noticeable variation in the chemical content of springs, crater lakes within
the vicinity of the volcano;
9. Drying up of springs/wells around the volcano; and,
10. Development of new thermal areas and/or reactivation of old ones; appearance

Interpreting Different Volcano Hazard Maps

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 1. World Major Volcanoes

2. Major Volcanoes of the Philippines

3. Map Showing Pyroclastic flows from Mt. Pinatubo

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 4. Simplified Hazard Map
showing potential impact for ground-based
(Lassen Volcanic Center, California)

5. Map showing Volcanic Hazards Zones

6. Simplified Hazard Map showing potential impact area for ground-

based hazards (Crater Lake, Oregon)

7. A Map Illustrating Hazards at the Ampato-Sabancaya Volcanic

Complex

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Precautionary Measures Before, During, and After Volcanic Eruptions

There are dangers that volcanic eruptions pose to people so it is important that they
know how to handle situations before, during and after volcanic eruptions to avoid
serious problems. The government has agencies that take care of reporting information
about a certain volcano and its activities in order for people to be warned and avoid
unpleasant incidents from happening.

Here are precautionary measures before

1. Each one should be aware of the dangers that volcanic eruptions pose to
lives and
2. be prepared to face whatever circumstances the eruption may bring.
3. Prepare all necessary things to bring once evacuation is needed. Those
indanger zones are warned when to evacuate. Once given the signal
refrain from saying you will be all right. Refusing to evacuate will pose more
serious problems.
4. Store as much food, water, light sources and batteries that are very useful
in case of emergency.
5. Volcanic eruptions have ash falls so be prepared for masks or anything to
cover nose and mouth.
6. Prioritize the safety of kids before other things. If you have relatives or
friends who are far from the volcano, take your children there until such
time that your place is safe.

Here are precautionary measures during volcanic eruptions:

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 1. Avoid all low-lying places because lava
flows and mudflows are more likely to pass here.
2. Seek cover in case of ash falls rock falls.
3. Use masks and cover your mouth and nose to avoid breathing in ashes.
4. If you are inside a house; close all doors and windows to avoid ashes from
getting inside.
5. Always stay indoors.
6. Stay in the evacuation center until further instructions. Do not attempt to leave
the place unless told to do.
7. Keep a watchful eye on the kids because they might be tempted to go out and
see what’s going on outside.

Here are precautionary measures after volcanic eruptions:

1. Go back to your house but leave the kids behind someone who can take care of
them while you check your house.
2. Clean everything around and check all damages incurred.
3. Use masks while cleaning ash and other debris.
4. Wait for further announcements related to the volcano activities.
5. Make sure that your house is still safe for all of you.

Volcanic eruptions could be handled easier than earthquakes because there are early
signs before the actual eruption so you are already prepared at the time of eruption.
Always take precautionary measures in order to avoid serious problems.

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Quiz # 5

Answer the following questions:

1. Explain various volcanic-related hazards.

2. Differentiate among different volcanic hazards.
3. What are the different natural signs of an impending volcanic eruption?
4. Read this aricle (The Catlysmic 1991 Eruption of Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines)
and prepare a reaction paper emphasizing the different hazards caused by
the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in June 1991. Source : U.S. Geological Survey
Fact Sheet, 113-97
5. If you were in Albay and your residence is near Mayon Volcano, prepare a
Family Preparedness Plan in case of a volcanic eruption.

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Other Geological Hazards and their Causes

 Rainfall-Induced Landslide
A landslide is a massive outward and downward movement of slope-forming
materials. The term landslide is restricted to movements of rocks and soil
masses. These masses may range in size up to entire mountainsides. Their
movements may vary in velocity. A landslide is initiated when a section of a hill
slope or sloping section of a sea bed is rendered too weak to support its own
weight. This is generally triggered by other natural hazards such as prolonged,
heavy rainfall or by other sources of water which increase the water content of
the slope materials. Landslide as a geological hazard is caused by earthquake or
volcanic eruption.

Causes of Landslide

1. Natural causes of landslides include:

 Groundwater (pore water) pressure acting to destabilize the slope
 Loss or absence of vertical vegetative structure, soil nutrients and soil
structure (e.g. after a wildfire)
 Erosion of the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean waves
 Weakening of a slope through saturation by snow melt, glaciers melting,
or heavy rains
 Earthquakes adding loads to barely stable slope
 Earthquake- caused liquefaction slopes
 Volcanic eruption

2. Landslides are also aggravated by human activities, such as:

 Deforestation, cultivation and construction, which destabilize the already

fragile slopes.
 Vibrations from machinery or traffic
 Blasting (e.g. as miners normally do)
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  Earthwork which alters the shape
of a slope, or which imposes new loads on an
existing slope
 In shallow soils, the removal of deep-rooted vegetation that binds colluvium
to bedrock (e.g. kaingin farming system)
 Construction works, agricultural or forestry activities (e.g. logging) which
change the amount of water infiltrating the soil.

Effects of Landslides

 Property damage
 Injury and death
 Negative economic effects

Activity # 2

Search and read the account on two major landslides that occurred in the Philippines,
namely the 1999 Cherry Hill Subdivision Landslide and the 2006 Southern Leyte
Mudslide. Analyze the causes and effects of these two landslides and make a report of
your analysis.

Sinkholes

Sinkholes are common where the rock below the land surface is limestone, carbonate
rock, salt beds, or rocks that can naturally be dissolved by groundwater circulating
through them. As the rock dissolves, spaces and caverns develop underground.
Sinkholes are dramatic because the land usually stays intact for a while until the
underground spaces just get too big. If there is not enough support for the land above
the spaces then a sudden collapse of the land surface can occur. These collapses can
be small, or, as this picture shows, or they can be huge and can occur where a house
or road is on top.

Sinkholes can vary from a few feet to hundreds of acres and from less than 1 to more
than 100 feet deep. Some are shaped like shallow bowls or saucers whereas others
have vertical walls; some hold water and form natural ponds.

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Types of sinkholes
Dissolution sinkholes

Dissolution of the limestone or dolomite is most intensive where the water first contacts
the rock surface. Aggressive dissolution also occurs where flow is focussed in
preexisting openings in the rock, such as along joints, fractures, and bedding planes,
and in the zone of water-table fluctuation where groundwater is in contact with the
atmosphere.

Cover-subsidence sinkholes

Cover-subsidence sinkholes tend to develop gradually where the covering sediments

are permeable and contain sand. In areas where cover material is thicker or sediments

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 contain more clay, cover-subsidence
sinkholes are relatively uncommon, are smaller, and may go
undetected for long periods.

Cover-collapse sinkholes

Cover-collapse sinkholes may develop abruptly (over a period of hours) and cause
catastrophic damages. They occur where the covering sediments contain a significant
amount of clay. Over time, surface drainage, erosion, and deposition of sinkhole into a
shallower bowl-shaped depression.

Sinkholes can be human-induced

New sinkholes have been correlated to land-use

practices, especially from groundwater pumping and from
construction and development practices. Sinkholes can
also form when natural water-drainage patterns are
changed and new water-diversion systems are
developed. Some sinkholes form when the land surface is
changed, such as when industrial and runoff-storage
ponds are created. The substantial weight of the new
material can trigger an underground collapse of
supporting material, thus causing a sinkhole.

The overburden sediments that cover buried cavities in

the aquifer systems are delicately balanced by
groundwater fluid pressure. The water below ground is
actually helping to keep the surface soil in place. Groundwater pumping for urban
water supply and for irrigation can produce new sinkholes In sinkhole-prone areas. If
pumping results in a lowering of groundwater levels, then underground structural
failure, and thus, sinkholes, can occur.

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 Signs of Impending Geological Hazards

A. Landslide

1. Earlier landslide as an Indicator

Observing old landslides is a good indication that the area has unstable geology,
and that more landslides are likely in the future. Multiple landslide events in the same
place can be retrogressive, piecemeal, or reactivated. A reactivated landslide is where
something changed at an old, semi-stable landslide, triggering a new failure at the
same location. By looking around an area a whole lot of old landslide scraps and

deposits are seen, this is pretty good indication that even if a particular landslide
doesn’t reactivate, the underlying geology makes the whole region unstable and
susceptible to landslides.

2. Tension Cracks

Tension cracks are created by the stress of geological material pulling apart.
They often mark by eventual landslide scrap, the top edge of the failure zone. They
can be identified as road segment that constantly need long, thin patches, or out in the
wild as actual cracks in the ground. Tension cracks above an existing landslide can
hint at a future reactivation. However, if tension cracks are found on flat ground, they’re
still being created by extensional stress, but are more likely related to a fault than a
landslide.

3. Things Moving

Observable movement and deforestation of things are also indicators of an

impending landslide. The most common among these is that trees are bending up in a
J-curve as sign that the ground slips out from under them.

A patch if angled forest on a slope or J-curved trees somewhere can be a good

indicator that the ground is less solid than it seems. While so far the motion has been
slow, the slope could catastrophically collapse as a rapid landslide, especially if you
find tension cracks farther uphill.

Inside structures, signs of slow shifting can be floors tilting, doors no longer
closing property, or broken utilities. Creaking and cracking can also be warning signs.

4. Water Doing Something Different

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 Another warning signs for a landslide is
changes in water flow. The sudden arrival of water in a
spring, seep or wet ground somewhere that is usually dry indicates that something
changed, and this change is not to be trusted. The sudden disappearance of water is
just ominous. Water levels in a creek suddenly dropping can be due to an upstream
obstruction like a landslide-dam that will break and send a debris flow rushing
downstream. A debris flow is a very wet, very mobile landslide, where water is loaded
with trees, mud, rock, and everything else caught in the torrent. Low water level
precedes the arrival of the debris flow surge.

This list doesn’t cover every possible sign of an impending landslide, nor does
everything on this list immediately lead to a landslide. Listed are warning signs to help
people recognize when it’s time to hire an expert to assess a slope’s stability, or to
make people more aware that something is wrong.

B. Sinkholes

Sinkholes rarely strike without giving some warning in the surrounding

environment or in a nearby home. Here are some signs to watch for they may indicate
a problem about the present and imminent danger of sinkhole:

 Trees or fence posts that tilt or fall

 Foundations that slant
 New small ponds that appear after rain
 Cracks in the ground
 Sudden drainage of a pond
 Rapid appearance of a hole in the ground
 Dips, depressions, slopes that appear in a yard
 Dead patches of grasses or plants
 Sinkholes in the neighborhood
 Wilted vegetation in a limited area
 Well water that is discolored or contaminated with debris
 Cracking or buckling of home’s concrete slabs
 Presence of odd bugs like slugs and centipedes in the home
 Earthy odor in home after rain
 New or widening cracks
 Separation between walls and ceiling or floors

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  Crack in interior walls
 Cracks around door and window frames
 Cracked grout between tiles
 Cracked tiles
 Stair step cracks in blocks or bricks
 Uneven floors, warping of hardwood, bulging or sagging sections
 Doors or windows that don’t open or close easily
 Cracks on sheetrock near doors or windows

Precautionary Measures

Sinkhole formation cannot really be predicted, but there are things people can
watch out for and precautions that can be taken.

1. Watch for signs of water disappearing from the surface (for example, the sudden
loss of a steam or retention pond).
2. If a sinkhole occurs in an area of traffic, barricade it to prevent motorists or
pedestrians from getting too close to it. Remember that the size can continue to
increase, so barricade it with ample room to spare.
3. Check fields before undertaking machine-related activities, such as haying or
harvesting.
4. Keep tractors and heavy machinery far enough away from the sinkhole, since the
ground near the edge can easily give away.
5. Sinkholes will be more prevalent during times of increased and rapid rainfall,
such as with the type of rains occurring during a hurricane.
6. Call emergency hotlines and advise them of the sinkhole and of the hole which is
near utility lines or in a roadway.
7. Restrict access to the hole
8. Don’t get too close to or go down into the hole.
9. Do not allow unauthorized or inexperienced persons to investigate to sinkhole.

Mitigation Strategies to Prevent Loss of Lives and Properties In Case Of

Landslide

Landslides can be very dangerous occurrences that are oftentimes extremely

deadly. In this post you will learn about early warning signs regarding landslides, what
to do during the event, and what steps/precautions should be taken post-slide.

Before the Landslide:

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 There are several ways for an individual to
detect what has the potential to be a landslide. Oftentimes,
porches and decks will begin to lean and soil will start moving. If one is in his or her
house he or she may check doors and see if they are jammed, because if they are then
chances are there is going to be a landslide. These are only a few warning signs that
can prepare a household for what could be a catastrophic event.

During the Landslide:

Of course if you can leave the area after detecting the warning signs then that is the
best case scenario. However, running from a landslide is a very difficult task. If it is
inevitable that you will not be able to evacuate then it is very important to stay in the
household, notify the fire department, notify neighbors, and protect yourself from
objects that may cause harm or damage to your body. The precautions are similar to
those of tornados where one stays away from the windows and items that may fall from
shelves or higher grounds.

After the landslide:

After the landslide it is very important to stay aware of what is occurring around the
community. If a radio or television is available, one must watch the news and know
where the danger areas are. It is imperative that one stays away from danger zones
because there may be after effects where other slides can occur. Also, if one feels
comfortable and ambitious then he or she must replace the damaged ground in order
to prevent further landslides. Even though landslides are natural and occur often, it is
important that the public is aware of the situation and it can be as prepared as possible
in case the hazard does occur.

Geological Hazard Map

1. Earthquake-Triggered Landslide Susceptibility Map

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2. Flow and Landslides Susceptibility Map

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 Quiz # 7

1. Discuss briefly the two geological hazards presented in this Chapter.

2. Explain the causes of each geological hazard.

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Hydrometeorological Hazards
Hydrometeorology is a branch of meteorology and hydrology that studies the
transfer of water and energy between the land surface and the
[1]
lower atmosphere. UNESCO has several programs and activities in place that deal
with the study of natural hazards of hydro meteorological origin and the mitigation of
their effects. Among these hazards are the results of natural processes or phenomena
of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature such as floods, tropical
cyclones, drought and desertification. Many countries have established an operational
hydro meteorological capability to assist with forecasting, warning and informing the
public of these developing hazards.

Potential hydro meteorological Hazards

Cyclone

A cyclone is an intense low pressure system which characterized by strong spiral

winds towards the center, called the “eye” in a counter-clockwise flow in the northern
hemisphere. Hazards due to tropical cyclones are strong winds with heavy rainfall that
can cause widespread flooding/flash floods, storm surges, landslides, and mudflows.

Classification of Cyclone

 Tropical Depression- maximum winds from 35 kilometers per hour (kph)

to 63 kph
 Tropical Storm- maximum winds from 64 kph to 118 kph
 Typhoon- maximum winds exceeding 118kph

Typhoon
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 A typhoon is a large, powerful
and violent tropical cyclone. It is a low pressure area
rotating counterclockwise and containing rising warm air that forms over warm
water in the Western Pacific Ocean. Less powerful tropical cyclones are called
Tropical Depressions and Tropical Storm. A typhoon is called a hurricane in
the Atlantic Ocean, a cyclone in the Indian Ocean and wily-wily in Australia.
Typhoons can inflict terrible damage due to thunderstorms, violent winds,
torrential rain, floods, and landslides large and very big waves associated with
storm surges. Hurricane-force winds can reach out as little as 40 km from the
center of a small hurricane and as far as 240 km in a large hurricane.

Tropical storm-force winds can extend as far as 480km from the center of a
large hurricane. These are very dangerous storms.

Thunderstorm

A thunderstorm, also known as an electrical storm, lightning storm,

or thundershower, is a storm characterized by the presence of lightning and
its acoustic effect on the Earth's atmosphere, known as thunder.[1]Thunderstorms occur
in association with a type of cloud known as a cumulonimbus. They are usually
accompanied by strong winds, heavy rain, and sometimes snow, sleet, hail, or, in
contrast, no precipitation at all. Thunderstorms may line up in a series or become
a rainband, known as a squall line. Strong or severe thunderstorms, known
as supercells, rotate as do cyclones. While most thunderstorms move with the mean
wind flow through the layer of the troposphere that they occupy, vertical wind
shear sometimes causes a deviation in their course at a right angle to the wind shear
direction.

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Warm, moist updraft from a thunderstorm associated with a southward-moving frontal
boundary – taken from Texarkana, Texas looking north.
Thunderstorms result from the rapid upward movement of warm, moist air, sometimes
along a front. As the warm, moist air moves upward, it cools, condenses, and forms a
cumulonimbus cloud that can reach heights of over 20 kilometres (12 mi). As the rising

air reaches its dew point temperature, water vapor condenses into water droplets or
ice, reducing pressure locally within the thunderstorm cell. Any precipitation falls the
long distance through the clouds towards the Earth's surface. As the droplets fall, they
collide with other droplets and become larger. The falling droplets create
a downdraft as it pulls cold air with it, and this cold air spreads out at the Earth's
surface, occasionally causing strong winds that are commonly associated with
thunderstorms.

Tornado

A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that spins while in contact with both
the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of
a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,
[1]
although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather system with
a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many
shapes and sizes, but they are typically in the form of a visible condensation
funnel originating from the base of a huge storm cloud, whose narrow end touches the
earth and is often encircled by a basal cloud of debris and dust. Most tornadoes have
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 wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour
(180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a
few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can
attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two
miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than
100 km).[3][4][5]

Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex

tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling
funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud.
They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies
of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes.
These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator,
and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in
nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil. Downbursts are
frequently confused with tornadoes, though their action is dissimilar.

Flash Flood

A flash flood is a rapid flooding of geomorphic low-lying areas like washes, rivers,
dry lakes and basins. It may cause by heavy rain associated with severe thunderstorm,
hurricane, tropical storm, or melt water from ice or snowfields.

Flood

Flood is the inundation of lands areas which are not normally covered by water. It
is usually caused by temporary rise or the over-flowing of a river, stream, or other
water source, inundating adjacent lands or floods-plains.

Storm Surge

Storm surge is a rise of seawater above normal sea level on the coast. Sea level
is raised and driven towards the coast. Where the depth is shallow and the slope of the
sea bed is gradual, the natural flow of the water is delayed by effect of friction on the
sea bed.
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 El Niño and La Niña

El Niño and La Niña are complex weather patterns resulting from variations in
ocean temperatures in the Equatorial Pacific. These two phenomena are opposite
phases of what is known as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle. The
ENSO cycle is a scientific term that describes the fluctuations temperature between the
oceans at atmosphere in the east-central Equatorial Pacific.

La Niña is sometimes referred to as the ENSO and El Niño as the warm phase of
ENSO.

Signs of impending storm or hurricane

72 hours

Little has changed, except that the swell on the ocean surface has increased to

about six feet and the waves come in every nine seconds. This means that the storm,
far over the horizon, is approaching.

48 hours

The sky is now clear of clouds, the barometer is steady, and the wind is almost calm.

The swell is now about nine feet and coming in every eight seconds.

36 hours

The first signs of the storm appear. The barometer is falling slightly, the wind is around
11 mph, and the ocean swell is about 13 feet and coming in seven seconds apart. On
the horizon, a large mass of white cirrus clouds appear.

As the veil of clouds approaches, it covers more of the horizon.

A hurricane watch is issued, and areas with long evacuation times are given the order
to begin.

30 hours

The sky is covered by a high overcast. The barometer is falling at .1 millibar per hour;
winds pick up to about 23 mph.

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 The ocean swell, coming in five seconds
apart, is beginning to be obscured by wind-driven waves,
and small whitecaps begin to appear on the ocean surface.

24 hours

Small low clouds appear overhead. The barometer is falling by .2 millibars per hour,
the wind picks up to 34 mph. The wind driven waves are covered in whitecaps, and
streaks of foam begin to ride over the surface. Evacuations should be completed and
final preparations made by this time. A hurricane warning is issued, and people living in
low lying areas and in mobile homes are ordered to evacuate.

18 hours

The low clouds are thicker and bring driving rain squalls with gusty winds. The
barometer is steadily falling at half a millibar per hour and the winds are whistling by at
46 mph. It is hard to stand against the wind.

12 hours

The rain squalls are more frequent and the winds don’t diminish after they depart. The
cloud ceiling is getting lower, and the barometer is falling at 1 millibar per hour. The
wind is howling at hurricane force at 74 mph. The sea advances with every storm wave
that crashes ashore, and foam patches.

6 hours

The rain is constant and the 92 mph wind drives it horizontally. The barometer is falling
1.5 millibar per hour, and the storm surge has advanced above the high tide mark.
Thesea surface a whitish mass of spray. It is impossible to stand upright outside
without bracing yourself.

1 hour

The rain becomes heavier. Low areas inland become flooded. The winds are at 104
mph, and the barometer is falling at 2 millibar per hour. The sea is white with foam and
streaks. The storm surge has covered coastal roads and 16 foot waves crash into
buildings near the shore.

The eye

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 Just as the storm reaches its peak, the
winds begin to slacken, and the sky starts to brighten. The
rain ends abruptly, and the clouds break and blue sky is seen. The barometer
continues falling at 3 millibar per hour and the storm surge reaches the furthest inland.

The winds fall to near calm, but the air is uncomfortably warm and humid. Huge walls
of cloud appear on every side, brilliant white in the sunlight.

At this point, the barometer stops falling and in a moment begins to rise, soon as fast
as it fell. The winds begin to pick up slightly and the clouds on the far side of the eye
wall loom overhead

What to do before, during and after typhoon?

Before a Typhoon

Stock your emergency kit. You should have a flashlight, a multi-purpose tool like a
Swiss knife, extra batteries, a first aid kit with a full complement of bandages and
medicine and other medical supplies to last your family up to a week (especially if
someone has a condition which requires daily medication), sanitation and hygiene

items (you don’t want to run out of toilet paper when there’s a chance the water could
be shut off), and a laminated card listing family and emergency contact information, a
cell phone (make sure it’s loaded if you’re on a prepaid plan), charger, and extra cash.

o Check and top up your food and water supplies. Make sure you have a good
supply of non-perishable, easy-to-prepare food as well as clean water you won’t need
to access the tap for. You should also check that you have what’s needed to prepare
the food (e.g., can openers and the like). Also check that you have filled pails with
water in your bathroom in case the water gets turned off in your area, but also be
careful to leave these covered so as not to provide a breeding ground for mosquitoes.

o Cover up your windows and draw your blinds or curtains. If you live in an area
directly in the path of the storm, board up your windows or cover them with cardboard.
You should also draw your blinds and curtains, as if these break and blow inward,
debris will hopefully get caught by the blinds and curtains rather than flying into your
home.

o Check your house’s drainage system for debris. If your home’s drainage system is
efficient, this will lessen your chances of leaks and flooding due to backed-up drains
and the like.

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o Elevate your
water should be moved to a higher level, preferably an upper
floor if you have one. Just make sure not to stack things too high or to stack heavy
items above shoulder level, as these could fall over and injure someone.
o Load a radio with batteries. You’ll want to be able to monitor the situation from the
safety of your home, so make sure you have means to do so that isn’t reliant on roof-
mounted satellites or cables that could be damaged by the storm.

o Charge up your power banks and emergency lights. Chances are high that you’ll
lose power at some point if the storm hits your area hard. In fact, even if it doesn’t, you
may still experience some power outage. So make sure you have rechargeable lights
you can leave around the house, and that these are charged before the storm hits, and
make sure you have the ability to charge up your mobile phones if they run out of juice.

o Identify an alternate safe area. Should you need to evacuate, already have a plan as
to where to go. Or if you are caught out in a storm, your family should know where
you’re most likely to spend the night. This is likely to be a friend’s or relative’s house,
o
o
o
o so make sure you ask them in advance if it’s all right to stay with them should the
typhoon necessitate it.

During a Typhoon

o Stay inside as much as possible. It’s likely that home is the safest place to be;
certainly going outdoors in rough weather is a bad idea, not just because you could be
lashed by wind, rain, and debris and floodwaters may have risen, but also because
visibility is poor. This results in a higher risk of road accidents and other mishaps.

o Keep everyone in your household calm. Panic will make mistakes more likely, and
this can lead to injuries or worse. What’s more, if you have family pets, they will most
likely take your cue from you; if your family is calm, it’s likely your pet will be too—
although make sure your pet is safe and indoors with you rather than outside at the
mercy of the elements.

Monitor local radio. Someone should be on the alert for evacuation warnings and
other developments like unpassable roads and the like. Radio stations are the most
reliable source of news during a thunderstorm, provided your radio is battery-operated.

o Be smart about food and water consumption. Consume perishables first as you
never know when the electricity might conk out. If the water is turned off in your area,
you might want to save the water in those precious pails you filled up in the bathroom

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 for quickly washing faces, arms, and legs
or for a simple sponge bath instead of using these up
bathing.

o Only use your mobile phone for important things. The power could go out at any
time during a storm, and this may not be restored for days. So it’s a good idea to
conserve your mobile phone’s batteries, especially if you have a smartphone that rarely
lasts a day without charging. Turn off non-essential functions like WiFi, bluetooth, and
cellular data, and avoid playing games, no matter how boring getting cooped up in the
house might be.

o If it starts to flood, turn off the main power. You don’t want live outlets that could be
waterlogged and charge any flood waters that might invade your home, so make sure
all adults in the household know how to turn off the main power if need be. If there’s an
option to turn off power on the ground level while maintaining power on upper levels, all
the better.

o If you must wade through flood waters, wash with clean water as soon as
possible.This is fairly self-explanatory as flood waters are visibly filthy, but we’ll add
one more tip: if you have any open wounds or acquire them while walking in floods,
make sure you disinfect and treat these right away.

o Be wary of live wires or water-logged outlets. These could charge the floodwaters
in the area, so if you see that your ground floor is flooded above outlet level and you
weren’t able to turn off the power to your home, do not venture into the water, even if
this is below knee level.

o Immediately tend to any injuries. We’ve already mentioned the importance of doing
this should you walk through floodwater, but this is also important if anyone gets cuts
or bruises from falling items or flying debris. And if anyone gets hit in the head.

After a Typhoon

o Continue to monitor news sites, radio stations, or TV channels. This will help you
keep abreast of what roads are passable, what areas are still at risk, and so on.

o Run a check on electricals before using them. Electrocution is a very real risk in the
aftermath of a storm, so have an electrician check the wiring in your home as well as
any appliances you might have. Also be sure that any electrical devices are thoroughly
dried out before being used.

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 Wear protective gear while dealing with
debris. You don’t want to risk cutting yourself on rusty nails
or pieces of tin from roofs or anything like that, so make sure you wear thick gloves
(garden gloves should come in handy) when clearing your home of debris. You should
also wear sturdy boots.

o Check for contamination of your food and water. If the power failed, throw out
anything in your fridge that might have gone bad. Check your water supplies as well,
and make sure you throw out anything that’s been exposed to rain water.

o Dump water that may have accumulated in containers like pots, cans, etc. You
don’t want to have possible breeding grounds for dengue-bearing mosquitoes around
your home, so if there is anything that might hold stagnant water, make sure you clear
it as soon as possible.

Tools in Tracking the Storm

Doppler Radar

The emitted signal toward the car is reflected back with a variation of frequency that
depend on the speed away/toward the radar (160 km/h). This is only a component of
the real speed (170 km/h).
The Doppler effect (or Doppler shift), named after Austrian physicist Christian
Doppler who proposed it in 1842, is the difference between the
observed frequency and the emitted frequency of a wave for an observer moving
relative to the source of the waves. It is commonly heard when a vehicle sounding a
siren approaches, passes and recedes from an observer. The received frequency is
higher (compared to the emitted frequency) during the approach, it is identical at the
instant of passing by, and it is lower during the recession. This variation of frequency
also depends on the direction the wave source is moving with respect to the observer;
it is maximum when the source is moving directly toward or away from the observer
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 and diminishes with increasing angle
between the direction of motion and the direction of the
waves, until when the source is moving at right angles to the observer, there is no shift.
Imagine a baseball pitcher throwing one ball every second to a catcher (a frequency of
1 ball per second). Assuming the balls travel at a constant velocity and the pitcher is
stationary, the catcher catches one ball every second. However, if the pitcher is jogging
towards the catcher, the catcher catches balls more frequently because the balls are
less spaced out (the frequency increases). The inverse is true if the pitcher is moving
away from the man. He catches balls less frequently because of the pitcher's backward
motion (the frequency decreases). If the pitcher moves at an angle, but at the same
speed, the frequency variation at which the receiver catches balls is less, as the
distance between the two changes more slowly.
From the point of view of the pitcher, the frequency remains constant (whether he's
throwing balls or transmitting microwaves). Since with electromagnetic radiation like
microwaves frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength, the wavelength of the

waves is also affected. Thus, the relative difference in velocity between a source and
an observer is what gives rise to the doppler effect.

Different Hydro-Meteorological Hazard Maps

1. Map showing global distribution of flood risk areas

2. Map showing global distribution and seasons of tropical storms

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3. Map showing global distribution of drought risk areas

4. Map showing seismic , volcanic and tropical storm risk in the Philippines

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Fire Hazards

Fire hazards include all types of live flames, causes of sparks, hot objects, and
chemicals that are potential for ignition, or that can aggravate a fire to become large
and uncontrolled. Fire hazards also include all types of potential threats to fire
prevention practices, firefighting, built-in fire safety systems and situations that restrict
the escape of people from an affected building or area in the event of a fire.

Common Fire Hazards in the Workplace

Flammable liquids and vapours

This may be more of a threat in some types of workplace than others. Those
particularly at risk include industrial warehouses and factories where there may be
large amounts of flammable liquids and vapours stored. This can also cover anywhere
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 that these materials are present such as
garages, hotels and kitchens. Flammable liquids can ignite
instantly when they come into contact with a spark or naked flame. Vapours are also
particularly dangerous as they spread out, carrying the risk of an explosion with
devastating consequences.
To reduce the risk of a fire, always ensure that flammable liquid and solvent containers
are sealed properly and if any spills do happen, they are cleaned up immediately.
Dust build-up
Dust and powder from wood, plastic and metal operations can cause explosions in
enclosed spaces if there is no proper ventilation. Extraction fans should be installed in
places where there is a risk of dust in the air, for example in environments such as
mines and factories. Equipment and machinery that heats up when used should also
be kept clean and free of grease and dust so that this does not burn, starting a fire.
Objects that generate heat
Heat is one of the vital ingredients of fire. Some electrical equipment and machinery
warms up when used providing the potential for a fire to start. Make sure you keep
combustible materials such as paper away from heat sources and remember to unplug
any equipment that is not being used if possible. Never leave any electrical equipment
or machinery on overnight unless it is necessary.
Faulty electrical equipment
Fires caused by electrical equipment are one of the most common types of fire in the
workplace. Look out for any signs of loose cabling, damaged plugs and replace any
faulty equipment. All electrical equipment should be regularly checked and PAT tested
by an expert.
Overloading power sockets
This is a fairly common cause of electrical fires but it is one that is easily avoided. If too
many appliances are plugged into the same socket or if faulty extension cords are
used, this can result in overheating and potentially a fire. Always make sure that you
use one plug in each socket and don’t use appliances that total more than 13amps or
3000 watts across the whole socket.

Smoking
Discarded cigarettes can cause fires if not put out and disposed of properly. Smoking
can be especially hazardous if it is allowed to take place near areas where flammable
materials are present. Therefore a designated smoking area should be allocated in
your workplace away from main buildings and flammables. Staff should also be

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 encouraged to make sure that any cigarettes
are put out properly and to use specially provided bins for
their cigarettes.
Human error and negligence
It has to be said that one of the most common causes of fires in the workplace is
human error. Fires can occur as a result of negligence in a variety of different ways
including improper use of equipment, accidents, drinks being spilt over electrical
equipment and leaving cooking unattended.
Although you cannot completely remove the human error factor, through proper
training you can take steps to reduce it by providing effective training and guidance for
your staff advising on best fire safety practice.

Elements of the fire triangle

The fire triangles or combustion triangles or ″fire diamond″ are simple models for
understanding the necessary ingredients for most fires.[1]
The triangle illustrates the three elements a fire needs to ignite: heat, fuel, and
an oxidizing agent (usually oxygen). A fire naturally occurs when the elements are
present and combined in the right mixture,[2] meaning that fire is actually an event
rather than a thing. A fire can be prevented or extinguished by removing any one of the
elements in the fire triangle. For example, covering a fire with a fire blanket removes
the oxygen part of the triangle and can extinguish a fire. In large fires where firefighters
are called in, decreasing the amount of oxygen is not usually an option because there
is no effective way to make that happen in an extended area.[3]

R.A.C.E. METHOD FOR FIRE RESPONSE

The R.A.C.E. method for responding to a fire emergency:

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 R – Rescue

Move patients and assist visitors or impaired employees away from immediate
danger of fire or smoke IF YOU CAN DO THIS WITHOUT PUTTING YOURSELF IN
IMMEDIATE DANGER and IF THERE ARE OTHER STAFF AVAILABLE TO
COMMUNICATE THE EMERGENCY AND TURN IN THE ALARM.

A - Alert others

Activate manual pull station alarm as soon as possible. Call #6688 and state the
location, type of fire and size. Notify co-workers - and make sure everybody in the
area, and in other departments in your area, know as well.

C – Confine

Close all doors and windows. Pack sheets and towels under doors to contain
smoke.
If there is oxygen in the area

 Oxygen to a patient can be shut off by a nurse at the bedside after other staff
have the patient and are ventilating them.
 Oxygen to a zone (a whole unit) can ONLY be shut off by Maintenance and
Engineering after nursing staff authorize it (patients on oxygen are cared for).
 Oxygen to the building is only shut off after the Fire Marshal orders it and after
nursing staff authorize it (patients on oxygen are cared for).

E – Extinguish

Select the appropriate fire extinguisher. Use the P-A-S-S technique to extinguisher
the fire. (see below for P-A-S-S technique)

E – Evacuate

Move people (patients, parents, visitors, staff) to next lateral fire compartment on
the 1st, and 4th through 8th floors. On 2E and 3E and 2W and 3W, move 2
compartments laterally.

Stay in the evacuation area until ordered to move by the Fire Marshal.
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 Staff on floors above the fire use fire
stairwells to evacuate.
Staff on the 3rd floor use stairwells to evacuate patients to the 2nd floor if ordered to
do so.

Patients are evacuated from the building by the 2nd floor crosswalk.
Close doors behind you.

If you are not at the scene of the fire, make sure you can hear overhead instructions
and the 'all clear'. Have someone posted in the hallway to relay this information.
LISTEN for the "Dr. Red, All Clear" announcement or further instructions.

REMEMBER

√ Memorize the telephone number to call to report a fire in the building - #6688.
(770-6688)
√ Learn how many fire compartments there are, and their locations, in your work area.
√ Know the R.A.C.E. response to fires.
√ Learn the differences between response to fire at the scene of the fire, and response
to a fire on a different floor or in a different compartment.

Fire Emergency and Evaluation Plan

A fire emergency evacuation plan (FEEP) is a written document which includes the
action to be taken by all staff in the event of fire and the arrangements for calling the
fire brigade. It can include any relevant information in relation to the FEEP.

General Fire Notice For small premises this could take the form of a simple fire action
sign posted in positions where staff and relevant persons can read it and become
familiar with its contents.

Staff Fire Notice High fire risks or large premises will need more detailed emergency
evacuation plan which takes account of the findings of the risk assessment, e.g. the
staff significantly at risk and their location. In addition notices giving clear and concise
instructions of the routine to be followed in case of fire should be prominently
displayed.

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 In certain cases you should nominate
persons to implement the fire action plan and give them
adequate training in fire fighting and evacuation procedures. The following items
should be considered where appropriate:

 Fire evacuation strategy

 Action on discovering a fire
 Action on hearing the fire alarm
 Calling the fire brigade
 Power/process isolation
 Identification of key escape routes
 Fire wardens/marshals
 Places of assembly and roll call
 Fire fighting equipment provided
 Training required
 Personal Emergence Evacuation Plan
 Liaison with emergency services

Fire evacuation strategy

You need to consider how you will arrange the evacuation of the premises in the light
of your risk assessment and the other fire precautions you have or intend to put in
place.

Simultaneous Evacuation

In most premises, the evacuation in case of fire will simply be by means of everyone
reacting to the warning signal given when a fire is discovered, then making their way,
by the means of escape, to a place of safety away from the premises. This is known as
a simultaneous evacuation and will normally be initiated by the sounding of the general
alarm over the fire warning system.

Vertical Phased Evacuation.

In some larger complex premises, the emergency arrangements are designed to allow
people who are not at immediate risk from a fire to delay starting their evacuation. It
may be appropriate to start the evacuation by initially evacuating only the area closest
to the fire and warning other people to stand by. This is normally done by immediately
evacuating the floor where the fire is located and the floor above. The other floors are
then evacuated one by one to avoid congestion on the escape routes. The rest of the
people are then evacuated if it is necessary to do so. The fire warning system should
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 be capable of giving two distinctly different
signals (warning and evacuation) or give appropriate voice
messages. Horizontal Phased EvacuationIn hospitals, and care homes the floor maybe
divided into a number of fire resisting compartments and the occupants are moved
from the compartment involved in fire to the adjacent compartment and if necessary
moved again. Depending onto the fire situation it may eventually be necessary to
consider vertical evacuation. Because of the extra time this type of evacuation takes,
other fire precautions maybe be required. These include:

 voice alarm systems

 fire control points
 compartmentation of the premises using fire-resisting construction
 sprinklers in buildings where the top floor is 30 metres or more above ground
level

Staff Alarm Evacuation (Silent Alarm)

In some cases it may not be appropriate for a general alarm to start immediate
evacuation. (Cinemas and Theatres) This could be because of the number of members
of the public present and the need for the staff to put pre-arranged plans for the safe
evacuation of the premises into action. In such circumstances a staff alarm can be
given (by fire records, personal pagers, discreet sounders or a coded phrase on a
public address system etc). Following the staff alarm, a more general alarm signal can
be given and a simultaneous or phased evacuation started. The general alarm may be
activated automatically if manual initiation has not taken place within a pre-determined
time.

Defend in Place

This strategy may be considered in blocks of flats were each flat is a minimum 60
minutes fire resisting compartment. It may also be considered in hospitals or nursing
homes were patients are connected to life supporting equipment and cannot be
moved. The concept allows the occupants to stay put and allow the fire service to

extinguish the fire. If the fire spreads and it cannot be controlled then they will initiate a
full evacuation. In the case of patients connected to life supporting equipment then a
decision would have to be made which option is the best, stay or move, either way the
patient would be at serious risk.

You should only plan to use defend in place or phased evacuation schemes, or a staff
alarm system, if you have sought the advice of a competent person and the fire and
rescue service. Action on discovering a fire:

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 On discovering a fire, it is the duty of every
person to sound the nearest fire alarm immediately. The plan
should include the method of raising the alarm in the case of fire.

Action on hearing the fire alarm

The plan should instruct all personnel upon on hearing the fire alarm to act in
accordance with the agreed FEEP strategy and if a fire warden’s scheme is in force
they, on hearing the alarm, should proceed to pre-determined positions to assist
members of the public and staff to leave the building by the nearest safe route.

Lifts and escalators should not be used due to possible electrical failure unless they
are part of a Personal Emergency Evacuation Plan.

Personnel should not re-enter the building with the possible exception of the Fire
Team.

Calling the fire brigade

The Fire Service should also be informed immediately, either by switchboard operator
or person discovering fire, dependant on conditions.

 Work Time – Switchboard operator to be conversant with the emergency

evacuation plan, also should ensure necessary extensions switched through,
when switchboard is unattended.
 Other Times – Remainder of Staff (Cleaners, caretakers etc) also to be
conversant with procedure. In any case the senior official should ensure that Fire
Service is called in the event of an outbreak of fire.

Power/process isolation

Close Down Procedure – Adopt your own ‘ Close Down’ procedure as appropriate

Identification of key escape routes

In premises where members of the public or persons unfamiliar with layout of the
premises are present there should be means available to identify the key escape
routes. They could include schematic drawings and most importantly emergency
escape and exit signs.

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Activity # 3

From your group of five members. Draw a sample Fire Escape Plan for your school
and discuss in the class.

An Example Fire Escape Plan

The following fire escape plan was provided by silverbearfire.

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Fire Wardens/Marshals

The Responsible Person where necessary to safeguard the safety of employees

should nominate employees to implement certain fire safety measures which will
include the fire evacuation. The general term used for these people are fire wardens or
fire marshals.
The need for fire wardens depends on the size and complexity of the premises. You
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 may require one on each floor or department
with a chief fire warden coordinating their actions to make
sure all persons are accounted for in the event of a fire. They also require special
training above the needs of the normal employee, this training could be in house or by
an external fire training organisation. They should be competent in the use of fire
extinguishers and be capable of extinguishing small fires. They should have some
knowledge of fire prevention and be able to identify possible fire hazards to prevent fire
from occurring. Finally they should have an in depth knowledge of the FEEP and their
role in implementing it.

The duties and responsibilities of Fire Wardens/Marshals

A senior official in each building [Chief Fire Warden] should be given the responsibility
of maintaining a high standard of fire precautions and the overall responsibility for the
action in the event of fire. He/she should have a nominated deputy.

Evacuation fire wardens should be appointed for each room/department/floor as

applicable and each warden should have a nominated deputy.

Fire Wardens/Marshals should be responsible for

 Fire routine and evacuation drill procedure

 Ensuring personnel know location of fire alarm points.
 Ensuring regular use of primary and secondary escape routes.
 The close down procedure
 Procedure for nominated staff to assist employees and members of the public to
nearest exits.

A senior fire warden/marshall should be made responsible for ensuring that notices are
correctly sited the fire emergency evacuation plan is properly distributed and under
stood by all.

Places of assembly and roll call

Personnel should assemble at a pre-determined assembly point.

1. Pre-determined assembly points should be arranged and a roll call of staff to be

taken. The person who is in charge of the assemble point should report to the
person who as been nominated the fire service liaison person indicating all
persons accounted for or whose missing and where they were last seen.

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 2. Another consideration when selecting
the location for an assemble site is to fully understand
the fire emergence evacuation plan. Calculate the number of staff that would
need to assemble and if it was a multi-occupied building you would need to co-
operate with the other occupants.
3. It is also very important to be familiar with the surrounding topography.
4. The assemble point should be far enough away from the building not to put staff
in danger of radiated heat and falling debris. Give ample room so you do not
interfere with fire fighting operations and do not jeopardise the actions
of the fire service.
5. Be close enough to ensure that the nominate person who is in charge of the
assemble point; can communicate with the nominated fire liaison person who
should be located near the main entrance. This could be simple talking to him
direct, or the use of runners or electronic communications (pack sets, mobile
phone)
6. The area chosen should be larger enough to accommodate all the staff, if this
cannot be found you may have to consider additional sites. Open areas are ideal
like pedestrian areas also car parks could be considered but be aware of the
dangers.
7. It should not be in an enclosed area and the staff should be able to disperse
without the need to pass close to the premises on fire.
8. Inclement weather needs to be considered and some form of shelter or other
weather protection may be necessary as the staff are most likely to have
evacuated without collecting their out of doors clothing.
9. Use appropriate signs where this is feasible as it leaves no doubts in the minds
of staff

Firefighting equipment provided

A nominated fire team, if available, or any trained competent person should, where
possible, attack fire with appropriate equipment however fire fighting is always
secondary to life safety.

DO NOT PUT ANY PERSONS AT RISK.

Training required

The emergency evacuation plan should be the subject of frequent training so all
employees are familiar with its contents and there should be regular evacuation drills.
You are required to carry out this fire training and it is recommended that you keep a

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 record of the results of that training. This will
assist you if you are ever required to prove your actions in
the future.

The fire emergency evacuation plan must be included in the instruction and training
you need to give your employees. Effective fire routine is dependent on regular
instruction, training, practice, etc. Regular drills should be carried out using varying
escape routes assuming the normal evacuation route is not available.

Fire drills should consider the following points:

 Regular intervals
 Records kept
 There should be drills completed at least once a year, from sounding of alarm to
roll call procedure
 Fire Alarms and Fire Fighting Equipment should be tested at weekly intervals and
records kept
 Fire equipment regularly serviced

In order to assist disabled or sensory-impaired people to escape from fire it may be

necessary for staff to be trained in the correct procedures to cope with this eventuality.
Advice on the specific needs of disabled and sensory-impaired people can be obtained
from organizations representing the various groups. The address and telephone
number of these organizations can be found in the telephone directory, listed under the
appropriate disability. You must take account not only of the people in your premises
(employed
or otherwise) who may be able to make their own escape, but also those who may
need assistance to escape, e.g. by having adequate staffing levels especially in
premises providing treatment or care.

Liaison with emergency services

You should arrange all the necessary contacts with external emergency services and
make them familiar with your fire action plan.

There should be senior person nominated to meet the fire and rescue service when
they arrived to provide them with any information they require. S/he should have an
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 intimate knowledge of the premises and be
in contact with the person conducting the roll call at the
assemble point.

Quiz # 8

Answer the following questions:

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 1. Identify the three elements of the
Fire Triangle and explain how it is created.
2. Enumerate the different causes of fire. Explain each.
3. Summarize the basic response procedures during a fire incident.

Disaster And Risk Reduction Management

The policy objective of anticipating and reducing risk is called disaster risk reduction
(DRR). Although often used interchangeably with DRR, disaster risk management
(DRM) can be thought of as the implementation of DRR, since it describes the actions
that aim to achieve the objective of reducing risk.

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 Disaster risk is an indicator of poor
development, so reducing disaster risk requires integrating
DRR policy and DRM practice into sustainable development goals.

What is disaster risk reduction?

Historically, dealing with disasters focused on emergency response, but towards the
end of the 20th century it was increasingly recognised that disasters are not natural
(even if the associated hazard is) and that it is only by reducing and managing
conditions of hazard, exposure and vulnerability that we can prevent losses and
alleviate the impacts of disasters. Since we cannot reduce the severity of natural
hazards, the main opportunity for reducing risk lies in reducing vulnerability and
exposure. Reducing these two components of risk requires identifying and reducing the
underlying drivers of risk, which are particularly related to poor economic and urban
development choices and practice, degradation of the environment, poverty and
inequality and climate change, which create and exacerbate conditions
of hazard, exposure and vulnerability. Addressing these underlying risk drivers will
reduce disaster risk, lessen the impacts of climate change and, consequently, maintain
the sustainability of development (UNISDR, 2015a).

We need to manage risks, not just disasters.

DRR is a part of sustainable development, so it must involve every part of society,

government, non-governmental organizations and the professional and private sector.
It therefore requires a people-centred and multi-sector approach, building resilience to
multiple, cascading and interacting hazards and creating a culture of prevention and
resilience. Consequently DRM includes strategies designed to:

 avoid the construction of new risks

 address pre-existing risks
 share and spread risk to prevent disaster losses being absorbed by other
development outcomes and creating additional poverty

Although DRM includes disaster preparedness and response activities, it is about

much more than managing disasters (UNISDR, 2015a).

Successful DRR results from the combination of top-down, institutional changes and
strategies, with bottom-up, local and community-based approaches. DRM programmes
should not be standalone but instead be integrated within development planning and
practice, since disasters are an indicator of failed or skewed development, of
unsustainable economic and social processes, and of ill-adapted societies (UNISDR,

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 2009b, 2011, 2013 and 2015a). Approaches
need to address the different layers of risk (from intensive to
extensive risk), underlying risk drivers, as well as be tailored to local contexts. There is
no ‘one-size fits all’ approach to DRM, but there exist a number of approaches and
frameworks, which have been effectively implemented to reduce disaster risk. But,
before being able to reduce risk, we need to understand the hazards, and the exposure
and vulnerability of people and assets to those hazards.

How do we reduce risk?

Disaster risk management involves activities related to:

Prevention

The outright avoidance of adverse impacts of hazards and related disasters (often less
costly than disaster relief and response). For instance, relocating exposed people and
assets away from a hazard area.

Mitigation

The lessening or limitation of the adverse impacts of hazards and related disasters. For
instance, constructing flood defences, planting trees to stabilize slopes and
implementing strict land use and building construction codes.

Transfer

The process of formally or informally shifting the financial consequences of particular

risks from one party to another whereby a household, community, enterprise or state
authority will obtain resources from the other party after a disaster occurs, in exchange
for ongoing or compensatory social or financial benefits provided to that other party.
For instance, insurance.

Preparedness

The knowledge and capacities of governments, professional response and recovery

organisations, communities and individuals to effectively anticipate, respond to, and
recover from the impacts of likely, imminent or current hazard events or conditions. For
instance, installing early warning systems, identifying evacuation routes and preparing
emergency supplies.

Source of text: UNISDR (2009a)

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 Implementation of these activities and
measures is rarely done in isolation and includes a number
of associated activities, including:

 Identification and measuring disaster risk

 Education and knowledge development
 Informing people about their risk (awareness raising)
 Incorporating DRM into national planning and investment
 Strengthening institutional and legislative arrangements
 Providing financial protection for people and businesses at risk (finance
and contingency planning)
 Integrating DRR across multiple sectors, including health, environment,
etc.

Activities for reducing risk can be described as structural, for instance land use
planning and implementation of building codes, and non-structural, for instance
awareness raising, policy-making and legislation. How governments, civil society and
other actors organise DRM, for example through institutional arrangements, legislation
and decentralisation, and mechanisms for participation and accountability is termed
risk governance (UNISDR, 2011). There is clear evidence to suggest that low-income
countries with weak governance are more vulnerable and less resilient to disaster risk
(UNISDR, 2013, 2015a).

Fundamentally, DRR succeeds in reducing risk by building the strengths, attributes and
resources available within a community, society or organization – collectively known as
their capacity. DRM activities are designed to increase the resilience of people,
communities, society and systems to resist, absorb, accommodate and to recover from
and improve well-being in the face of multiple hazards. Activities for reducing and
managing risks can therefore provide a way for building resilience to other risks. In
addition to development, DRM should therefore be integrated across a number of
sectors, including climate change and conflict.

Identifying and understanding risk: the foundation of risk reduction

Awareness, identification, understanding and measurement of disaster risks are all

clearly fundamental underpinnings of disaster risk management (UNISDR, 2015b).
Disaster risk reduction is about decisions and choices, including a lack of, so risk
information has a role in five key areas of decision making:

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 Risk identification

Because the damages and losses caused by historical disasters are often not widely
known, and because the potential damages and losses that could arise from future
disasters (including infrequent but high-impact events) may not be known at all, DRM is
given a low priority. Appropriate communication of robust risk information at the right
time can raise awareness and trigger action.

Risk reduction

Hazard and risk information may be used to inform a broad range of activities to reduce
risk, from improving building codes and designing risk reduction measures (such as
flood and storm surge protection), to carrying out macro-level assessments of the risks
to different types of buildings (for prioritizing investment in reconstruction and
retrofitting, for example).

Preparedness

An understanding of the geographic area affected, along with the intensity and
frequency of different hazard events, is critical for planning evacuation routes, creating
shelters, and running preparedness drills. Providing a measure of the impact of
different hazard events—potential number of damaged buildings, fatalities and injuries,
secondary hazards—makes it possible to establish detailed and realistic plans for
better response to disasters, which can ultimately reduce the severity of adverse
natural events.

Financial protection

Disaster risk analysis was born out of the financial and insurance sector’s need to
quantify the risk of comparatively rare high-impact natural hazard events. As
governments increasingly seek to manage their sovereign financial risk or support
programs that manage individual financial risks (e.g., micro-insurance or household
earthquake insurance).

Resilient reconstruction

Risk assessment can play a critical role in impact modelling before an event strikes (in
the days leading up to a cyclone, for example), or it can provide initial and rapid
estimates of human, physical, and economic loss in an event’s immediate aftermath.
Moreover, risk information for resilient reconstruction needs to be available before an
event occurs, since after the event there is rarely time to collect the information needed
to inform resilient design and land-use plans.

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 Source: adapted from GFDRR (2014a)

Participatory mappingHoracio Marcos C. Mordeno, MindaNews CC BY 2.0

If those exposed to hazards are unaware of the risks they face, it is difficult to see how
or why households, businesses or governments would invest in reducing their risk
levels. However, while risk awareness may be a precondition, the importance people
attach to managing their risks can only be understood in the context of the full range of
social, economic, territorial and environmental constraints and opportunities they face
(UNISDR, 2015a) - see the story of Ratnapura and the Chao Phraya River below.

We have over 30 years of research into disaster risk, but much of this is not available
in a form that is understandable or useful to those who need it the most. There is
therefore a need for risk scientists and researchers to shift their focus to the production
of risk information that is understandable and actionable for different kinds of users: in
other words, risk knowledge (CDKN, 2014; GFDRR, 2014a in UNISDR, 2015a,b). Such
a shift requires more collaboration and partnerships between scientists and
researchers and those involved in DRR, ranging from governments to local
communities.

Governments need to invest in the collection, management and dissemination of risk

information, including disaster loss and impact statistics, hazard models, exposure
databases and vulnerability information. At the same time, they need to put standards
and mechanisms in place to ensure openness and transparency so that users not only
have access to the information they need but are aware of its underlying assumptions
and limitations (UNISDR, 2015a). The generation of understandable and actionable
risk information needs to be particularly sensitive to extensive risk, which, because it is
configured to a large extent by social, economic and environmental vulnerability, can
be reduced effectively through risk management and sustainable development
practices (UNISDR, 2015b).

Republic Act No. 10121, also known as the Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Act of 2010, is an act which strengthens the Philippine Disaster Risk
Reduction Management to provide for the National Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Framework, institutionalize the National Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Plan and appropriate funds therefor and for other purposes.

This Act, which is a consolidation of Senate Bill No. 3086 and House Bill No. 6985,
provides for the development of policies and plans and implementation of actions and
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 measures which pertain to all aspects of
disaster risk reduction and management. These include:

 Good governance
 Risk assessment and early warning
 Knowledge building and awareness raising
 Reduction of underlying factors
 Preparedness for effective response and early recovery

RA No. 10121 was approved by President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo on 27 May 2010.

Definition of terms

 Adaptation- the adjustment in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or

their effects
 Capacity- Available strengths and resources within a community, society or
organization which can reduce the level of risk or effects of a disaster.
 Civil Society Organizations (CSOs)- Non-state group of people who aim to unite
people to advanced shared goals and interests. The interests and values of their
members are based on ethical, cultural, scientific, religious or philanthropic
considerations. CSOs include nongovernment organizations(NGOs), professional
associations, foundations, independent research institutes, community-based
organizations (CBOs), faith-based organizations, people's organizations, social
movements, and labor unions.
 Climate Change- a change in climate that persists for an extended period, whether
due to natural variability or as a result of human activity
 Community-based Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (CBDRRM)- a
process of disaster risk reduction and management where at risk communities are
actively engaged in the identification, analysis, treatment, monitoring and evaluation
of disaster risks to reduce their vulnerabilities and enhance their capacities.

 Complex Emergency- a human-induced emergency in which the cause of

emergency and the assistance to the afflicted is complicated by intense level of
political considerations
 Contingency Planning- a management process which analyzes specific potential
events or emerging situations which might threaten the society and the environment
and establishes arrangements to enable responses to such events and situations
 Disaster- a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or society which
exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own
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 resources. Disasters are a result of the
combination of the exposure to a hazard; conditions of
vulnerability that are present; and insufficient capacity or measures to reduce or
cope with the potential negative consequences. The impacts of disaster may
include loss of life, injury, disease, or other negative effects on the physical, mental
and social well-being, together with the damage to property, destruction of assets,
loss of services, social and economic disruption and environmental degradation.
 Disaster Mitigation- the lessening or limitation of the adverse impacts of hazards
and related disasters through engineering techniques and hazard-resistant
construction as well as improved environmental policies and public awareness.
 Disaster Preparedness- the knowledge and capacities to effectively anticipate,
respond to, and recover from the impacts of hazard events or conditions.
Preparedness action is carried out to build the capacities needed to efficiently
manage all types of emergencies and achieve orderly transition from response to
sustained recovery. Preparedness is based on a sound analysis of disaster risk and
good linkages with early warning systems. It also includes contingency planning,
stockpiling of equipment and supplies, development of arrangements for
coordination, evacuation and public information, and associated training and field
exercises.
 Disaster Prevention- outright avoidance of adverse impacts of hazards and related
disasters. It expresses the concept and intention to completely avoid potential
adverse impacts through actions taken in advance.
 Disaster Response- the provision of emergency services and public assistance
during or after a disaster in order to save lives, reduce health impacts, ensure public
safety and meet the basic subsistence needs of the people affected.
 Disaster Risk- potential disaster losses which could occur to a particular
community over some specified future time period.
 Disaster Risk Reduction- the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks
through efforts to analyze and manage the causal factors of disasters to reduce

exposure to hazards, lessen vulnerability of people and property, wisely manage

land and the environment, and improve preparedness for adverse events.

 Disaster Risk Reduction and Management- the process of using administrative

directives, organizations, and operational skills and capacities to implement
strategies, policies and improved coping capacities to lessen the adverse impacts of
hazards and the possibility of disaster. Prospective disaster risk reduction and
management addresses and seeks to avoid the development of new or increased
disaster risks.

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  Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Information System- a specialized
database which contains information on disasters and their human material,
economic and environmental impact, risk assessment and mapping and vulnerable
groups.
 Early Warning System- set of capacities needed to generate and disseminate
timely and meaningful warning information to enable individuals threatened by a
hazard to prepare and act appropriately and in sufficient time to reduce the
possibility of harm or loss. A people-centered early warning system is comprised of
knowledge of the risks; monitoring or dissemination of alerts and warnings; and
local capabilities to respond to the warnings received. The “end-to-end warning
system” includes all steps from hazard detection to community response.
 Emergency- unforeseen or sudden occurrence, especially danger, which demands
immediate action.
 Emergency Management- the organization and management of resources and
responsibilities to address all aspects of emergencies.
 Exposure- the degree to which the elements at risk are likely to experience hazard
events of different magnitudes.
 Geographic Information System- a database which contains geo-hazard
assessments, information on climate change, and climate risk reduction and
management.
 Hazard- a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition
which may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss
of livelihood and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental
damage.
 Mitigation- structural and non-structural measures (hazard-resistant construction
and engineering works, formulation and implementation of plans, programs, projects
and activities, awareness raising, knowledge management, policies on land-use and
resource management, as well as the enforcement of comprehensive land-use
planning, building and safety standards, and legislation) to limit the adverse impact

of natural hazards, environmental degradation, and technological hazards and to

ensure the ability of at-risk communities to address vulnerabilities to minimize the
impact of disasters.

 Land-Use Planning- the process of identifying, evaluating and deciding on different

options for the use of land.


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  National Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Plan (NDRRMP)- a plan which sets out
goals and specific objectives to reduce disaster risks. It also contains identified
hazards, vulnerabilities, and risks to be managed at the national level; disaster risk
reduction and management approaches and strategies to manage hazards and
risks, agency roles, responsibilities and lines of authority of all government levels;
and coordination of disaster risk reduction and management in the pre-disaster and
post-disaster phases.
 Post-Disaster Recovery- the restoration and improvement of facilities, livelihood
and living conditions of disaster-affected communities.
 Preparedness- pre-disaster actions and measures to avert or minimize loss of
life and property by community organizing, training, planning, equipping,
stockpiling, hazard mapping, insuring of assets, and public information and
education initiatives. It also includes development or enhancement of an overall
preparedness strategy, policy institutional structure, warning and forecasting
capabilities, and plans which define measures to help at-risk communities.
 Private Sector- comprised of private corporations, households and nonprofit
institutions serving households.
 Public Sector Employees- persons in the civil service
 Rehabilitation- measures of affected communities/areas to restore their normal
level of functioning by rebuilding livelihood and damaged infrastructures and
increasing the communities' organizational capacity.
 Resilience- the ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to
resist, absorb, accommodate and recover from the effects of a hazard.
 Response- any concerted effort by two or more agencies to provide assistance
or intervention during or intermediately after a disaster to meet the life
preservation and basic subsistence needs of those people affected and to
restore essential public activities and facilities.
 Risk- combined probability of an event and its negative consequences.
 Risk Assessment- a methodology to determine the nature and extent of risk by
analyzing potential hazards and evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability.

Assessment includes a review of the technical characteristics of hazards;

analysis of exposure and vulnerability; and the evaluation of the effectiveness of
coping capacities in respect to likely risk scenarios.
 Risk Management- the systematic approach and practice of managing
uncertainty to minimize potential harm and loss. It is comprised of risk
assessment and analysis, and the implementation of strategies and specific
actions to control, reduce and transfer risks.
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  Risk Transfer- the process of shifting
the financial consequences of particular risks from one
party to another. A household, community, enterprise or state authority will
obtain resources, in exchange fpr an ongoing or compensatory social or financial
benefits provided, after a disaster occurs.
 State of Calamity- a condition which involves mass casualty and/or major
damages to property, disruption of means of livelihoods, roads, and normal way
of life of the people affected after the occurrence of a hazard.
 Sustainable Development- development which meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
 Vulnerability- characteristics or circumstances of a community, system or asset
which make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard.
 Vulnerable and Marginalized Groups- group of people which face higher
exposure to disaster risk and poverty. These include women, children, elderly,
differently-abled people, and ethnic minorities.

National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council

The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council, formerly known as
the National Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC), shall be empowered with policy-
making, coordination, integration, supervision, monitoring and evaluation functions.
Its members shall be composed of the following:
 Secretary of the Department of Health (DOH)
 Secretary of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)
 Secretary of the Department of Agriculture (DA)
 Secretary of the Department of Education (DepED)
 Secretary of the Department of Energy (DOE)
 Secretary of the Department of Finance (DOF)

 Secretary of the Department of Trade and Industry(DTI)

 Secretary of the Department of Transportation and Communications (DOTC)
 Secretary of the Department of Budget and Management (DBM)
 Secretary of the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH)
 Secretary of the Department of Foreign Affairs(DFA)
 Secretary of the Department of Justice (DOJ)
 Secretary of the Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE)
 Secretary of the Department of Tourism (DOT)
 The Executive Secretary
 Secretary of the Office of the Presidential Adviser on the Peace Process (OPAPP)
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  Chairman, Commission on Higher
Education (CHED)
 Chief of Staff, Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP)
 Chief, Philippine National Police (PNP)
 The Press Secretary
 Secretary General of the Philippine National Red Cross (PNRC);
 Commissioner of the National Anti-Poverty Commission-Victims of Disasters and
Calamities Sector (NAPC-VDC)
 Chairperson, National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women
 Chairperson, Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Council
 Executive Director of the Climate Change Office of the Climate Change
Commission
 President, Government Service Insurance System (GSIS)
 President, Social Security System (SSS)
 President, Philippine Health Insurance Corporation (PhilHealth)
 President of the Union of Local Authorities of the Philippines (ULAP)
 President of the League of Provinces of the Philippines (LPP)
 President of the League of Cities of the Philippines (LCP)
 President of the League of Municipalities of the Philippines (LMP)
 President of the Liga ng Mga Barangay (LMB)
 Four representatives from the CSOs
 One representative from the private sector
 Administrator of the OCD

Powers and functions of the NDRRMC

 Develop a NDRRMF which shall provide for an approach to disaster risk reduction
and management.
 Ensure that the NDRRMP is consistent with the NDRRMF.
 Advise the President on the status of disaster preparedness, prevention, mitigation,
response and rehabilitation operations; recommend to the President the declaration
of a state of calamity in areas which are extensively damaged; and submit

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 proposals to restore normalcy in the
affected areas.

 Ensure participation in the development, updating, and sharing of a Disaster Risk

Reduction and Management Information System and Geographic Information
System-based national risk map as policy, planning and decision-making tools.
 Establish a national early warning and emergency alert system which provides an
accurate and timely advice to national or local emergency response organizations
and to the general public.
 Develop appropriate risk transfer mechanisms which will guarantee social and
economic protection and increase resiliency in the face of disaster.
 Monitor the development and enforcement by agencies and organizations of the
various laws, guidelines, codes or technical standards required by this Act.
 Manage and mobilize resources for disaster risk reduction and management.
 Monitor and provide the guidelines and procedures on the utilization, accounting
and auditing of the Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Fund releases.
 Develop assessment tools on hazards and risks brought about by climate change to
vulnerable areas and ecosystems.
 Develop coordination mechanisms for a more coherent implementation of disaster
risk reduction and management policies and programs of sectoral agencies and
LGUs.
 Formulate a national institutional capacity building program for disaster risk
reduction and management to address specific weaknesses of various government
agencies and LGUs.
 Formulate, harmonize, and translate into policies a national agenda for research
and technology development on disaster risk reduction and management.

 Coordinate with the Climate Change Commission and formulate and implement a
framework for climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction and
management.
 Constitute a technical management group which will coordinate and meet to
effectively manage and sustain national efforts on disaster risk reduction and
management.
 Task the OCD to conduct periodic assessment and performance monitoring of the
member agencies of the NDRRMC and the Regional Disaster Risk Reduction and

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 Management Councils (RDRRMCs).
 Coordinate or oversee the implementation of the country's
obligations with disaster management treaties and see to it that the country's
disaster management treaty obligations be incorporated in its disaster risk reduction
and management frameworks, policies, plans, programs and projects.
The NDRRMC Chairperson may call upon other instrumentalities or entities of the
government and non-government and civic organizations for assistance (use of their
facilities and resources for the protection and preservation of life and properties) in
the whole range of disaster risk reduction and management. The Chairperson also
has the power to call on the reserve force to assist in relief and rescue during
disasters or calamities.

The Office of Civil Defense (OCD)

The OCD shall administer a comprehensive national civil defense and disaster risk
reduction and management program. They will provide leadership in the continuous
development of approaches and measures to reduce the vulnerabilities and risks to
hazards and manage the consequences of disasters.
The OCD Administrator shall serve as the Executive Director of the National Council
and shall have the same duties and privileges of a department undersecretary. The
National Council shall utilize the services and facilities of the OCD as the secretariat of
the National Council.
Powers and Functions of the OCD

 Advise the National Council on disaster risk reduction and management.

 Formulate and implement the NDRRMP and ensure that the plans of communities,
cities, municipalities, and provinces are consistent with the plan approved by the
NDRRMP.
 Identify, assess and prioritize hazards and risks.

 Develop and ensure the implementation of national standards in carrying out

disaster risk reduction programs.
 Review and evaluate the Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plans
(LDRRMPs) to facilitate the integration of disaster risk reduction measures into the
local Comprehensive Development Plan (CDP) and Comprehensive Land Use Plan
(CLUP).
 Ensure that the LGUs are properly informed and adhere to the national standards
and programs.

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  Formulate standard operating procedures
for the deployment of rapid assessment teams,
information sharing among different government agencies, and coordination before
and after disasters at all levels.
 Establish standard operating procedures on the communication system for the
purposes of warning and alerting provincial, city, municipal, and barangay disaster
risk reduction and management councils and for gathering information on disaster
areas, during and after disasters.
 Establish Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Training Institutes which shall
consolidate and prepare training materials and publications of disaster risk
reduction and management books and manuals which will assist DRRM workers in
the planning and implementation of programs and projects. These shall also
conduct research programs to upgrade knowledge and skills and document best
practices on DRRM. These shall also conduct periodic awareness and education
programs to accommodate new elective officials and members of LDRRMCs.
 Ensure that all disaster risk reduction programs, projects, and activities which
require regional and international support shall be in accordance with duly
established national policies and aligned with international agreements.
 Ensure that government agencies and LGUs give top priority and take adequate
and appropriate measures in disaster risk reduction and management.
 Create an enabling environment where CSOs, private groups, volunteers, and
communities can participate and where their contributions in the government's
disaster risk reduction efforts can be recognized.
 Conduct early recovery and post-disaster needs assessment which institutionalizes
gender analysis as part of it.
 Establish the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Operations Center
(NDRRMOC), an operating facility which shall be operated and staffed on a twenty-
four hour basis.

 Prepare the criteria and procedure for accredited community disaster volunteers
(ACDVs). A manual of operations for volunteers developed by the OCD shall also
be included.
 Provide advice and technical assistance to LGUs, specifically the low income and
high-risk areas.
 Create necessary offices to perform its mandate.
 Perform other functions as may be necessary for effective operations and
implementation of this Act.
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 Regional Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
Councils (RDRRMCs)
The RDRRMC shall coordinate, integrate, supervise, and evaluate the activities of the
LDRRMCs. It shall be responsible in ensuring disaster sensitive regional disaster
plans. In case of emergencies, the RDRRMCs shall convene the different regional line
agencies and concerned institutions and authorities.
These shall establish the Regional Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
Operations Center (RDRRMOC) whenever necessary.
The civil defense officers of the OCD who may be designated as Regional Directors of
the OCD shall serve as chairpersons of the RDRRMCs. Its Vice Chairpersons shall be
the Regional Directors of the DSWD, DILG, DOST, and the NEDA. At the Autonomous
Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM), the Regional Governor shall be the RDRRMC
Chairperson.
The existing regional offices of the OCD shall serve as the secretariat of the
RDRRMCs, which shall be composed of the executives of regional offices and field
stations at the regional level of the government agencies.

Organization at the Local Government Level

The Provincial, City, and Municipal Disaster Coordinating Councils shall be known as
the Provincial, City, and Municipal Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Councils.
The powers and functions of the Barangay Disaster Coordinating Councils, which shall
cease to exist, shall be assumed by the Barangay Development Councils (BDCs). The
BDCs shall serve as the LDRRMCs in every barangay.

The LDRRMC shall be composed of:

 Local Chief Executives, Chairperson

 Local Planning and Development Officer, member
 Head of the LDRRMO, member
 Head of the Local Social Welfare and Development Office, member
 Head of the Local Health Office, member
 Head of the Local Agriculture Office, member
 Head of the Gender and Development Office, member

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  Head of the Local Engineering Office,
member
 Head of the Local Veterinary Office, member
 Head of the Local Budget Office, member
 Division Head/Superintendent of Schools of DepEd, member
 Highest-ranking officer of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) assigned in the
area, member
 Provincial Director/City/Municipal Chief of the Philippine National Police (PNP),
member
 Provincial Director/City/Municipal Fire Marshall of the Bureau of Fire
Protection (BFP), member
 President of the Association of Barangay Captains (ABC), member
 The Philippine National Red Cross (PNRC), member
 Four accredited CSOs, members
 One private sector representative, member

Functions of the LDRRMCs

 Approve, monitor and evaluate the implementation of the LDRRMPs and review and
test the plan consistent with other national and local planning programs.
 Ensure the integration of disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation into
local development plans, programs and budgets for sustainable development and
poverty reduction.
 Recommend the implementation of forced or preemptive evacuation of local
residents, if necessary.
 Convene the local council once every three months or as necessary.

Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office (LDRRMO)

An LDRRMO shall be established in every province, city and municipality, and a
Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Committee (BDRRMC) in every
barangay which shall be responsible for the disaster risk management programs within
their territorial jurisdiction.
It shall be under the office of the governor, city or municipal mayor, and the punong
barangay in case of the BDRRMC. It shall be initially organized and composed of a
DRRMO to be assisted by three staff which will be responsible for administration and
training; research and planning; operations and warning. The LDRRMOs and the
BDRRMCs shall organize, train and directly supervise the local emergency response
teams and the ACDVs.
The provincial, city, and municipal DRRMOs or BDRRMCs shall perform the following
functions:

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  Design, program, and coordinate disaster
risk reduction and management activities.
 Facilitate and support risk assessments and contingency planning activities at the
local level.
 Consolidate local disaster risk information.
 Organize and conduct training, orientation, and knowledge management activities
on disaster risk reduction and management at the local level.
 Operate a multi-hazard early warning system which shall provide accurate and
timely advice to national or local emergency response organizations and to the
general public.
 Formulate and implement a comprehensive and integrated LDRRMP.
 Prepare and submit to the local sanggunian the annual LDRRMO Plan and budget,
the proposed programming of the LDRRMF, other dedicated disaster risk reduction
and management resources, and other regular funding source/s and budgetary
support of the LDRRMO/BDRRMC.
 Conduct continuous disaster monitoring and mobilize instrumentalities and entities
of the LGUs, CSOs, private groups and organized volunteers.
 Identify, assess and manage the hazards, vulnerabilities, and risks that may occur
in their locality.
 Disseminate information and raise public awareness about the nature, effects, early
warning signs and counter-measures of identified hazards, vulnerabilities, and risks.
 Identify and implement cost-effective risk reduction measures/strategies.
 Maintain a database of human resource, equipment, directories, and location of
critical infrastructures and their capacities.

 Develop, strengthen, and operationalize mechanisms for partnership with the

private sector, CSOs, and volunteer groups.
 Take all the necessary steps to maintain, provide, or arrange the provision of
available, suitably-trained and competent personnel for effective civil defense and
disaster risk reduction and management in its area.
 Organize, train, equip, and supervise the local emergency response teams and the
ACDVs.
 Respond to and manage the adverse effects of emergencies and carry out recovery
activities in the affected area.
 Promote and raise public awareness of and compliance with this Act and legislative
provisions relevant to the purpose of this Act.
 Serve as the secretariat and executive arm of the LDRRMC.
 Coordinate other disaster risk reduction and management activities.

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  Establish network with other LGUs for
disaster risk reduction and emergency response
purposes.
 Recommend the enactment of local ordinances consistent with the requirements of
this Act.
 Implement policies, approved plans and programs of the LDRRMC.
 Establish a Provincial/City/Municipal/Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Operations Center.
 Prepare and submit the report on the utilization of the LDRRMF and other dedicated
disaster risk reduction and management resources to the local Commission on
Audit (COA), copy furnished the regional director of the OCD and the Local
Government Operations Officer of the DILG.
 Act on the matters that may be authorized by the LDRRMC.

The BDRRMC shall be a regular committee of the existing BDC. The punong barangay
shall facilitate and ensure the participation of at least two CSO representatives from
existing and active community-based people's organizations which represent the most
vulnerable and marginalized groups in the barangay.

Accreditation, Mobilization, and Protection of Disaster Volunteers and National

Service Reserve Corps, CSOs and the Private Sector
The government agencies, CSOs, private sector and LGUs may mobilize individuals or
organized volunteers in the delivery of disaster risk reduction programs and activities.
They shall take full responsibility for the enhancement, welfare and protection of

volunteers, and shall submit the list of volunteers to the OCD for accreditation and
inclusion in the database of community disaster volunteers.
A national roster of ACDVs, National Service Reserve Corps, CSOs and the private
sector shall be maintained by the OCD. Accreditation shall be done at the municipal or
city level.
Mobilization of volunteers shall be in accordance with the guidelines to be formulated
by the NDRRMC. Any volunteer who incurs death or injury while engaged in any
activities defined under this Act shall be entitled to compensatory benefits and
individual personnel accident insurance.

Integration of Disaster Risk Reduction Education into the School Curricula and
Sangguniang Kabataan (SK) Program and Mandatory Training for the Public
Sector Employees

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 The DepED, the CHED, the Technical
Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA), in
coordination with the OCD, the National Youth Commission (NYC), the DOST, the
DENR, the DILG-BFP, the DOH, the DSWD and other relevant agencies, shall
integrate disaster risk reduction and management education in the school curricula of
secondary and tertiary level of education, including the National Service Training
Program (NSTP).
The NDRRMC, RDRRMCs, LDRRMCs, LDRRMOs, BDRRMCs, and SK councils shall
encourage community participation in DRRM activities.
The public sector employees shall be trained in emergency response and
preparedness.
Coordination During Emergencies
LDRRMCs shall take the lead of the following in preparing for, responding to, and
recovering from the effects of any disaster:

 BDC, if a barangay is affected

 City/municipal DRRMCs, if two or more barangays are affected
 Provincial DRRMC, if two or more cities/municipalities are affected
 Regional DRRMC, if two or more provinces are affected
 The NDRRMC, if two or more regions are affected

The NDRRMC and intermediary LDRRMCs shall always support LGUs which have the
primary responsibility as first disaster responders. Private sector and civil society
groups shall work in accordance with the coordination mechanisms and policies set by
the NDRRMC and concerned LDRRMCs.

Declaration of State of Calamity

The National Council shall recommend to the President the declaration of places under
a state of calamity, and the lifting thereof, based on the criteria set by the National
Council. The President's declaration may warrant international humanitarian assistance
as deemed necessary.
Upon the recommendation of the LDRRMC, the declaration and lifting of the state of
calamity may also be issued by the local sanggunian.

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 Remedial Measures
The declaration of state of calamity shall make mandatory the immediate undertaking
of the following remedial measures by the member agencies concerned:

 Imposition of price ceiling on basic necessities and prime commodities by the

President
 Monitoring, prevention and control by the Local Price Coordination Council of
overpricing/profiteering and hoarding of prime commodities, medicines and
petroleum products
 Programming/reprogramming of funds for the repair and safety upgrading of public
infrastructures and facilities
 Granting of no-interest loans by government financing or lending institutions to the
most affected section of the population

Mechanism for International Humanitarian Assistance

 The importation and donation of food, clothing, medicine, and equipment for relief
and recovery and disaster management and recovery-related supplies is authorized
in accordance with Section 15 of the Tariff and Customs Code of the Philippines
and the prevailing provisions of the General Appropriations Act (GAA) covering
national internal revenue taxes and import duties of national or local government
agencies.

 Importations and donations from IHA shall be considered as importation by and/or

donation to the NDRRMC, subject to the approval of the Office of the President.

Prohibited Acts

 Dereliction of duties
 Preventing the entry and distribution of relief goods, appropriate technology, tools,
equipment, accessories, and disaster teams/experts in disaster-stricken areas
 Buying from disaster relief agencies of goods, equipment or other aid commodities
which are intended for distribution
 Buying from the recipient/disaster affected person
 Selling of relief goods, equipment, or other aid commodities

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  Forcibly seizing relief goods, equipment
or other aid commodities intended for or consigned to a
specific group of victims or relief agency
 Diverting or misdelivery of relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities
 Accepting, possessing, using or disposing relief goods, equipment or other aid
commodities not intended for nor consigned to him/her
 Misrepresenting the source of relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities by:

1. Covering, replacing or defacing the labels of containers to make it appear that

they came from other agency or persons
2. Repacking the goods, equipment, or other aid commodities into containers with
different markings
3. Making false verbal claim that the goods, equipment or other aid commodity in its
untampered original containers came from or was released upon the instance of
other agency or persons

 Substituting or replacing relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities with the
same items of inferior/cheaper quality
 Illegal solicitations by persons or organizations which represent others
 Deliberate use of false or inflated data in support of the request for funding, relief
goods equipment or other aid commodities for emergency assistance or livelihood
projects
 Tampering with or stealing hazard monitoring and disaster preparedness equipment
and paraphernalia

Penal Cause
Any person or group of persons who commit any of the prohibited acts shall be
prosecuted. Upon conviction, they shall suffer a fine of not less than PHP 50,000 or
any amount not to exceed PHP 500,000 or imprisonment of not less than six years and
one day or more than 12 years, or both, at the discretion of the court, including
perpetual disqualification from public office if the offender is a public officer, and
confiscation or forfeiture in favor of the government of objects and instrumentalities
used in committing any of the prohibited acts.
If the offender is a corporation, partnership or association, or other juridical entity, the
penalty shall be imposed upon its officer or officers without prejudice to the cancellation
or revocation of these entities' license or accreditation issued to them.

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 If the offender is an alien, in addition to the
penalties prescribed, he or she hall be deported without
further proceedings after service of the sentence.
The prosecution for offenses set forth in this Act shall be without prejudice to any
liability for violation of the Republic Act No. 3185, also known as the Revised Penal
Code, and other civil liabilities.

Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Fund (LDRRMF)

Not less than 5% of the estimated from regular sources shall be set aside as the
LDRRMF to support DRRM activities such as, but not limited to the following:

 Pre-disaster preparedness programs (training, purchasing life-saving rescue

equipment, supplies and medicines)
 Post-disaster activities
 Payment of premiums on calamity insurance

The LDRRMC shall monitor and evaluate the use and disbursement of the LDRRMF
based on the LDRRMP. Upon the recommendation of the LDRRMO and approval of
the sanggunian concerned, the LDRRMC may transfer the said fund to support
disaster risk reduction work of other LDRRMCs which are declared under state of
calamity.
30% of the amount appropriated for LDRRMF shall be allocated as Quick Response
Fund (QRF) or stand-by fund for relief and recovery programs.
Unexpended LDRRMF shall accrue to a special trust fund to support DRRM activities
of the LDRRMCs within the next five years. The money still not fully utilized after 5

years shall revert back to the general fund and will be available for other social
services to be identified by the local sanggunian.

National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Fund (NDRRM Fund)

The NDRRMF shall be used for disaster risk reduction or mitigation, prevention and
preparedness activities. It can also be utilized for relief, recovery, reconstruction and
other work or services in connection with natural or human-induced calamities.
The specific amount of the NDRRMF and the appropriate recipient agencies shall be
determined upon approval of the President in accordance with the favorable
recommendation of the NDRRMC.

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 30% of the amount appropriated for the
NDRRMF shall be allocated as Quick Response Fund or
stand-by fund for relief and recovery programs in order that situation and living
conditions of people in affected areas may be normalized as possible.
Departments/agencies and LGUs that are allocated with DRRMF shall submit to the
NDRRMC their monthly statements on the utilization of DRRMF and make an
accounting thereof. They are authorized to use a portion of their appropriations to
implement projects designed to address DRRM activities.
Funding of the OCD
The OCD, which is the lead agency to carry out the provisions of this Act, shall be
allocated a budget of PHP 1,000,000,000 revolving fund starting from the effectivity of
this Act.
Annual Report
The National Council shall submit to the Office of the President, the Senate and
the House an annual report of the progress of the implementation of the NDRRMP,
within the first quarter of the succeeding year.

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