Module Code & Module Title

CC5004NI Security in Computing

Assessment Weightage & Type

30% Individual Coursework

Year and Semester

2021 -22 Autumn

Student Name: Sujen Shrestha

London Met ID: 20049250
College ID: NP01NT4S210105
Assignment Due Date: January 10, 2022
Assignment Submission Date: January 9, 2022
Word Count: 3725

I confirm that I understand my coursework needs to be submitted online via Google Classroom under the
relevant module page before the deadline for my assignment to be accepted and marked. I am fully
aware that late submissions will be treated as non-submission and a mark of zero will be awarded.
Table of Contents
Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... i

Table of Figures........................................................................................................................... iii

Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iv

1. Introduction to Information Security................................................................................... 1

1.1 Confidentiality:................................................................................................................ 2

1.2 Integrity:........................................................................................................................... 2

1.3 Availability: ...................................................................................................................... 2

2. Introduction to Cryptography .............................................................................................. 3

2.1 Key Terminologies of Cryptography ........................................................................... 3

2.2 History of Cryptography................................................................................................ 4

2.3 Symmetric Encryption ................................................................................................... 5

2.4 Asymmetric Encryption ................................................................................................. 5

3. RSA ........................................................................................................................................ 6

3.1 Background..................................................................................................................... 6

3.1.1 Key Generation ....................................................................................................... 7

3.1.2 Encryption................................................................................................................ 7

3.1.3 Decryption ............................................................................................................... 7

3.2 Advantages of RSA algorithm ..................................................................................... 8

3.3 Disadvantages of RSA algorithm ................................................................................ 8

4. Modified RSA algorithm....................................................................................................... 9

4.1 Flowchart....................................................................................................................... 13

4.2 Working steps of algorithm......................................................................................... 15

5. Test Cases .......................................................................................................................... 16

6. Critical Evaluation of the new Cryptographic Algorithm ............................................... 19

 6.1 Strengths of the algorithm .......................................................................................... 19

6.2 Weakness of the algorithm ........................................................................................ 19

6.3 Application Area........................................................................................................... 19

7. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 20

8. References .......................................................................................................................... 21
Table of Figures
Figure 1: CIA Triad ....................................................................................................................... 1
Figure 2: Cryptographic Process ............................................................................................... 3
Figure 3: Hieroglyph – The Oldest Cryptographic Technique............................................... 4
Figure 4: RSA cryptosystem ....................................................................................................... 6
Figure 5: ASCII Table for alphabet characters ........................................................................ 9
Figure 6: IIRSA encryption algorithm ...................................................................................... 13
Figure 7: IIRSA decryption algorithm ...................................................................................... 14
Abstract
Security techniques such as RSA are significant for communications because they
provide secure data transmissions to enterprises, organizations, and individuals all over
the world who require to communicate with each other for their everyday job. Friends
among different organizations, who may be from different societies or even countries
need to communicate with each other on a regular basis. To ensure security during
transmission, the data should essentially be encrypted. As a result, the current research
article leads to a unique security method for a cryptographic algorithm. This research
explores the value of cryptography and emphasizes on the evolution of RSA, and raises
the algorithm's difficulty to enhance security in operations where it may be used.
CC5004NI Security in Computing

1. Introduction to Information Security

Security can be defined as the state of being safe from potential risks or threats. It is the
state of being protected from various kinds of danger. The need for organizations to
maintain secure operations of the systems has increased due to the various technical
advances and the creation of internet. This is because the risk of data being stolen or
damaged is very high when it can be accessed through the internet as various malicious
users from the company as well as external attackers could access and modify the data
using various tools and methods. The information is one of the most valuable assets of
an organization. It needs to be safeguarded from any threats and vulnerabilities which
may damage or destroy it. The methods and techniques created and deployed to secure
critical company information against modification, disruption, destruction and observation
are referred to as information security or InfoSec
The three critical components which must be there to maintain information security of
assets in an enterprise are confidentiality, integrity and availability.

Figure 1: CIA Triad

(Whitman & Mattord, 2018)

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1.1 Confidentiality:
The efforts of an organization to keep data secret or private are referred to as
confidentiality. To achieve this, access to information must be restricted in order to avoid
the unintentional or accidental release of data. Making sure that those who don't have
necessary authorization can't access assets th at are important to the organization is an
important part of protecting confidentiality. An effective system, on the other hand,
guarantees that those who needs access have the required permissions. For example,
all the data of the customers collected by a bank is only shared to the respective
customers and it is not disclosed to anyone else.

1.2 Integrity:
Integrity refers to ensuring that the data is accurate and unmodified. Only original,
accurate, and dependable data maintains the integrity of the data. For example, when a
person withdraws Rs. 5000 from an ATM the balance deducted from his account is
Rs.5000. This means that no tampering has occurred in the process and the transaction
is accurate.

1.3 Availability:
Even if data is kept secure and its integrity is preserved, it is generally meaningless unless
it is accessible to individuals within the business as well as the clients they serve. This
implies that systems, networks, and applications must all work properly and at the
appropriate times. Individuals who have access to certain data must also be able to
access it when they need it, and acquiring the data should not take an excessive amount
of time. For example, an ATM machine provides 24-hour service to its customers, it
means that the service is accessible to the customer whenever it is required.

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2. Introduction to Cryptography
Cryptography is derived from the Greek words “Kryptos” and “Graphein’”. “Kryptos”
means hidden and “Graphein” means writing. Therefore, cryptography is the process of
securing the information using various algorithms so that it can only be understood by the
writer and the intended reader. It can also be understood as converting the plain text
(readable form) into cipher text (unreadable form) and vice-versa. It is the art of building
an encryption system which facilitates the communication of secret data through an
insecure path. Cryptography is important in the field of information security because it
enables the information of the user to be concealed from everyone except the sender and
the receiver. It also helps to achieve several goals of InfoSec like maintaining
confidentiality, integrity and ensuring authenticity (Zakariyah, 2021).

Figure 2: Cryptographic Process

(Albugmi, et al., 2016)

2.1 Key Terminologies of Cryptography

Plain text: It is the unmodified message which is in its original form. This type of message
is not secure because it can be read and understood by anyone who has access to it.
Cipher text: It is the message which has been converted into unrecognizable form. This
type of message is secure because it can be read and understood by only those who
have the key to decipher it.
Key: It is the tool which is used to decrypt the cipher text into plain text. It is important
because only those who have the key for a particular encrypted message can use it to
decrypt the message.
Encryption: It is the process of converting the plain text into cipher text using a specific
algorithm. A key is generated during the encryption process so that the reader can use it
to decipher the encrypted message.

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Decryption: It is the process of reverting the cipher text into the original plain text. A
specific key generated during the encryption is required to decipher the cipher text to plain
text.
Algorithm: It is a finite sequence of well-defined instructions, typically used to solve a
class of specific problems or to perform a computation .

2.2 History of Cryptography

The origin of cryptography is believed to be from the Egyptian civilization. The oldest
known cryptographic technique “Hieroglyph” was developed around 4000 years ago. The
Egyptians used “Hieroglyph” to communicate messages secretly on behalf of the kings.
The Hieroglyph symbols are depicted as objects but they usually represent particular
sounds. Later the Romans created a method of cryptography around 100 BC, which is
popularly known as Caesar Shift Cipher. The encryption was carried out by shif ting the
letters of the message by an agree number (number of one’s choice) and decrypted by
shifting the letters back by the same number to obtain the original message.

Figure 3: Hieroglyph – The Oldest Cryptographic Technique

(Tutorialspoint, 2015)

In the 15th century, improved coding techniques like as "Vigenère Coding" were
developed, which allowed changing letters in a message to a variety of different positions
rather than moving them the same number of times. Cryptography progressed from ad
hoc techniques to encryption to the more sophisticated art and science of information
security only in the 19th century (Tutorialspoint, 2015).

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The introduction of mechanical and electromechanical technologies, such as the Enigma

rotor machine, enabled more advanced and efficient techniques of coding information in
the 20th century. Later, both cryptography and cryptanalysis became extremely
mathematical during World War II. Since then, the cryptography has become more
sophisticated (Tutorialspoint, 2015).

In the present day, among all cryptographic systems, Symmetric and Asymmetric key
encryption are the most commonly used techniques.

2.3 Symmetric Encryption

Symmetric encryption is a technique in which a message is encrypted using a key and
then decrypted with the same key, making it simple to use but less secure. It also requires
a secure mechanism of passing the key from one party to the other. There are many
algorithms which use symmetric key encryption. Some of them are Data Encryption
Standard (DES), Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), Blowfish, CASTS5, etc
(GeeksforGeeks, 2020).

2.4 Asymmetric Encryption

Asymmetric encryption is a technique that uses public and private keys to encrypt
information. It encrypts and decrypts the message using two separate keys. Although it
is more secure than symmetric key encryption, it is generally slower than symmetric
encryption. There are many algorithms which use asymmetric key encryption. Some of
them are Rivest Shamir Adleman (RSA), Digital Signature Standard (DSS), Digital
Signature Algorithm (DSA), Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC), etc. (GeeksforGeeks,
2020)

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3. RSA

3.1 Background
The RSA algorithm was developed in 1978 by Ronald Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard
Adleman as a public key encryption algorithm. It is the most extensively used key
cryptographic system. The RSA algorithm was the first to be appropriate for encryption
and decryption; it involved modular multiplication and exponentiation. For some 'n', the
RSA algorithm is a cipher block in which the plaintext and cipher text are integers between
0 and n-1. This method is one of the finest asymmetric key cryptosystems for exchange
keys, digital signatures, and data encryption blocks that uses prime integers. Asymmetric
cryptography, also known as public key cryptography, employs two distinct keys for
encryption and decryption. One key is public, while the other is kept private. The keys are
generated by performing a mathematical calculation on two large prime numbers. The
public key is sent to everyone in the system but the private key is kept secret in RSA. The
RSA cryptosystem's security is based on the mathematical difficulty of factoring large
prime numbers. The attacker cannot obtain the factor prime of n and hence the private
key by using information from the public key, which contains n (multiplication of prime
numbers). As a result, the RSA algorithm is highly secure (Hatem, et al., 2019).

Figure 4: RSA cryptosystem

(Bodur & Kara, 2015)

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There are three steps in the RSA algorithm: key generation, encryption, and decryption.
Each of them is elaborated below.

3.1.1 Key Generation

A public key and a private key are used in RSA. Everyone has access to the public key,
which is used to encrypt messages. The only way to decrypt messages encrypted using
the public key is to use the private key. The public key exponent 'e' is revealed, but the
private key exponent 'd' is protected (Bonde & Bhadade, 2017). The steps for generating
a key are as follows:
1. Select “p” and “q” where p ≠ q and both p and q are large prime numbers.
2. Determine n = p x q.
3. Compute Ø(n) = (p-1) x (q-1), where “Ø” is Euler's totient function.
4. Choose Public Key exponent “e” such that, 1 < e < n and GCD (e, Ø(n)) = 1.
5. Evaluate the secret Private Key exponent “d” such that, 1 < d < Ø(n) and e x d mod
Ø(n) = 1.
6. Public Key = (n, e)
7. Private Key = (n, d)

3.1.2 Encryption
The following are the processes for encrypting a message to obtain the cipher-text:
1. Obtain the recipient’s Public Key – (n, e).
2. Denote Plain Text message as a positive integer M.
3. Compute the cipher text as C = Me mod n.

3.1.3 Decryption
The following are the processes for decrypting cipher-text in order to obtain the original
message:
1. Acquire the recipient’s Private Key – (n, d).
2. Calculate the plain text as M = C d mod n.

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3.2 Advantages of RSA algorithm

The following are some of the advantages of RSA algorithm:
• The RSA algorithm is simple to implement.
• The RSA algorithm provides a safe and secure way to transfer confidential
information.
• The RSA method is extremely tough to crack because it includes complex
mathematics.
• It is simple to distribute the public key to users.
• It can be implemented using any programming language.
(GeeksforGeeks, 2021)

3.3 Disadvantages of RSA algorithm

The following are some of the disadvantages of RSA algorithm:
• It may fail occasionally because full encryption requires both symmetric and
asymmetric encryption, while RSA only employs symmetric encryption.
• Due to the large mathematical numbers, the data transfer rate is slow.
• Reliability of the public keys needs to be verified by third party.
• Decryption demands a lot of processing at the receiver's end.
• If the prime numbers taken are small, it’s strength will be poor.
(GeeksforGeeks, 2021)

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4. Modified RSA algorithm

The newly developed algorithm provides an additional layer of security to the already
robust cryptographic algorithm, RSA. This algorithm takes the plain text letter, converts it
into it’s respective ASCII value which is in decimal form and separates the decimal
numbers in a way that isolates each decimal number. Then, each of the isolated decimal
numbers is converted into their respective binary values and the result is inverted. This
means that if the binary value which is 1 is inverted to 0 and vice-versa. The obtained
inverted binary value is then converted into its decimal form which gives a new number.
The newly obtained decimal numbers represents the value for the plain text and is used
in the encryption and decryption process.

Figure 5: ASCII Table for alphabet characters

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Since, this algorithm requires isolating and inverting the values, it is named as IIRSA.
Because of the addition of these extra steps, the algorithm is now one of its kind. The
original RSA is a well-known algorithm so many hackers know how it works and can
decrypt the cipher text if they have the required time and computational technology. This
modification makes this algorithm unique so it cannot be cracked without knowing the
additional steps that have been added into it. Thus, it makes this algorithm more secure
than the original RSA. The various aspects regarding the complete process of encryption
and decryption are elaborated below.

The ASCII values for the alphabet characters can be obtained from the figure above.
Assuming the message is “DOG”.

First, convert the plain text letters into their respective ASCII values.
D O G
68 79 71

Now, isolate the letters, convert into binary and get the inverted decimal value.

D = 68
Where, 6 = 0110 [Binary] 8 = 1000 [Binary]
↓ ↓
1001 [Inverted] 0111 [Inverted]
↓ ↓
9 [Decimal] 7 [Decimal]
The new value of D is 97.

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O = 79
Where, 7 = 0111 [Binary] 9 = 1001 [Binary]
↓ ↓
1000 [Inverted] 0110 [Inverted]
↓ ↓
8 [Decimal] 6 [Decimal]
The new value of O is 86.

G = 71
Where, 7 = 0111 [Binary] 8 = 1000 [Binary]
↓ ↓
1000 [Inverted] 0111 [Inverted]
↓ ↓
8 [Decimal] 7 [Decimal]
The new value of G is 87.

Here, DOG is encrypted as ‘978687’ by the using the IIRSA method.

Let's say the prime numbers P and Q are 31 and 41, respectively.
n = p * q = 1271 [i.e., 31 * 41]
Ø (n) = (p - 1) * (q - 1) = 1200 [i.e. (31 – 1) * (41 - 1)]
e = 7, since GCD (7, 1200) = 1 < 7 < 1271
d = 343, since e * d mod Ø (n) = 1
So, the public key = (1271, 7)
The private key = (1271, 343)

Encryption Decryption
Plain text ‘D’ = 97 M = C ^ d mod n
C = M ^ e mod n M = 977 ^ 343 mod 1271
C = 97 ^ 7 mod 1271 M = 97 (Original message)
C = 977 (Cipher text)

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Encryption Decryption
Plain text ‘O’ = 86 M = C ^ d mod n
C = M ^ e mod n M = 189 ^ 343 mod 1271
C = 86 ^ 7 mod 1271 M = 86 (Original message)
C = 189 (Cipher text)

Encryption Decryption
Plain text ‘G’ = 87 M = C ^ d mod n
C = M ^ e mod n M = 676 ^ 343 mod 1271
C = 87 ^ 7 mod 1271 M = 87 (Original message)
C = 676 (Cipher text)

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4.1 Flowchart

Figure 6: IIRSA encryption algorithm

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Figure 7: IIRSA decryption algorithm

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4.2 Working steps of algorithm

Step 1: Separate each letter in the plain text.
Step 2: Get the ASCII values for each character.
Step 3: Isolate each decimal number.
Step 4: Get the binary value for each decimal.
Step 5: Invert the binary numbers.
Step 6: Convert the obtained value to decimal.
Step 7: Generate the private and public keys.
Step 8: Encrypt and decrypt the message using the generated public and private key.

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5. Test Cases
Test 01
Considering the plain text is “G”,
G = 71 [i.e., G = 71 in ASCII value]
Isolating the ASCII values getting the binary values for each,
7 = 0111, 1 = 0001
Inverting the obtained binary values and converting the inverted value into decimal.
1000 = 8, 1110 = 14
Here, G = 814 which is the new value for the plain text.

Let's say the prime numbers P and Q are 43 and 19, respectively.
n = 43 *19 = 817
Ø (n) = (43 - 1) * (19 - 1) = 756
Public Key = (817, 5)
Private Key = (817, 605)
Now,

Encryption Decryption
Plain Text ‘G’ = 814 M = C ^ d mod n
C = M ^ e mod n M = 574 ^ 605 mod 817
C = 814 ^ 5 mod 817 M = 814 (Original message)
C = 574 (Cipher text)

Test 02
Considering the plain text is “R”,
R = 82 [i.e., G = 82 in ASCII value]
Isolating the ASCII values getting the binary values for each,
8 = 1000, 2 = 0010
Inverting the obtained binary values and converting the inverted value into decimal.
0111 = 7, 1101 = 13
Here, G = 713 which is the new value for the plain text.

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Encryption Decryption
Plain Text ‘R’ = 713 M = C ^ d mod n
C = M ^ e mod n M = 497 ^ 605 mod 817
C = 713 ^ 5 mod 817 M = 814 (Original message)
C = 497 (Cipher text)

Test 03
Considering the plain text is “A”,
A = 65 [i.e., A = 65 in ASCII value]
Isolating the ASCII values getting the binary values for each,
6 = 0110, 5 = 0101
Inverting the obtained binary values and converting the inverted value into decimal.
1001 = 9, 1010 = 10
Here, G = 910 which is the new value for the plain text.

Encryption Decryption
Plain Text ‘A’ = 910 M = C ^ d mod n
C = M ^ e mod n M = 424 ^ 605 mod 817
C = 910 ^ 5 mod 817 M = 910 (Original message)
C = 424 (Cipher text)

Test 04
Considering the plain text is “P”,
P = 80 [i.e., P = 80 in ASCII value]
Isolating the ASCII values getting the binary values for each,
8 = 1000, 0 = 0000
Inverting the obtained binary values and converting the inverted value into decimal.
0111 = 7, 1111 = 15
Here, P = 715 which is the new value for the plain text.

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Encryption Decryption
Plain Text ‘P’ = 715 M = C ^ d mod n
C = M ^ e mod n M = 65 ^ 605 mod 817
C = 715 ^ 5 mod 817 M = 715 (Original message)
C = 65 (Cipher text)

Test 05
Considering the plain text is “E”,
E = 80 [i.e., E = 80 in ASCII value]
Isolating the ASCII values getting the binary values for each,
6 = 0110, 9 = 1001
Inverting the obtained binary values and converting the inverted value into decimal.
1001 = 9, 0110 = 6
Here, E = 96 which is the new value for the plain text.

Encryption Decryption
Plain Text ‘P’ = 96 M = C ^ d mod n
C = M ^ e mod n M = 799 ^ 605 mod 817
C = 96 ^ 5 mod 817 M = 96 (Original message)
C = 799 (Cipher text)

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6. Critical Evaluation of the new Cryptographic Algorithm

6.1 Strengths of the algorithm

Mentioned below is a list of strengths of this new cryptographic algorithm:
• It adds additional steps before encrypting the message through RSA which make
it more secure.
• It is extremely difficult for anyone to factor n, i.e., to find p and q.
• It is impossible for anyone to find d, unless they know Ø(n).
• It is a computationally secure algorithm.

6.2 Weakness of the algorithm

Mentioned below is a list of weakness of this new cryptographic algorithm:
• It requires a long time to encrypt data.
• The key may be found if the prime numbers p and q are too close to each other.
• If part of the private key ‘d’ is too small then it can be easily cracked.
• If the key is less than 1024 bits, it may be cracked by someone with the necessary
computational power and time.

6.3 Application Area

An implementation of this cryptographic algorithm is that it can be applied to encrypt an
electronic file such as student records, email, and classified documents. It may be
implemented in a variety of cryptographic libraries, including OpenSSL, wolfCrypt,
cryptlib, and many others. Encrypting and decrypting a huge file takes a long time. As a
result, it's ideal for small files. RSA established the foundation for most of current secure
communications as one of the earliest public-key encryption systems that was extensively
utilized. It was the first method used in PGP encryption and was traditionally used in TLS.
Many internet browsers, VPNs, email, chat, and other communication methods still use
the RSA. Secure connections between VPN clients and VPN servers are commonly
produced using RSA. RSA encryption can be used in TLS handshakes for exchanging
keys and establishing a secure link under protocols like OpenVPN.

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7. Conclusion
The various concepts of information security have been discussed in this document. The
fundamental aspects which must be maintained in order to ensure information security
are confidentiality, integrity and availability. In order for these goals to be met, various
actions need to be implemented. Cryptography is one method through which these goals
of information security like confidentiality and integrity can be met. The history and
evolution of the cryptographic systems has been discussed in this document from its
origin to the present structure which entails various modifications and variations that have
been made to the cryptosystems over the years. Of the many cryptographic techniques,
the RSA algorithm has been selected to be modified in this document. The foundation of
RSA, its pros and cons and its various processes like key generation, encryption and
decryption has been discussed. The changes made to the RSA algorithm along with the
flowchart for encryption and decryption and the working steps of algorithm have been
elaborated in detail. Moreover, the modified algorithm h as been tested and critically
evaluated for its strengths and weaknesses and the application areas in which it might be
implemented.

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8. References
Albugmi, A., Walters, R. J., Alassafi, M. O. & Wills, G., 2016. Data Security in Cloud
Computing. Fifth International Conferance on Future Generation Communication
Technologies (FGCT), Volume 1, pp. 55-59.
Bodur, H. & Kara, R., 2015. Secure SMS Encryption Using RSA Encryption Algorithm
on Android. 3rd International Symposium on Innovative Technologies in Engineering
and Science, Volume 1, p. 10.
Bonde, S. Y. & Bhadade, U. S., 2017. IMPLEMENTATION OF RSA ALGORITHM AND
MODIFIED RSA ALGORITHM METHODS:A REVIEW. International Journal of
Advanced Technologyg in Engineering and Science, 5(5), pp. 176-181.
GeeksforGeeks, 2020. Difference Between Symmetric and Asymmetric Key Encryption.
[Online]
Available at: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-symmetric-and-
asymmetric-key-encryption/
[Accessed 6 Jan 2021].
GeeksforGeeks, 2021. RSA Full Form. [Online]
Available at: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/rsa-full-form/
[Accessed 7 January 2021].
Hatem, M., Rasha, A., Hatem, A. E. & Reda, H., 2019. Modified RSA Algorithm Using
Two Public Key and Chinese Remainder Theorem. I.J. of Electronics and Information
Engineering, 10(1), pp. 51-64.
Tutorialspoint, 2015. Cryptography Just For Beginners. 1st ed. Hyderabad: Tutorials
Point (I) Pvt. Ltd. .
Whitman, M. E. & Mattord, H. J., 2018. Principles of Information Securrity. 6th ed.
Boston: Cenage Learning.
Zakariyah, W. O., 2021. Cryptography, Ilorin: Department of Telecommunication
Science, University of Ilorin.

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