Logic Operations

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Table of Contents
1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 3
2 Logical Connection of Group objects .................................................................... 3
2.1 Switch Actuator (Binary Output) with Logic Function .................................. 3
2.1.1 Group object - Switch .................................................................................... 3
2.1.2 Group object - Logic ...................................................................................... 3
2.1.3 OR Function with ON/OFF Delay ................................................................... 5
2.1.4 AND Function ................................................................................................ 8
2.1.5 Extended Logic (Direct Relay Control) ..........................................................11
2.1.6 Extended Logic (Object Logic Output) ..........................................................12
3 Logical Connection of Group Addresses .............................................................13
3.1 Logic Module ..................................................................................................13
3.1.1 Problematic Situations ..................................................................................13
3.1.2 Available Parameter Settings of Logic Modules ............................................14
4 Extensive Logical Connection of Group Addresses............................................24
4.1 Application Unit (Example) ............................................................................24
4.2 Graphical Project Design in a Logic Diagram ..............................................25
5 Tasks.......................................................................................................................26
5.1 Linking Actuator Objects ...............................................................................26
5.1.1 OR function without time delay or with ON and OFF delay ...........................26
5.1.2 Example: Automatic Room Air Conditioning with Enabling (AND function) ...26
5.1.3 AND Function without time delay and with ON/OFF Delay ...........................27
Test the function of the following sequences: ...........................................................27
5.1.4 Linking Group Addresses (1) – Logic Module or Switch Actuator “Extended
Logic” .....................................................................................................................27
5.1.5 Linking Group Addresses (2) – Graphical Project Design (Application
Module) ....................................................................................................................27
6 Logic Operations (Appendix) ................................................................................28
6.1 Basic Functions and Elements ......................................................................28
6.1.1 AND Function (Conjunction) and AND Element (AND) .................................28
6.1.2 OR Function (Disjunction) and OR Element (OR) .........................................30
6.1.3 Negation and NOT Element (NOT) ...............................................................32
6.2 Compound Elements......................................................................................33
6.2.1 NAND Element (NAND) ................................................................................33
6.2.2 NOR Element (NOR) ....................................................................................34
6.2.3 EQUIVALENCE Element ..............................................................................35
6.2.4 EXCLUSIVE OR Element (XOR) ..................................................................36

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1 Introduction
A large number of functions in building control systems cannot be traced back to a single
circumstance. Functions or states of devices or circuits are frequently made dependent on
several conditions.
The logic operation of the various trigger factors can be implemented in various ways in a
KNX system. Different solutions can lead to the objective depending on the type and
number of the required conditions.
The KNX components that are available on the market from various manufacturers
provide a range of variants which enable frequently requested logic operations to be
implemented. The group objects and parameter settings of these devices use the basic
principles of digital technology.
The basic functions of the logic operations and some compound elements are explained
in an appendix at the end of the chapter.

2 Logical Connection of Group objects

2.1 Switch Actuator (Binary Output) with Logic Function

The majority of the manufacturers of KNX components already have logic objects
available in the standard application of their switch actuators (binary outputs).
As different logic functions are available dependent on the manufacturer and product, no
general statements can be made. The functional processes on two switch actuators of
different manufacturers are taken as a basis in the following explanations.

2.1.1 Group object - Switch

The “Switch” group object of a switch actuator behaves in a similar way to an OR function
for all the assigned group addresses, whereby the last group address sent determines the
status of the output.

2.1.2 Group object - Logic

A logic operation can be activated separately for each available output.
One or two logic operations of the group objects are activated dependent on the product
and manufacturer.
Additional logic functions can be activated in the applications via “extended logic”.

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Figure 1: Parameter window (extract) e.g. 4-fold switch actuator

Via the function Logic operation/Logic, it is possible to link the switching of the output with
specific conditions. The following can be selected:
AND function
OR function
XOR function
Gate function

Figure 2: Functional diagram of the logic operations e.g. 4-fold switch actuator

Two logic objects are available: the Switch group object is first of all evaluated with the
Logic operation 1 group object. The result is linked with the Logic operation 2 group
object.

The activation of the logic function means that the switch object of the respective channel
(output) interacts with the logic objects of the associated channel (output).

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2.1.3 OR Function with ON/OFF Delay

A logic object can be activated for the respective switch contact. The following logic
operations are available:
AND function
OR function
XOR function

Figure 3: Parameter window for logic operation (extract) e.g. 8-fold switch actuator

In addition to activating the logic operation, the ON/OFF delay can also be used.
Several alternatives can be selected here which the delays have an effect on.

Figure 4: Parameter window for ON/OFF delay (extract) e.g. 8-gang switch actuator

It should be noted that the ON/OFF delay does not affect the logic object.
It is therefore possible to switch circuits for specific applications directly (via logic objects)
and with a time delay (via switch objects).

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2.1.3.1 Flow Diagram of OR Function

Figure 5: Flow diagram of OR function

Case 1: The actuator follows the ON and OFF signals that are active in the switch
object.
Case 2: The actuator follows the ON and OFF signals that are active in the logic
object.
Case 3: If the signals of the switch object and the logic object intersect each other,
the output is switched on by the first ON signal and switched off by the last
OFF signal sent.

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2.1.3.2 OR Function with ON and OFF Delay

Note: The OR function with an ON and OFF delay reacts differently depending on the
manufacturer. A flow chart of a product e.g. 8-fold switch actuator is shown as an
example.

The ON and OFF delay is configured on the switch object.

The logic object functions without a delay.

Figure 6: Flow diagram of OR function with ON and OFF delay

Case 1: The output switches on once the ON delay has elapsed. The OFF period
starts when the OFF command has been sent and the output switches off
once it has elapsed.
Case 2: As the logic object is operating without a delay, the output is switched directly
by ON and OFF signals from the logic object.
Case 3: If the logic object receives an ON command while the ON delay of the switch
object is active, the output is switched on. If the switch object and the logic
object receive an OFF signal, the output is switched off once the OFF delay
has elapsed.
If the logic object only receives an OFF signal once the OFF delay of the
switch object has elapsed, the output is switched off by this OFF signal (not
shown).

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2.1.4 AND Function

The activated AND function enables a circuit to be switched dependent on one or several
conditions. (Manufacturer- and product-dependent) timing functions such as ON, OFF and
ON/OFF delays can also be parameterised.

Note: When using an AND function, it should be ensured that an AND condition which
has been caused by a physical variable (e.g. temperature or brightness) is not reset by a
manual operation (e.g. "Central OFF"). This problem can likewise be solved by the cyclical
sending of a signal.

2.1.4.1 AND Function without Delay

Figure 7: Flow diagram of AND function without delay

Case 1: The ON signal in the switch object sets a marker. The output is only switched
on when the logic object receives a ‘1’. If a ‘0’ is sent to the logic object, the
output switches off.
Case 2: The ON signal in the logic object sets a marker. The output is only switched on
when the switch object receives a ‘1’. If a ‘0’ is sent to the logic object, the
output switches off. If the switch object receives a ‘0’ as useful data before the
logic object, the AND condition is no longer met and the output is switched off.

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2.1.4.2 AND Function with ON and OFF Delay

For the manufacturer- and product-dependent AND function, it should be noted that an
activated timing function only influences the switch object and/or the staircase lighting
object, dependent on the parameterisation.

The logic object functions without a delay.

The ON and OFF delay and their effect on the switch object are defined in the following
parameter window of the 8-fold switch actuator which has been selected as an example.

Figure 8: Parameter for effect of the ON/OFF delay (extract) e.g. 8-fold switch actuator

Simple logic gates can be implemented with the logic function. The following objects are
available as input objects per channel: – Switch Object Channel X – Staircase Lighting
Object Channel X – Logic Object A Channel X. The output of the logic function can only
be processed internally in the switch actuator; that means that the logic result is routed to
the relay of the respective channel and not sent on the bus.
The input objects “Switch object” and “Staircase lighting object” are always interconnected
with an OR gate for the basic logic function. The output of this OR gate leads to a freely
configurable gate: AND, OR, XOR. The following diagram shows a logic operation with an
AND function.

Figure 9: Flow diagram of AND function of 8-fold switch actuator

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Figure 10: Flow diagram of AND function of 8-fold switch actuator

Case 1: An ON signal has been sent to the logic object. The switch object likewise
receives a ‘1’ as useful data. The output is switched on once the set ON delay
(te) has elapsed. A ‘0’ in the switch object starts the OFF delay (t a). The output
switches off once the delay period has elapsed.
Case 2: A ‘1’ is sent to the switch object as useful data. If a ‘1’ is sent to the logic
object during the set ON period, the output is switched on once the ON delay
of the switch object has elapsed. A ‘0’ in the switch object starts the OFF delay
(ta). If the logic object receives a ‘0’ during the OFF delay, the output is
switched off directly.
Summary: To use the ON and OFF delays fully, the logic object must receive a ‘1’ as a
useful signal before the switch object and may only be deactivated by a ‘0’
once the OFF delay has elapsed (t a).

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2.1.5 Extended Logic (Direct Relay Control)

Additional dependencies and behaviour patterns of the switch actuators can be configured
e.g. via “Extended Logic” dependent on the manufacturer and product. The options are
shown with the example of an 8-fold switch actuator.
With the parameter setting “Extended Logic”, up to three logic objects can be linked with
different gates which then influence the relay output (parameter line: “Time 1 Output” 
“Controls relay directly”). In addition, “Gate functions” and “Filters” can be activated for
technical processes.

Figure 11: Parameters for "Extended Logic" (controls relay directly) – 8-fold switch actuator

When using the “Extended Logic” function, the logic objects of the respective channels are
queried depending on the parameterisation of the possible logic gates e.g. AND function)
and the result is transferred “internally” to the relay output (Logic Output Channel X). The
standard switch object of the respective output (channel) no longer has a function (still
shown).

Figure 12: Group objects for "Extended Logic" (controls relay directly) – 8-fold switch
actuator

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2.1.6 Extended Logic (Object Logic Output)

With the parameter setting “Extended Logic”, up to three logic objects are used to
combine the group addresses assigned to the group objects into a new group address.

Figure 13: Parameters for "Extended Logic" (Object Logic Output) – 8-fold switch actuator

Different gate functions can be used and connected with each other. The result of the gate
function is then sent as a group address on the bus via the group object "Logic Output"
(parameter line: “Time 1 Output”  “Object Logic Output”).
“Gate functions” and “Filters” can be activated for technical processes.
The standard switch object of the respective output (channel) no longer has a function
(still shown).

Figure 14: Group objects for "Extended Logic" (Object Logic Output) – 8-fold switch
actuator

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3 Logical Connection of Group Addresses

In many building functions, there are a variety of tasks that are defined by various group
addresses and must be linked together. The requirement can also arise to combine
several group addresses into a new group address due to the limited number of
associations in a group object.
There is the requirement for other applications to be able to address several objects with
various bit widths (1 bit, 8 bit) at the same time with a transmitted address.
Furthermore, various applications have time-limited functions which must be made
possible by filtering group addresses.

3.1 Logic Module

The logic modules that are available from various manufacturers offer a range of
parameters for managing the logic operations mentioned above.

3.1.1 Problematic Situations

3.1.1.1 Telegram Transfer Times

When using status response objects, it should be noted that problems can be caused by
the transfer times of telegrams. Telegrams may no longer arrive at the same time due to
the time adjustment so that the logic result at the gate may be incorrect.

3.1.1.2 Cyclical Sending

The cyclical sending of sensors can have serious consequences if they are led via logic
operations which then cannot carry out cyclical sending themselves. By way of example,
an alarm trigger function should be disabled or enabled via a gate in the same way as a
watchdog circuit. If an AND function is set for this input, an alarm would pass through to
the other input exactly once. The inputs are however sometimes set for cyclical sending to
compensate for possible transmission errors caused by repetitions.
It is important to know here that in contrast to PLC gates, KNX logic gate modules can
also send cyclically (i.e. function practically only as transparent converters).

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3.1.2 Available Parameter Settings of Logic Modules

Each KNX installation has its own requirements.
The application possibilities on a logic module are shown as an example.
The logic module offers functions which are not possible with sensors and actuators
alone. By carrying out three different functions at the same time (e.g. logic, threshold
values and scenes), all the additional functions can generally be carried out in small KNX
installations with a logic module.
The logic module for example makes different functions available in a device for special
logic operations between sensors and actuators. The 12 possible functions can be seen
from the parameter overview.

Figure 15: Parameter window of "Logic Module" (extract)

The following applies to all the parameter windows and functions of the selected logic
module:
Behaviour of the inputs
After receipt of a telegram, all the inputs first save the values in order to make them
available (e.g. for logic functions) for further processing. When a new telegram reaches
the input, the values are overwritten accordingly.
Disable objects
Disable objects always block the function on receipt of an ON telegram at the group object
“xx Disable xx”. On receipt of an OFF telegram at the group object “xx Disable xx”, the
function is enabled.
Send delay
The send delay indicates how long the logic module waits (depending on the
parameterised send condition), before it sends a new value as an output telegram.
Cyclical sending
Some functions of the logic module enable the cyclical sending of an output value. The set
cycle is then maintained until an output value changes. When a value is changed, the
output is immediately sent and the next sending cycle is started.
Data types and datapoint types (DPT)
Different datatypes can be selected for some functions of the logic module. The datapoint
type (DPT - Interworking Standard) is applied where applicable.

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3.1.2.1 Format Converter

If Format Converter is selected as a function in the General parameter, a line appears in
the ETS parameter window. The function is always prefixed with the name of the line for
which the format converter has been selected (e.g. A – Format converter).
Data (e.g. 1 byte values) can be converted into another format (e.g. 8 x 1 bit) by the
format converter.

Figure 16: Parameters for “Format Converter” function

The Format Converter function breaks down an input telegram into several output
telegram of a different format or generates an output telegram from several input
telegrams of another format. That means that telegrams are broken down or put together
at format level. No specific datapoint type (DTP) can therefore be assigned to the input
and output objects. An assignment between the object and a datapoint type (DTP) arises
due to the context of the ETS project in which this function is used.

Figure 17: Group objects (extract) of ‘Format Converter’

In the event of bus voltage failure or when the logic module is reprogrammed, the input
values are not saved.

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3.1.2.2 Logic Gates

If the function Logic is selected in the General window, 3 further lines appear in the ETS
parameter window. The function is always prefixed with the name of the line for which the
logic gate has been selected (e.g. A – Logic Input 1 - 4).
Logic gates can be used to logically process states of the KNX installation which are
report via telegrams. An output for example can only be sent from an AND gate if the input
for twilight = 1 and the input for movement = 1. A change in the input signals causes the
output to be sent (depending on the parameterisation). The input values are saved on bus
voltage failure (if configured). If the logic module is reprogrammed, the saved input values
are always deleted.

Figure 18: Parameters (extract) of ‘Logic (Gate) Inputs/Output’

3.1.2.3 Min/Max-Value Indication

If the function Min/Max-Value Indication is selected in the General window, the line
appears in the ETS parameter window which carries the name of the selected function
(e.g. A – Min/Max-Value Indication). With the min/max-value indication, the largest
temperature value for example is determined from 2 sent telegrams. This value from
different sensors can then be passed to a temperature controller as a measured value.

Figure 19: Parameters (extract) of ‘Min/Max-Value Indication’

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3.1.2.4 Threshold Value Detection

If Threshold Values is selected as a function in the General window, 2 lines appear in the
ETS parameter window. The function is always prefixed with the name of the line for
which the threshold values have been selected (e.g. A – Threshold Value 1).
The function is used to detect if a value exceeds/falls below a set threshold value. The
temperature of a cold store can for example be monitored for a maximum value and a
message sent when it is exceeded.

Figure 20: Parameters (extract) of ‘Threshold Value’

Each threshold value function makes 2 independent threshold values available which can
be parameterised in the lines Threshold Value 1 (or 2). The datapoint types available for
selection are shown in the diagram.

3.1.2.5 Scenes
If Scenes is selected as a function in the General window, further lines appear in the ETS
parameter window. The function is always prefixed with the name of the line for which the
scenes has been selected (e.g. A – Scenes Common).

Figure 21: Parameters (extract) of ‘Scenes Common’

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Scenes are used to retrieve default settings. There are e.g. 6 group objects available as
outputs. The data type is defined once for each output. Different values can then be
assigned to these outputs in each scene.

Figure 22: Parameters (extract) of ‘Scene Outputs’

A scene for a cosy evening by the fire can be defined in a lounge. If this scene is retrieved
via a bus telegram, the preset values for the scene are sent on the bus to the actuators as
telegrams. A standard lamp can thus for example be switched on, the ceiling lighting
dimmed to 10 % and the heating setpoint lowered to 19 °C.

Figure 23: Parameters (extract) of ‘Scene 1’

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3.1.2.6 Temperature Comparator

If Temperature Comparator is selected as a function in the General window, a line
appears in the ETS parameter window with the selected function e.g. A – Temperature
Comparator.
2 different temperature values can be compared with the temperature valuator. Different
telegrams can be sent depending on the result.

Figure 24: Parameters (extract) of ‘Temperature Comparator’

3.1.2.7 Gate
If Gate/Filter is selected in the General window, 2 lines appear in the ETS parameter
window, each with a gate/filter.
The filter function enables the filtering out of telegrams. Telegrams can be routed or
blocked with a gate depending on a set condition.
Note: The gate/filter functions operates at the format level of telegrams (e.g. 1 bit,
1 byte, 2 byte) and not on datapoint types (EIS type). An assignment between the object
and a datapoint type is only carried out due to the context of the ETS project in which this
function is used.

Figure 25: Parameters (extract) of ‘Gate/Filter’

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3.1.2.8 Staircase Light

If the function Staircase Light is selected in the General window, a line appears in the ETS
parameter window in which 2 configurable staircase lights are available.
The staircase lighting function mirrors a staircase lighting timer. On receipt of an ON
telegram, the delay is started. An OFF telegram is sent to the group object at the input
once the delay has elapsed.

Figure 26: Parameters (extract) for ‘Staircase Light’

3.1.2.9 Multiplier
If Multiplier is selected in the General parameter window, 2 lines appear in the ETS
parameter window.
The multiplier can be used to pass on several telegrams to the output on receipt of a
telegram at the input. The output telegrams can be four 1 bit and/or four 1 byte telegrams.

Figure 27: Parameters (extract) of ‘Multiplier 1 bit Outputs’

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With the parameter Reaction of the 1-Byte output x, it is defined how a binary output of the
multiplier should behave. The option as input telegram corresponds to the function of the
simple multiplier. The outputs can however also be inverted or only react to a telegram.
For example, the option send if ON causes a telegram to be sent to the input while an
OFF telegram causes no reaction at the output.

Figure 28: Parameters (extract) of ‘Multiplier 1 byte Outputs’

The group objects (example} show that a 1 bit input address can send four 1-bit output
addresses and one 1-byte output address on the bus.

Figure 29: Group objects (extract) of ‘Multiplier (Input/Outputs)’

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3.1.2.10 Toggle Value

If Toggle Value is selected as a function in the General window, a line appears in the ETS
parameter window with the name of the function.
With this function, a preset setpoint value can be sent as a reaction to a 1 bit input
telegram. It is therefore possible e.g. to predefine a setpoint for the room temperature
when you are present (e.g. 20 °C) and when you are absent (e.g. 18 °C).

Figure 30: Parameters (extract) of ‘Toggle Value’

3.1.2.11 Counter

If the Counter function is selected in the General window, a line appears in the ETS
parameter window with the name of the selected function.
The counter is a telegram counter. Group address telegrams from sensors and actuators
can thus be counted. The counter can register a telegram max. every 30 ms (corresponds
to 33 Hz).

Figure 31: Parameters (extract) of ‘Counter’

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3.1.2.12 Time delay

If Time delay has been selected as a function in the General window, two lines appear in
the ETS parameter window on which 2 time delays per line can be used.
The time delay can be used for 1 bit telegrams as an ON and/or OFF delay. For all other
data types, it is used as a send delay for telegrams. This telegram delay causes the delay
to be started when a telegram arrives at the input and the telegram is only passed on
once the period has elapsed. If a further telegram with a different value arrives during the
delay, this new value is passed on at the end of the delay period.

Figure 32: Parameters (extract) of ‘Timer 1 + 2 (3 + 4)’

Notes: .................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................

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4 Extensive Logical Connection of Group Addresses

If a variety of logic operations are required for technical building functions, the use of
application units is recommended. Various manufacturers offer corresponding device
versions with a different range of functions.

4.1 Application Unit (Example)

Figure 33: Application unit

The project design and commissioning of the logic functions of an application unit mainly
take place directly in ETS.

The assignment of parameters is carried out in a graphical logic diagram which is opened
for example via the "Parameters..." button. This is where the logic functions, the inputs
and outputs as well as the connections are created and the parameters of the functions
are edited.

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4.2 Graphical Project Design in a Logic Diagram

The graphical user interface for the parameterisation of the application unit shown in the
example uses various ETS basic functions and ETS interfaces. It is directly integrated into
the ETS program and can therefore be operated in the usual ETS environment.
The required function modules are dragged onto the editing surface via drag and drop and
the required connections are linked together by pressing the left mouse button.
Clicking with the right mouse button on a module opens up the parameter editing.

Pull

Right mouse click

Figure 34: Graphical user interface

The configuration of the logic functions is carried out in the ‘Project Design’ module of
ETS and represented in a graphical logic diagram based on DIN 40900.
Notes: ..............................................................................................................
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5 Tasks
The following tasks are recommended for the previous explanations.
The tasks can be adapted accordingly dependent on the available KNX components.

5.1 Linking Actuator Objects

5.1.1 OR function without time delay or with ON and OFF delay

Configure an x-fold switch actuator and activate the OR function in the parameters of
channel x. Send the required group addresses to the switch or logic object with a switch
sensor.
Test the function of the following processes:
OR function without delay
OR function with ON and/or OFF delay
Familiarise yourself with the flow diagrams in the chapter on the OR function (case 1 and
case 2).

5.1.2 Example: Automatic Room Air Conditioning with Enabling (AND function)
Assign a switch sensor the task of switching a room air conditioner via a switch actuator.
The room contains a room thermostat with two-step control and bus capability.
Alternatively, a conventional room thermostat can be given bus capability via a binary
input.
Assign the parameters so that the thermostat regulates the room temperature via the
switch object and the switch sensor enables or disables the closed-loop control via the
logic object (AND function).
Create the necessary group addresses as main and middle groups.
Create the required subgroups, e.g.
35 = Thermostat for cooling room xx
36 = Switch sensor for cooling room xx
and link these addresses with the relevant objects.
Transfer the modified information into the devices and test the function.
Configure a Central OFF function and extend this to the devices for air conditioning.
Link the Central OFF group address with the switch object and test the function.
Link the Central OFF group address with the logic object and test the function.

Summary: If group addresses with the value ‘1’ which have been generated by physical
processes are not permitted to be reset by a central ‘OFF’ command, the
group address is sent cyclically.

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5.1.3 AND Function without time delay and with ON/OFF Delay
Configure a 4-fold switch actuator and activate the AND function in the parameters of the
channel.

Test the function of the following sequences:

AND function without delay
AND function with ON delay
AND function with ON and OFF delay
Familiarise yourself with the flow diagrams in the section describing the AND function
(Case 1, Case 2, Case 3).

5.1.4 Linking Group Addresses (1) – Logic Module or Switch Actuator “Extended
Logic”
The KNX system is used in a school building for signal and monitoring functions. The
following additions should increase the security of the building:
The message ‘Window open’ should be extended into an alarm signal (protection
against danger) at a particular time of day and routed to the technical supervisor
(caretaker).
The group address for the message ‘Window open’ is e.g. linked in a logic module as an
input address to a second group address for ‘Alarm duration’ using an AND function to
form a new output group address ‘ALARM – Window open’.

Group address Meaning of the group addresses

1/0/11 Message “Window open”
1/0/13 Alarm duration
1/0/15 ALARM "Window Open "

5.1.5 Linking Group Addresses (2) – Graphical Project Design (Application

Module)
A classroom should be heated during lessons if the temperature controller sends the
signal ‘Heating ON’, both windows in the room are closed and the classroom is occupied.
Lesson time is signalled with a binary input (or time switch), each of the two windows is
monitored with a window contact and the use of the classroom is recorded with a motion
detector. None of the sensors operate with inverted logic.
Number of used inputs: 5
 Input 1: Heating ON
 Input 2: Time switch
 Inputs 3 and 4: Window contacts
 Input 5: Motion detector
Logic gate
The group address of the output controls the heating actuator.
Test the function.

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6 Logic Operations (Appendix)

6.1 Basic Functions and Elements

6.1.1 AND Function (Conjunction) and AND Element (AND)

The sentence «If the weather is nice tomorrow and my brother has time, we are going
sailing» contains an AND function. Statement A (nice weather) and statement B (my
brother has time) must apply i.e. be true to make statement X (going sailing) true. This
connection can be represented in a truth table. A ‘1’ state means «true» or «applicable».
A ‘0’ state means «false» or «not applicable». Four cases (combinations) are possible.
The cases can follow any order in principle but should correspond to a specific pattern.

Figure 35: Truth table and circuit diagram of an AND function and an AND element

An electronic circuit in which only a ‘1’ state is present at output X when ‘1’ states are
present at input A and at input B, is called AND, an AND element or an AND gate.
An AND element can be implemented by a circuit diagram. Nowadays however integrated
semiconductor circuits are used almost exclusively.

Any circuit that fulfils the truth table of an AND function is an AND element.

The AND function can be expressed mathematically with the help of logic algebra:

X=A^B ^ Symbol for the AND function (standardised).

The diagram shows the graphical symbol of an AND element with two inputs. The
designations of the inputs and the output can be freely selected. I1, I2 is often used for the
inputs and O for the outputs.

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Figure 36: Graphical symbol of the AND element with 2 inputs

The ‘1’ state is only present at the output of an AND element if there is also a
‘1’ state at all the inputs.

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6.1.2 OR Function (Disjunction) and OR Element (OR)

The sentence «If I inherit some money or win the lottery, I will travel round the world»
leads to an OR function. The world trip will be made if statement A (inheritance) or
statement B (lottery win) or both statements become true. You could argue whether the
trip would also be made if both statements come true. The grammatical mode of
expression is not precise enough here. For an OR function, the world trip would also have
to be made if A and B become true. The truth table in Diagram 2.3 indicates the
connection (‘1’ state = «true», ‘0’ state = «false»).
An electronic circuit in which a ‘1’ state is always present at output X if there is a ‘1’ state
at input A or input B or at both inputs is called an OR element.

OR
A B X

0 0 0 A B

0 1 1

1 0 1 X

1 1 1

Figure 37: Truth table and circuit of an OR function and an OR element

The represented circuit is only used for clarification. OR elements are nowadays almost
exclusively configured as integrated semiconductor circuits.

Any circuit that fulfils the truth table of an OR function is an OR element.

The OR function can likewise be expressed mathematically with the help of logic algebra:

X=AvB v = Symbol for the OR function (standardised).

The information in the standardised graphical symbol 1 means that the number of ‘1’
states at the inputs must be 1 if there should be a ‘1’ at the output.

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Figure 38: Graphical symbol of the OR element with 2 inputs

The designations of the inputs and the output can be freely selected. I1, I2 is often used
for the inputs and O for the outputs.

The ‘1’ state is always present at the output of an OR element if there is a ‘1’
state at one of the inputs at least.

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6.1.3 Negation and NOT Element (NOT)

The sentence «If my mother-in-law comes to visit, I am not going to the theatre this
evening» is a negation. If the statement A (mother-in-law comes to visit) is true, statement
X (going to the theatre) is not true. If statement A is not true, statement X is true and I am
going to the theatre. The associated truth table (diagram) has only 2 cases.
An electronic circuit in which the state at input A is always opposite to the state at output
X, is called NOT, NOT element or inverter (negator).

Figure 39: Truth table, circuit and graphical symbol (standardised) of a negation or a NOT
element

A NOT element can be structured according to the circuit diagram. It must again be noted
that NOT elements are usually configured in semiconductor technology.

Any circuit that meets the truth table of a negation is a NOT element.

The negation can also be expressed mathematically with the help of logic algebra.

X= A The translated line is the symbol of negation.

The state at the output of a NOT element is always the opposite of the state
at the input.

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6.2 Compound Elements

6.2.1 NAND Element (NAND)

If an AND element is combined with a NOT element in accordance with the diagram, all
the output states X of the AND element are negated.
Column X indicates the AND function.
X is only ‘1’, if A = 1 and B = 1 (Case 4).
X is however also the input of the NOT element.
If a ‘0’ lies at input X of the NOT element, output Z = 1. If a ‘1’ lies at input X of the NOT
element, output Z = 0.
Column Z indicates a negated AND function. The designation NAND is formed from the
English expression NOT AND.

Figure 40: Origination of the NAND function with truth table of the circuit

NAND elements are used very frequently. Unique graphical symbols have been
developed for them.

Figure 41: Truth table and graphical symbol of the NAND element with 2 inputs

The graphical symbol is produced from the symbol of the AND element with a circle at the
output. This circle denotes the negation of the output.

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The following sentence applies for the logic operation of the NAND element:

A ‘1’ state is present at the output of a NAND element if a ‘1’ state is not
present at all the inputs.

The NAND function can be represented as follows using logic algebra:

Z= A^B

The long line above the AND function of A and B indicates that the complete AND function
has been negated.

6.2.2 NOR Element (NOR)

The truth table (diagram) applies for the combination of an OR element with a NOT
element. An OR function is first formed from the input variables A and B:
X=AvB
X is simultaneously the input of the NOT element. All the states of output X appear as
negated in column Z
(output X = 0  Z = 1, output X = 1  Z = 0).

Figure 42: Origination of a NOR element with truth table of the circuit and graphical symbol
(standardised)

Z indicate the negated OR function. The designation NOR is formed from the English
expression NOT OR (NICHT-ODER). There is no German equivalent for NOR.
NOR elements are used as frequently as NAND elements. There is therefore a separate
graphical symbol (diagram) for NOR elements. The symbol is produced from the symbol
of the OR element. The negation is shown by a circle at the output.
The following sentence applies for the logic operation of the NOR element:

A ‘1’ state only lies at the output of a NOR element if the ‘1’ state is not
present at any of the inputs.
The following algebraic equation applies for the NOR function:

Z= AvB

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6.2.3 EQUIVALENCE Element

A logic circuit is frequently required in which a ‘1’ state is always present at the output if
the two input states are identical i.e. they are either both ‘0’ or both ‘1’. This type of circuit
is called EQUIVALENCE (equivalence = equal value). It is configured from basic
elements.

Figure 43: Graphical symbol of the EQUIVALENCE element with truth table

EQUIVALENCE elements also have their own graphical symbol. Diagram 2.9 shows the
symbol and the truth table.

The ‘1’ state is always present at the output of an EQUIVALENCE element if

the inputs have identical states.

The algebraic equation for the EQUIVALENCE function has the following format:

Z = (A ^ B) v (A ^ B)

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6.2.4 EXCLUSIVE OR Element (XOR)

If the output of the EQUIVALENCE element is negated by the series connection of a NOT
element, an element is created that always has the ‘1’ state at the output if the input states
are different.
This type of element is called EXCLUSIVE OR (= unequal value). The name suggests that
this element is an OR element in which case it is not possible to have a ‘1’ state at the
output if both inputs have a ‘1’ state (Case 4). The designation XOR was formed from the
English expression EXCLUSIVE OR.

Figure 44: Origination of an EXCLUSIVE OR element with truth table and graphical symbol
(standardised)

The ‘1’ state is then always present at the output of an EXCLUSIVE OR element if the two
inputs have different states.
An algebraic equation for EXCLUSIVE OR can be taken in the following format from the
circuit in Diagram 6.10:

X = (A ^ B) v (A ^ B)

This expression is not fully negated since the NOT element is series-connected. The
following equation is produced for EXCLUSIVE OR:

Z = (A ^ B) v (A ^ B)

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