Origin of Literature

Literature, as an art form, has been an integral part of human civilization for thousands of years. Its
origins can be traced back to the earliest forms of human communication and storytelling. Understanding
the origins of literature provides valuable insights into the development of human culture and society.

Literature comes from the Latin word “LITERA” which literally means an acquaintance with letters.
It is a body of literary productions, either oral, written or visual, containing imaginative language that
realistically portrays thoughts, emotions, and experiences of the human condition.

Ancient literature

Ancient literature comprises religious and scientific documents, tales, poetry and plays, royal edicts
and declarations, and other forms of writing that were recorded on a variety of media, including stone, clay
tablets, papyri, palm leaves, and metal. Before the spread of writing, oral literature did not always survive
well, but some texts and fragments have persisted. One can conclude that an unknown number of written
works too have likely not survived the ravages of time and are therefore lost.

I. Early Form of Literature

The oral literature it is the standard form or genre of literature in those societies that have no written
language. In literate societies it is used especially in the transmission of genres of traditions and folklore. In
either case, it is passed on by word of mouth over generations.

Oral literature is expressed in sayings and narrations, stories, lyrical texts, ballads and songs,
performed and passed down over several generations through recited or sung narratives – often involving
an incredible memory. One fundamental difference between written and orally transmitted literature concerns
standardisation: when creative oral expression is recorded in writing a certain version becomes fixed, which
creates the erroneous impression of a standard version.

The earliest forms of literature were oral traditions passed down through generations. These oral
narratives encompassed myths, legends, folktales, and epic poetry. Ancient civilizations such as the
Sumerians, Egyptians, Greeks, and Mesopotamians relied heavily on oral storytelling as a means of preserving
their history and cultural heritage.

II. Bronze Period (3000 BCE – 1100 BCE)

The Bronze Age is a term used to describe a period in the ancient world from about 3000 BCE to
1100 BCE. That period saw the emergence and evolution of increasingly sophisticated ancient states, some
of which evolved into real empires. It was a period in which long-distance trade networks and diplomatic
exchanges between states became permanent aspects of political, economic, and cultural life in the eastern
Mediterranean region. The period is named after one of its key technological bases: the crafting of bronze.
Bronze is an alloy of tin and copper. An alloy is a combination of metals created when the metals bond at
the molecular level to create a new material entirely.

The earliest writing dates back to around 3400 B.C.E. and was invented by the Sumerians, living in
major cities with centralized economies in what is now southern Iraq. The writing system is called cuneiform.
These texts were drawn on damp clay tablets using a pointed tool. They began to draw marks in the clay to

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make up signs, which were standardized so they could be recognized by many people. Letters enclosed in
clay envelopes, as well as works of literature, such as the Epic of Gilgamesh have been found. The earliest
tablets with written inscriptions represent the work of administrators, perhaps of large temple institutions,
recording the allocation of rations or the movement and storage of goods. Temple officials needed to keep
records of the grain, sheep, and cattle entering or leaving their stores and farms and it became impossible
to rely on memory. So, an alternative method was required and the very earliest texts were pictures of the
item’s scribes needed to record (known as pictographs).

Another early writing system during Bronze Period is Egyptian Hieroglyphs, Egyptian hieroglyphs is
"holy writing" by Herodotus and other Greeks, attributing a sacred significance to the script. This perception
influenced the Greek word for hieroglyphs, which combines "hiero" meaning "holy" and "glypho" meaning
"writing." Additionally, the Egyptians themselves referred to hieroglyphs as "medu netjer," translating to "the
gods' words," further emphasizing their divine origin. This characterization underscores the reverence and
mystery surrounding the Egyptian script, contributing to its perception as a sacred and mystical form of
communication. The script was composed of three basic types of signs: logograms, representing words;
phonograms, representing sounds; and determinatives, placed at the end of the word to help clarify its
meaning. The Egyptians used hieroglyphics to write special prayers on tombs to help pharaohs and others
travel to the afterlife.

The earliest known form of Chinese writing developed in the later stages of the ancient Shang
Dynasty, around 1250 BCE to 1200 BCE. This was in the form of carvings on animal bones and turtle shells
(known as Oracle Bone Script or Jiǎgǔwén 甲骨文 (literally “shell and bone writing”). The oracle bones were
used for divination on topics like war, agricultural forecasts, illness and death, and sacrifices. Some of the
bones contain as many as a hundred characters, written in the form of questions. During the Bronze Age,
towards the end of the Shang Dynasty, characters began to be carved or cast onto bronze. These were called
Jīnzi 金文 ‘metal characters. Their shape and structure were similar to that of the Jiǎgǔwén, however, as the
use of molds became more popular, the characters themselves became more structured and thicker.
Archeologists have discovered thousands of bronze artifacts, ranging from bells, cauldrons and ritual artifacts
with cast inscriptions. Perhaps a quarter of them date from the late Shang Dynasty, while the majority are
from the Zhou Dynasty (1046 BCE – 256 BCE). A significant number of bronze artifacts have also been found
from the later Qin and Han Dynasties

Another early form of writing during the bronze period is the Indus script. The Indus Valley Civilization
is the earliest known culture of the Indian subcontinent of the kind now called “urban” (or centered on large
municipalities), and the largest of the four ancient civilizations, which also included Egypt, Mesopotamia, and
China. The society of the Indus River Valley has been dated from the Bronze Age, the time period from
approximately 3300-1300 BCE. It was located in modern-day India and Pakistan, and covered an area as
large as Western Europe. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were the two great cities of the Indus Valley Civilization,
emerging around 2600 BCE along the Indus River Valley in the Sindh and Punjab provinces of Pakistan. Their
discovery and excavation in the 19th and 20th centuries provided important archaeological data regarding
the civilization’s technology, art, trade, transportation, writing, and religion. Harappans are believed to have
used Indus Script, a language consisting of symbols. A collection of written texts on clay and stone tablets
unearthed at Harappa, which have been carbon dated 3300-3200 BCE, contain trident-shaped, plant-like
markings. This Indus Script suggests that writing developed independently in the Indus River Valley
Civilization from the script employed in Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. As many as 600 distinct Indus
symbols have been found on seals, small tablets, ceramic pots, and more than a dozen other materials.
Typical Indus inscriptions are no more than four or five characters in length, most of which are very small.

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The longest on a single surface, which is less than 1 inch (or 2.54 cm.) square, is 17 signs long. The characters
are largely pictorial, but include many abstract signs that do not appear to have changed over time.

The Phoenician alphabet, created by the ancient Phoenician civilization, is one of the earliest known
modern alphabets. It was developed around 1500 B.C.E. as a consonantal alphabet of symbols representing
sounds, unlike earlier writing systems like cuneiform and hieroglyphics which represented words or phrases
with symbols or pictures. The Phoenician alphabet greatly facilitated communication and trade among
civilizations along the Mediterranean coast. It influenced the development of other written languages,
including Greek and Latin. The Phoenicians, skilled traders who spoke a Semitic language related to Hebrew,
prospered along the Mediterranean coast from 1500 B.C.E. to 300 B.C.E. They are credited with developing
the first matured alphabet, which bridged the gap between spoken and written language, potentially
influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphics and Sumerian cuneiform writing. The Phoenician language is based
around an alphabet of 22 letters, each one representing a sound in the Phoenician language. However, not
all of the sounds in the language are actually represented. Phoenician is a consonantal alphabet, which
means that it only has letters to represent the consonants. There are no vowels in the Phoenician written
language. Readers would simply imply the presence of the vowel sounds based on their knowledge of the
written and spoken language. Written Phoenician is composed of these consonantal letters, written from
right to left across clay tablets or pieces of early parchment.

III. Iron Age (1200–500 B.C.E.)

The Iron Age can be defined as a key time of the prehistoric period that came to replace the Bronze
Age throughout the world. The Iron Age started around 1200 B.C.E. in the Middle East and Southeastern
Europe and can be characterized by the making/smelting of iron and steel tools. Some regions were known
to have used iron during the Bronze Age prior to 1200 B.C.E., especially in the Middle East, but it was not
widespread, and was still considered inferior to other metal types. The Hittites of the region that is modern-
day Turkey are believed to have been the first people to make iron and steel. The Iron Age is significant to
human history because it helped lead civilizations to more permanent settlements and forever revolutionized
human tools, weaponry, Innovation, and language.

It consists of a variety of forms, including religious and scientific documents, tales, poetry, plays, and
royal edicts and declarations. Some notable texts from this period include the Yajurveda, Atharvaveda, and
Samaveda, as well as Akkadian Šumma, all of which predate Classical Antiquity. During the Iron Age, religious
texts played a significant role in shaping the spiritual and cultural beliefs of societies.

Literature associated with some of the religious texts from the Iron Age:

1. Vedic Texts: The Vedic texts are a collection of ancient scriptures that form the foundation of Hinduism.
They were composed in Sanskrit and are divided into four main texts:

• Rigveda: The Rigveda is the oldest and most important of the Vedic texts. It consists of hymns
and prayers addressed to various deities, such as Indra, Agni, and Varuna. It also contains
philosophical and cosmological reflections.
Examples are;
a) Upanishads: The Upanishads are a collection of ancient philosophical texts that form the
concluding part of the Vedic scriptures. They delve into deep metaphysical and spiritual
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 concepts, exploring topics such as the nature of Brahman (the ultimate reality), the concept of
Atman (the individual self), and the relationship between the two. The Upanishads emphasize
self-realization and the pursuit of knowledge as a means to attain liberation (moksha).
b) Bhagavad Gita: The Bhagavad Gita is a philosophical and spiritual dialogue between Prince
Arjuna and Lord Krishna, who serves as his charioteer. It is a part of the Indian epic
Mahabharata. The Gita addresses the ethical dilemmas faced by Arjuna on the battlefield and
provides profound insights into duty, righteousness, devotion, and the nature of the self. It
presents different paths to spiritual realization, including the path of selfless action (Karma
Yoga), devotion (Bhakti Yoga), and knowledge (Jnana Yoga).
c) Brahmasutras: The Brahmasutras, also known as the Vedanta Sutras, are aphoristic texts
that systematically summarize the teachings of the Upanishads. They present logical arguments
and philosophical analysis to establish the nature of Brahman, the relationship between
Brahman and the world, and the means to attain liberation. The Brahmasutras have been
commented upon by various philosophers, including Adi Shankara, Ramanuja, and
Madhvacharya.
d) Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are a foundational text of classical
yoga philosophy. They outline the path of Raja Yoga, which involves the practice of meditation,
ethical principles, and the attainment of spiritual liberation. The Sutras provide insights into the
nature of the mind, the control of thoughts, and the stages of spiritual realization.

• Yajurveda: The Yajurveda provides instructions and formulas for performing rituals and
sacrifices. It contains prose passages known as “yajus” and verses called “mantras. For example,
the Taittiriya Samhita of the Yajur Veda contains the Gayatri Mantra four times. Another excerpt
from the Taittiriya Samhita goes like this: “Yo’sman dvesti Yo’sman dvesti yam ca vayam dvisma
Idam asya griva api.
The Yajurveda emphasizes the unity of the individual soul (Atman) with the universal soul
(Brahman) and is closely related to various aspects of life, including spirituality, ethics, and social
harmony. The rituals and mantras described in the Yajurveda are not just physical acts but symbolic
representations of cosmic principles.

• Samaveda: The Samaveda consists of melodies and chants derived from the Rigveda. It is
primarily used during rituals and ceremonies.
a) Healing Spells: The Atharvaveda includes verses and mantras for treating various ailments.
For example, hymn 4.15 discusses how to deal with an open fracture and how to wrap the
wound with the Rohini plant (Ficus infectoria).
b) Protection Charms: The Atharvaveda contains charms and incantations for protection
against negative forces, evil spirits, and venomous creatures.
c) Love Spells: There are hymns and verses in the Atharvaveda that are believed to have been
used for love spells and attracting affection.
d) Agricultural Prayers: The Atharvaveda includes prayers and rituals for the protection and
prosperity of crops, including prayers to safeguard against lightning and drought.

• Atharvaveda: The Atharvaveda contains hymns, spells, and incantations. It deals with a wide
range of subjects, including healing, magic, and social issues.
a) Healing from Fever:
“O Agni! Remove my fever as you burn away the forest. As the wind drives away the clouds,
drive away this fever from me.”

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 b) Healing from Poison:
“O divine herb! You have been created by the gods to remove poison. I invoke your healing
powers to cure me of any poison that afflicts my body.”
c) Healing from Diseases:
O divine physician! With your healing touch, remove all diseases and ailments from my body.
Grant me good health and vitality.”
d) Healing from Eye Problems:
O Sun! You are the source of light and vision. I pray to you to cure my eyes and restore my
vision. Remove any darkness or ailments that hinder my sight.”

2. Hebrew Bible/Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible, also known as the Old Testament, is a collection of
religious texts that form the sacred scriptures of Judaism. It consists of various genres, including historical
narratives, laws, poetry, wisdom literature, and prophetic writings. Some notable books include:

• Genesis: The book of Genesis recounts the creation of the world, the stories of Adam and Eve,
Noah and the flood, and the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
• Exodus: The book of Exodus narrates the liberation of the Israelites from slavery in Egypt, the
receiving of the Ten Commandments, and their journey to the Promised Land.
• Psalms: The book of Psalms is a collection of poetic hymns and prayers attributed to King
David and other authors. It expresses a range of emotions, including praise, thanksgiving,
lamentation, and supplication.

3. Celtic Druid Texts: The religious practices of the ancient Celts, particularly the Druids, were primarily
transmitted orally. Written accounts of their beliefs and practices are limited. However, early Medieval Irish
and Welsh literature, such as the Mabinogion and the Irish Mythological Cycle, provide insights into Celtic
mythology, legends, and folklore. These texts often contain stories of heroes, gods, and magical creatures.

It’s important to note that the literature associated with Iron Age religious texts reflects the beliefs,
rituals, and cultural contexts of the societies in which they originated. They provide valuable insights into the
spiritual and intellectual world of ancient civilizations. Remember, Iron Age societies were largely non-literate,
so much of their religious practices and beliefs were passed down orally. The texts we have today are often
reconstructions or interpretations based on archaeological findings and later written accounts.

4. Sanskrit: It is an ancient Indo-Aryan language that originated in the Indian subcontinent during the Iron
Age. It is considered to be one of the oldest languages in the world and has a rich literary tradition. Sanskrit
is not just a language but a symbol of cultural heritage and intellectual pursuit in India. Its literature continues
to be studied and appreciated for its profound wisdom, artistic beauty, and historical significance.

Here are some key points about Sanskrit:

a) Sacred Language: Sanskrit is regarded as a sacred language in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
Many religious texts, including the Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Ramayana, were
composed in Sanskrit.
b) Linguistic Structure: Sanskrit is a highly structured and systematic language. It has a complex
grammar with precise rules for noun declensions, verb conjugations, and sentence construction. Its
syntax and phonetics are meticulously organized.
c) Vedic Literature: The earliest known Sanskrit texts are the Vedic texts, which include the Rigveda,
Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda. These texts contain hymns, prayers, rituals, and
philosophical reflections.

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 d) Classical Sanskrit Literature: Sanskrit literature flourished during the Classical period
(approximately 500 BCE to 1000 CE). It encompasses a wide range of genres, including epics, plays,
poetry, philosophy, and scientific treatises.
• Epics: The two major Sanskrit epics are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Ramayana
narrates the story of Prince Rama and his adventures, while the Mahabharata is an epic that
includes the Bhagavad Gita and recounts the Kurukshetra War.
• Plays: Sanskrit drama reached its peak during the Classical period. The plays of Kalidasa, such
as “Abhijnanasakuntalam” (The Recognition of Shakuntala) and “Meghaduta” (The Cloud
Messenger), are celebrated for their poetic beauty and dramatic storytelling.
• Poetry: Sanskrit poetry is known for its intricate meters and lyrical expressions. The works of
poets like Kalidasa, Bhartrhari, and Magha are highly regarded for their elegance and depth of
emotion.
e) Influence: Sanskrit has had a significant influence on the languages and cultures of South Asia.
Many modern Indian languages, such as Hindi, Bengali, and Gujarati, have borrowed vocabulary and
grammatical structures from Sanskrit.

IV. Classical Antiquity

Classical antiquity, historical period spanning from the output of ancient Greek author Homer in
the 8 century BCE to the decline of the Roman Empire in the 5th century CE. It encompassed Greco-Roman
th

culture, which played a major role in the Mediterranean sphere of influence and in the creation of Western
civilization, shaping areas as diverse as law, architecture, art, language, poetry, rhetoric, politics, and
philosophy.

Classical antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of
cultural history around the Mediterranean. It includes the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome,
known as the Greco-Roman world.

Classical antiquity is the period in which Greek and Roman literature (such as Aeschylus, Ovid, and
others) flourished. By convention, the period starts with the works of Homer, (8th–7th century BC), and ends
with the arrival of Christianity and the decline of the Roman Empire (5 th–6th century AD).

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Philippine Literature

Philippine Literature is a diverse and rich group of works that has evolved side-by-side with the country’s
history. Literature had started with fables and legends made by the ancient Filipinos long before the arrival
of Spanish influence.

Timeline of Philippine Literature:

Pre Colonial Period

Spanish Colonial Period (Mid-16th late 19th century)

American Colonial Period (Late 19th -Mid-20th century)

The Contemporary Period

Pre-Colonial Period

Pre-colonial Literature in the Philippines by one means or another gave us an illustration from the past. It
underscores on how our literature began in the country which is the Philippines.

Filipinos often lose sight of the fact that the first period of the Philippine literary history is the longest. Certain
events from the nation’s history had forced lowland Filipinos to begin counting the years of history from
1521, the first time written records by Westerners referred to the archipelago later to be called “Las Islas
Filipinas”. However, the discovery of the “Tabon Man” in a cave in Palawan in 1962, has allowed us to stretch
our prehistory as far as 50,000 years back. The stages of that prehistory show how the early Filipinos grew
in control over their environment. Through the researches and writings about Philippine history, much can
be reliably inferred about precolonial Philippine literature from an analysis of collected oral lore of Filipinos
whose ancestors were able to preserve their Indigenous culture by living beyond the reach of Spanish colonial
administrators.

The evolution of Philippine literature depended on the influences of colonization and the spirit of the age.
But before the change was done, indigenous Philippine literature was based on the given traditions and
customs of a particular area of the country. Of course, Philippines is an archipelago country, consisting of
several islands, 7,107 to be exact. And each of those islands has their specifications of cultures and traditions,
bearing different set of native literature.

Even before Spaniards invaded our country, Filipinos already had a firm and unique way of expressing
themselves through words and texts. Philippine history is rich with fascinating stories. It presents the lives
and belief systems of our ancestors that are reflected on their arts and literatures.

Pre-colonial writing systems

During the early period almost everyone in the society-male or female knows how to read and write. They
have their own method of writing in which they use sharp-pointed tools, leaves, bamboo and trunk’s skin.
They write from top to bottom and read it from left to right. Accordingly, they have their Alibata which script
is different from China, Japan, and India. This account was told by one of the first Spanish missionaries who
came in the Philippines, Fr. Pedro Chirino.

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Alibata is an ancient writing system that was used in what is now the Philippines. Although it was all but
extinguished by Western colonization, variants of it are still used in parts of Mindoro and Palawan, and it is
also increasingly used by Filipino youth as a way to express their identity.
Based on an artide on Steernit, the alibata is what our Filipino ancestors use before the Spaniards came to
colonize the Philippines. The Filipino people before got their own language and alphabet. With regards to the
composition of the said old alphabet of the Philippines, it contains seventeen letters (17). Fourteen (14) of it
are consonants and three (3) are vowels.

LITERARY FORMS

1. Oral Literature

A broad term which may indude ritual texts, curative chants, epic poems, musical genres, folk tales, creation
tales, songs, myths, spells, legends, proverbs, riddles, tongue twisters, word games, recitations, life histories
or historical narratives. It refers, most simply, to any form of verbal art of traditional cultures which is
transmitted orally or delivered by word of mouth (Finnegan, 1970) Meaning to say that most literary works
during the pre-colonial period were passed down through word of mouth or what we call the oral language.

Ancient Philippine literature mirrors the simple and social life experiences, religious beliefs, customs, and
wisdom of the early Filipinos. Early tribal literatures were used for religious rites and entertainment. The
natives expressed their lives through oral literature which has been passed down from generation to
generation. Often used in religious ceremonies and recited to music, oral literature records the past and
teaches. Traditions and values. Myths, legends, epics, fables, songs, riddles, proverbs, and poems are all
forms of oral literature. These oral literary forms were short, consisted of a single episode. The episode was
invariably the common experiences of the people constituting a region. The natives chanted and danced
during the solemn and religious observances like celebrating birth, ministering the sick, and atoning for sins.
Songs and rituals were accompanied by mimetic dances. They were the precursor of the drama form.

The andent Filipinos used a syllabary before the Spaniards introduced the Roman alphabet from Europe. The
early tribal ancestors inscribed their written literatures on scrolls of dried leaves, bamboo cylinders, and tree
barks. Only a few of these writings have come down to the present because the manuscripts were recorded
in fragile materials.

A. Bugtong/Riddles

-Riddle is known as either “bugtong or palaisipan.”

-Riddles are brain teasers usually made in the interrogative style of writing, mostly used to entertain one’s
self and or help sharpen one’s thoughts but Filipino riddles are on a level of its own.

-Riddles are expression in rhymes using one or two images that refer to a particular thing or object that has
to be guess.

-Riddles are used for entertainment, mental exercises and amusement. Riddles are use by Filipinos to pass
away time and to show their wit.

Examples:

•Nagtago si Pedro, labas ang ulo. (Pedro hides but you can still see his head.) -Pako

•Kung tawagin nila’y santo, hindi naman milagroso. (He is called Saint, but with no miracle.)-Santol

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•Nakatalikod na ang prinsesa, mukha niya’y nakaharap pa (The princess is on her back, but her head is still
facing us)

•May langit, may lupa, May tubig, walang isda. (There is a sky, there is soil, there is water, but no fish) –
Niyog

•Ang alaga kong hugis bilog, barya-barya ang laman-loob. (I have a pet, his body is full of coins).- Alkansya

B. Salawikain/Proverbs

-Proverbs are called salawikain or sawikain in Tagalog or sarsarita in Ilocano. Like most proverbs the world
over, Philippine proverbs contain sayings which prescribes norms, imparts a lesson or simply reflects standard
norms, traditions and beliefs in the community.

(1) proverbs expressing a general attitude towards life and the laws that govern life;

(2) ethical proverbs recommending certain virtues and condemning certain vices;

(3) proverbs expressing a system of values;

(4) proverbs expressing general truths and observations about life and human nature;

(5) humorous proverbs

(6) miscellaneous proverbs.

Examples

1. A person who does not remember where he/she came from will never reach his/her destination.

2. He who boasts of his accomplishments will heap ridicule on himself.

3. He who gives aims to the poor faces heaven.

4. Who is choosy often picks the worst.

5. Where there are flowers there are butterflies.

C. Poetry

Tanaga
-Expresses a view or a value of the world.

Ambahan
-Songs about childhood, human relationships, hospitality.

Bayok
-Thoughts about love.

Epic Poetry
-Romantic heroes and heroines that are a reflection of the world as perceived by the early Filipinos.

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 Spanish Colonial Period (Mid-16th -late 19th century)

Due to the long period of colonization of the Philippines by the Spaniards, they have exerted a strong
influence on our literature.

1. The first Filipino alphabet called ALIBATA was replaced try the Roman alphabet.
2. The Spanish language which became the literary language during this time lent many of its words to
our language.
3. European legends and traditions brought here became assimilated maro-maras songs and corridos.
4. Religion became an important theme that had influenced the early Filipino writings which had the
presence of paganism “Christian Folk-Tale”.

FIRST BOOKS

Doctrina Cristiana (THE CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE) – This was the first book printed in the Philippines in
1593 in xylography. It was written by Fr. Juan de Placencia and Fr. Domingo Nieva, in Tagalog and Spanish.
It contained the Pater Noster (Out Father), Ave Maria (Hail Mary), Regina Coeli (Hail Holy Queen), the Ten
Commandments of God, the Commandments of the Catholic Church, the Seven Mortal Sins, How to Confess,
and the Cathecism. Three old original copies of this book can still be found at the Vatican, at the Madrid
Musem and at the US Congress. It contains only 87 pages but costs $5,000.0.

Nuestra Señora del Rosario- The second book printed in the Philippines was written by Fr. Blancas de
San Jose in 1602, and printed at the UST Printing Press with the help of Juan de Vera, a Chinese mestizo. It
contains the biographies of saints, novenas, and questions and answers on religion.

Ang Barlaam at Josaphat- This is a Biblical story printed in the Philippines and translated to Tagalog from
Greek by Fr. Antonio de Borja. It is believed to be the first Tagalog novel published in the Philippines even if
it is only a translation. The printed translation has only 556 pages. The Ilocano translation in poetry was
done by Fr. Agustin Mejia.

The Passion- This is the book about the life and sufferings of Jesus Christ. It is read only during Lent. There
were 4 versions of this in Tagalog and each version is according to the name of the writer. These are the
Pilapil version (by Mariano Pilapil of Bulacan, 1814), the de Belen version (by Gaspar Aquino de Belen of Bat.
in 1704), the de la Merced (by Aniceto de la Merced of Norzagaray, Bulacan in 1856) and the de Guia version
(by Luis de Guia in 1750). Critics are not agreed whether it is the Pilapil or the de la Merced version which is
the most popular.

Ang Mga Dalit kay Maria (Psalms for Mary)-A collection of songs praising the Virgin Mary. Fr. Mariano
Sevilla, a Filipino priest, wrote this in 1865 and it was popular especially during the may time “Flores de Mayo
festival.”

Urbana at Felisa - A book by Modesto de Castro, the so called Father of Classic Prose in Tagalog. These
are letters between two sisters Urbana at Felisa and have influenced greatly the behavior of people in society
because the letters dealt with good behavior.

Libro de los Cuatro Postprimeras de Hombre (in Spanish and Tagalog) - This is the first book printed
in typography.

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 LITERARY COMPOSITIONS

Arte y Reglas de la Lengua Tagala (Art and rules of the Tagalog language) - Written by Fr. Blancas
de San Jose and translated to Tagalog by Tomas Pinpin in 1610.

Compendio de la Lengua Tagala (Understanding the Tagalog language) - Written by Fr. Gaspar de
San Agustin in 1703.

Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala (Tagalog vocabulary) - The first Tagalog dictionary written by Fr.
Pedro de San Buenaventura in 1613.

Vocabulario de la Lengua Pampanga (Pampanga vocabulary) - The first book in Pampanga written
by Fr. Diego in 1732.

Vocabulario de la Lengua Bisaya (Bisayan vocabulary) - The best language book in Visayan by Mateo
Sanchez in 1711.

Arte de la Lengua llokana (The Art of the Ilocano language) - The first Ilocano grammar book by
Francisco Lopez.

Arte de la Lengua Bicolana (The Art of the Bicol language) - The first book in the Bicol language and
written by Fr. Marcos Lisbon in 1754.

FOLK SONGS
- became widespread in the Philippines. Each region had its national song from the lowlands
to the mountains of Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. Folk songs truly manifest the artistic
feelings of the Filipinos. They show the Filipinos' innate appreciation for and love of beauty.
The examples are

• Leron-Leron Sinta - Tagalog

• Pamulinawen - lloko

• Dandansoy - Bisaya

• Sarong Banggi - Bicol

• Atin Cu Pung Singsing – kapampangan

RECREATIONAL PLAYS

Tibag - means to excavate. This ritual was brought here by the Spaniard to remind the people about the
search of St. Helena for the Cross on which Jesus died.

Lagaylay - this is a special occasion for the Pilareños of Sorsogon during Maytime to get together. As early
as April, the participating ladies are chosen and sometimes, mothers volunteer their girls in order to fulfill a
vow made during an illness or for a favor received. In some parts of Bicol, a different presentation is made
but the objective is the same - praise, respect and offering of love to the Blessed Cross by St. Helen on the
mound she had dug in.

The Cenaculo - this is a dramatic performance Christ commemorate the passion and death of Jesus. There
are two kinds: the Cantada and Hablada.

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In the Hablada the lines are spoken in a more deliberate manner showing the rhythmic measure of each
verse and the rhyming in each stanza and is more dignified in theme; the Cantada is chanted like the Pasion.

The Cenaculo is written in octosyllabic verse, with 8 verses to the stanza. The full length versions take about
3 nights of staging. Performers come in costumes with wigs and performers are carefully chosen for their
virtuous life. One performs the role of Jesus Christ and another the role of the Virgin Mary. Many famous
Cenaculo players come from the Tagalog regions although there are also those from Ilocos, Pampanga, Bicol
and both Sibulanon and Hiligaynon.

Panunuluyan - this is presented before 12:00 on Christmas Eve. This is a presentation of the search of the
Virgin Mary and St. Joseph for an inn wherein to deliver the baby Jesus.

The Salubong (or Panubong) - the Salubong is an Easter play that dramatizes the meeting of the Risen
Christ and his Mother. It is still presented in many Philippine towns.

Caritio (Shadow Play) - this is a form of dramatic entertainment performed on a moonless night during a
town fiesta or on dark nights after a harvest. This shadow play is made by projecting cardboard figures
before a lamp against a white sheet. The figures are moved like marionettes whose dialogues are produced
by some experts. The dialogues are drawn from a Corrido or Awit or some religious play interspersed with
songs.

These are called by various names in different places:

CARILLO in Manila, Rizal and Batangas and Laguna

TITRES in Ilocos Norte, Pangasinan, Bataan, Capiz and Negros

TITIRI in Zambales;

GAGALO or KIKIMUT in Pampanga and Tarlac;

ALIALA in La Union.

The Zarzuela - considered the father of the drama; it is a musical comedy or melodrama three acts which
dealt with man’s passions and emotions like love, hate, revenge, cruelty, and avarice or some social or
political problem. These was originally performed by travelling dramatic troupes organized by royal mandate
of Governer Narciso Claveria to stimulate dramatic performances.

The Zainete - this was a short musical comedy popular during the 18 th century. They were exaggerated
comedies shown between acts of long plays and were mostly performed by characters from the lower classes.
Themes were taken from everyday life scenarios.

The Moro-Moro

-This is performed during town fiestas to entertain the people and to remind them of their Christian religion.
The plot is usually the same that of a Christian princess or a nobleman’s daughter who is captured by the
Mohammedans. The father organizes a rescue party where fighting between the Moros and the Christians
ensue. The Mohammedans are defeated by some miracle or divine intercession and the Mohammedans are
converted to Christianity. In some instances, the whole kingdom is baptized and converted.

Karagatan - this is a poetic vehicle of a socio-religious nature celebrated during the death of a person. In
this contest, more or less formal, a ritual is performed based on a legend about a princess who dropped her
ring into the middle of the sea and who offered here hand in marriage to anyone who can retrieve it. A leader
starts off with an extemporaneous poem announcing the purpose. He then spins a "lumbo" o "tabo" marked

12 | P a g e
with a white line. Whoever comes in the direction of the white line when the spinning stops gets his turn to
"go into the sea to look for the ring." This means a girl will ask him a riddle and if he is able to answer, he
will offer the ring to the girl.

Duplo - the Duplo replace the Karagatan. This is a poetic joust in speaking and reasoning. The roles are
taken from the Bible and from proverbs and saying. It is usually played during wakes for the dead.

Balagtasan - this is a poetic joust or a contest of skills in debate on a particular topic or issue. This is
replaced the DUPLO and is held to honor Francisco "Balagtas" Baltazar.

Dung-aw - this is a chant in free verse by a bereaved person or his representative beside the corpse of the
dead. No definite meter or rhyming scheme is used. The person chanting it freely recites in poetic rhythm
according to his feelings, emotions and thoughts. It is personalized and usually deals with the life, sufferings
and sacrifices of the dead and includes apologies for his misdeeds.

The Awit and Corrido - both referred as Narrrative prose.

Awit - dodecasyllabic verse (12 syllables); are fabricated stories frim writers imagination although the setting
and characters are European.
Corrido - Octosyllabic verse (8 syllables); were legends/stories from European countries like France, Spain,
Italy and Greece: refers to Narration

NOTABLE AUTHORS AND THEIR WORKS DURING THE SPANISH ERA

“Ang Mahal na Passion ni Jesu Christong Panginoon natin na tula” (Holy Passion of Our Lord
Jesus Christ in Verse)

-Is the country’s earliest known pasyon.

-Written by Gaspar Aquino de Belen in 1704.

Florante at Laura

-Written by Francisco “Balagtas” Baltazar. An example of an Awit, though there are symbols and themes
which dictate the protest of the Filipino against the Spanish regime, it is uncertain as to whether or not
Balagtas had intended the issue derived from his work conclusion – which was subtly since he left no notes
or additional pieces that may affirm the (Ibong Adarna Also Written by Francisco Baltazar which is an example
of Corrido.

Noli Me Tangere (1887) and El Filibusterismo (1891)

-Works of Jose Rizal which created an impact on the national consciousness and love for one’s country against
the abusive government of the Spaniards.

American Colonial Period (Late 19th – Mid-20th century)

After the treaty of Paris, new colonizers arrived in the Philippines. A new set of colonizers brought about
new changes in Philippine literature.

•The gradual decline of the Philippine literature written in Spanish

•The English language eventuaily became the medium of writing and instruction in schoots

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•The Spansh ‘sarsuwelas was eventually replaced by ‘drama’.

Philippine Literature are Characterized by:

•Nationalism

-their writings depicted their love for country.

•Freedom of Speech

- Literature focused on satirizing and criticizing current status of the Philippines.

•Experience

- There are tales depicting the simple life of common people. Stories often portrayed everyday
Filipino activities such as church going , farming, courting, and even cockfighting.

Example. My Brothers Peculiar Chicken by Alejandro Roces

•Desire for Freedom

- They express their longing for freedom in their writings.

Philippine Literature during the American Era

•Short Story

•Poetry in English

•Free Verse in Poetry

•Drama

•Short Story

- Short stories gained popularity during American period with many serial stories serialized.

Examples.

Dead Stars by Marquez Benitez

The Small Key by Paz Latorena

Footnote to Youth by Jose Garcia Villa

The Broken Parasol by Jose Lansang

Wonderlust by Fausto Dugenio

His Gift and Yesterday by Amando Dayrit

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The Woman Who looked Out the Window by Amador Daugio

Talanata’s Wife by Sinai Hamada

How my Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife by Manuel Arguilla

Midsummer by Manuel Arguilla

Heat by Manuel Arguilla

•Poetry in English

- Philippine Literature in English , as a direct result of American colonization , could not escape
being imitative of American models in writing. Writers also make use of the English language
as their medium of writing.

Examples.

Sursum Corda by Justo Juliano

My Mother by Jan F. Salazar

Air Castles by Jan F. Salazar

To my Lady in Laoag by Proceso Sebastian

•Free Verse in Poetry

Through American influence , Filipino poets were exposed to new forms of poetry such as free verse. Their
poetry was spontaneous, creative, properly written and social consciousness was integrated.

Examples.

Revolt from Hymen by Angela Manalang Gloria

Old Maid walking on a City Street Angela Manalang Gloria

•Drama

The theater was used by Filipinos to express freedom from discrimination and colonial rule , depicting the
Filipino people triumphant against the Spanish and Americans by the end of each plays. The overtones of
the play prompted the American colonists to arrest various performers and writers of the Philippine zarsuela
to the extent of forcefully shutting down entire zarzuela companies in the Philippines. But , due to the
introduction of cinema , zarzual became popular to rural areas. Thus, disabling Americans from stopping the
spread of play.

Examples.

Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas (Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow) by Aurelio Tolentino

Tanikalang Ginto by Juan Abad

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Malaya by Thomas Remiglio

Walang Sugat by Severino Reyes

During the American era, writers are group into three.

•Spanish Writers -They were accustomed to other heroes. Nationalism honoring Rizal.

Writers:

Cecilio Apostol, Fernando Ma. Guerrero, Jesus Balmori, Manuel Bernabe and Claro M Recto

•Filipino Writers- They continue the lamentations on the conditions of the country and their attempts to
arouse love for one’s native tongue.
Poets during that time was categorized by three:

Poets of the Heart (Makata ng Puso)

Writers:

Lope K. Santos, Carlos Gatmaitan, Amado V. Hemandez, Nemecio Carabana and Mar Antonio

Poets of Life (Makata ng Buhay)

Writers:

Jose Corazon de Jesus, Florentino Collantes, Patricio Mariano anf Amado V Hernandez

Poets of the Stage (Makata ng Tanghalan)

Writers:

Aurelio Tolentino, Patricio Mariano, Severino Reyes, and Tomas Remigio

English Writers- They imitated the themes and methods of the Americans.
The American Era has three periods English writers.

•The Period of Re-Orientation (1898-1910)

•The Period of Imitation (1910-1925)

•The Period of Self Discovery (1925-1941)

NOTABLE WORKS DURING THE AMERICAN ERA

•A Child of Sorrow -The first English Novel written in the Philippines by Zada Galang in 1921.

16 | P a g e
•I Am a Filipino Written by Carlos P. Romulo

•Banaag at Sikat Written by Lope K, Santos

•Isang Dipang Langit Written by Amado V. Hernandez

Contemporary Period

The flowering of Philippine literature in the various languages continue especially with the appearance of
new publications after the Martial Law years and the resurgence of committed literature in the 1960s and
the 1970s.

The Filipino writer has become more conscious of his art with the proliferation of writers workshops here and
abroad and the bulk of literature available to him via the mass media including the internet. The various
literary awards such as the Don Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature, the Philippines Free Press,
Philippine Graphic. Home Life and Panorama literary awards.

PALANCA AWARDEES:

‘Gapo (at isang puting Pilipino, sa mundo ng mga Amerikanong kulay brown) by Lualhati Bautista. Carlos
Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature for Nobela, Grand Prize (1980).

Dekada 70 by Lualhati Bautista, Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature for Nobela, Grand Prize
(1983).

Bata, Bata… Pa’no Ka Ginawa? Literature for Nobela, Grand Prize (1984) by Lualhati Bautista. Carios Palanca
Memorial Awards.

Nema: Ang Batang Papel by Rene O. Villanueva, Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature for Maikling
Kuwentong Pambata (1992).

Papel De Liha (A Book in 2 Languages) by Ompong Remigio. Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature
for Maikling Kuwentong Pambata (1995).

New Filipino Literature During this Period

Philippine literture in Tagalog was revived during this period. Most themes in the writings dealt with Japanese
brutalities, of the poverty of life under the Japanese government anf the brave guerilla exploits.

Newspaper and magazine publications were reopened like Bulaklak, Liwayway, Ilang Ilang, and Sinag Tala.
Tagalog poetry acquired not only rhyme but substance and meaning. Short stories had better chracters and
events based on facts and relaities and themes were more meaningful. Novels became common but were
still read by the people for recreation. The people’s love listening to poetic jousts increased more than before
and people strated to flock to places to hear poetic debates.

The Literary Revolution

The youth became completely rebellious during this period. This was proven not only in the bloody
demonstrations and in the sidewalk expressions but also in literature. Campus newspapers showed rebellious

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emotions. The once aristocratic writers developed awareness for society. They held pens and wrote in red
paint the equivalent of the word MAKIBAKA (to dare).

The literture of the activists reached a point where they stated boldly what should be done to effects these
changes. Some of those who rallied to this form of literature were Rolando Tinio, Regelio Mangahas, Efren
Abueg, and Clemente Baustista.

A. Filipino poetry during the period of 1972-1980

Themes of most poems dealt with patience, regard for native culture, customs and the beauties of nature
and surroundings. Thos who wrote poetry during this period were: Ponciano Pineda, Aniceto Silvestre, Jose
Garcia Revelo, Bienvenido Ramos, vecente Dimasalang, Cir Lopez Francisco, Pelagio Sulit Cruz. Many
composers added their bit during this period. Among them were Freddie Aguilar, Jose Marie Ghan and the
group Tito, Vic, Joey.

B. The Play under 1972-1980

The government led in reviving old plays and dramas.

C. Radio and television

Radio contnued to be patronized during this period.

D. Comics, Magazine and other Publications

During this period of the New Society, newspapers donned new forms. News on ecmomic progress, discipline,
culture, tourism and the like were favored more than senationalixed reporting on killings, rape and robberies.

Philippine Contemporary Poets and their Works:

1. Eileen Tabios
– Works: “Reproductions of the Empty Flagpole” and “The Light Sang As It Left Your Eyes.”
– Date: Eileen Tabios’ literary pieces span various years, with notable works from the late 20 th
century to the early 21st century.
– Description: Eileen Tabios is a Filipino-American poet, writer, and publisher known for her
innovative and experimental approach to poetry. Her works often explore themes of identity, love,
and language.

2. Simeon Dumdum Jr.

– Collections: “If I Write You This Poem, Will You Make It Fly.”
– Date: Simeon Dumdum Jr.’s literary contributions date back to the late 20 th century.
– Description: Simeon Dumdum Jr. is a respected Filipino poet and lawyer. His poetry reflects a deep
exploration of emotions and experiences, often weaving together intricate narratives that resonate
with readers.

3. Conchitina Cruz
– Books: “Dark Hours” and “Elsewhere Held and Lingered.”
– Date: Conchitina Cruz’s literary works have been published in the 21 st century.
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 – Description: Conchitina Cruz is a contemporary Filipino poet and critic. Her poetry is known for
its lyrical beauty and intellectual depth, exploring themes of time, memory, and the human condition.

4. Mookie Katigbak-Lacuesta
– Collection: “The Proxy Eros.”
– Date: Mookie Katigbak-Lacuesta’s literary works are from the 21st century.
– Description: Mookie Katigbak-Lacuesta is a Filipino poet and fictionist. Her poetry often delves into
the complexities of love and desire, presenting a nuanced exploration of human relationships.

5. Merlinda Bobis
– Notable Collections: “Summer Was a Fast Train Without Terminals.”
– Date: Merlinda Bobis’ literary pieces span several decades, with significant contributions from the
late 20th century onward.
– Description: Merlinda Bobis is a versatile Filipino-Australian writer, known not only for her poetry
but also for her fiction and plays. Her works often blend diverse cultural influences and explore themes
of displacement and identity.

6. Jose Neil Garcia

– Contributions: Noteworthy collections include “Kaluluwa” and “The Sorrows of Water.”
– Date: Jose Neil Garcia’s literary contributions extend from the late 20 th century to the 21st century.
– Description: Jose Neil Garcia is a prolific Filipino writer, poet, and critic. His poetry often engages
with philosophical and existential themes, contributing significantly to the contemporary literary
landscape.

7. Lourd Ernest de Veyra

Notable Work: “HABAGATAN: An Anthology of Western Visayan Writings.”
– Date: Lourd Ernest de Veyra’s literary contributions are from the 21 st century.
– Description: Lourd Ernest de Veyra is a multi-talented Filipino artist known for his unique blend
of humor and depth. Apart from his literary works, he is recognized for his contributions to music,
journalism, and broadcasting.

8. J. Neil C. Garcia
– Notable Works: “The Garden of Wordlessness” and “Utrophia.”
– Date: J. Neil C. Garcia’s literary contributions span from the late 20th century to the 21st century.
– Description: J. Neil C. Garcia is a highly regarded Filipino poet, critic, and scholar. His poetry often
explores themes of identity, desire, and the complexities of language, making him a prominent figure
in contemporary Filipino literature.

Philippine Contemporary Novelists and their Works:

1. Miguel Syjuco

- Ilustrado (2008) – A novel that explores the Philippines’ history and its impact on identity.

2. Samantha Sotto

- Before Ever After (2011) – A novel blending romance and fantasy with historical elements.

19 | P a g e
3. Lakambini Sitoy

- Sweet Haven (2004) – A novel that delves into family dynamics and societal issues.

4. Lourd Ernest de Veyra

- Super Panalo Sounds! (2011) – A satirical novel reflecting on Philippine pop culture and politics.

5. F. Sionil Jose

- The Rosales Saga (starting with “Po-on” in 1984) – A multi-volume epic that spans generations,
exploring Filipino history and society.

6. Nick Joaquin

- The Woman Who Had Two Navels (1961) – A novel that delves into post-colonial identity and
psychology.

7. Benvenido Lumbera

-Dahalo (1970) – A novel set during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines, reflecting on
resistance and collaboration.

8. Edith L. Tiempo

- A Blade of Fern (1978) – A novel exploring themes of love, loss, and societal changes in the
Philippines.

Philippine Contemporary Essayists and their Works:

1. Nick Joaquin

- Works: “A Heritage of Smallness,” “The Aquinos of Tarlac: An Essay on History as Three Generations,”
and “Reportage on Crime.”

2. F. Sionil Jose

- Works: “In Search of the Word,” “Ermita,” and “A Scenario for Philippine Revolution.”

3. Jessica Zafra

- Works: “The Twisted Book,” “Chicken Pox for the Soul,” and “Manila Envelope.

4. Gemino H. Abad

- Works: “The Men Who Play God,” “The Anatomy of the Short Story,” and “Luis Dato’s Ars Poetica.”

5.Isagani R. Cruz

- Works: “Philippine Postcolonial Studies: Essays on Language and Literature,” “Literary Evolution, 1956-
2001,” and “Another Look.”

20 | P a g e
6. Butch Dalisay

- Works: “Penmanship and Other Stories,” “Soledad’s Sister,” and “Rocky Rivera.”

Philippine Contemporary Playwrights and their Works:

1. Floy Quintos

- Ang Buhay ni Galileo

- Fake

- Shock Value

2. Rody Vera

- Kanser

- Haring Lear

- The Best of Me

3. Liza Magtoto

- Care Divas

- Rak of Aegis

- Mula sa Kulimliman

4. Vincent de Jesus

-Himala: Isang Musikal

- ZsaZsa Zaturnnah: Ze Muzikal

- Changing Partners

5. Ricky Lee

- Himala

- Pila Balde

- Kung Mangarap Ka’t Magising

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 REFLECTION

The importance of preserving and promoting Philippine literature cannot be overstated. It is through
this diverse body of work that we can learn about the resilience, creativity, and adaptability of the Filipino
people. By nurturing and celebrating our literary heritage, we can strengthen our national identity and foster
a sense of unity among the diverse communities that make up the Philippines. Additionally, it is crucial to
encourage the creation and appreciation of literature in various languages and dialects to ensure that the
voices of all Filipinos are heard and valued.

One of the most significant lessons learned about Philippine literature is its rich cultural heritage and
the strong influence of various indigenous groups, colonial powers, and the nation's history. The Philippines
has a diverse range of literary works, from ancient epics and folktales to modern novels and poetry, reflecting
the country's complex socio-cultural landscape. These literary pieces often serve as a testament to the
resilience and adaptability of us Filipino people, showcasing our ability to preserve and evolve our cultural
identity despite foreign influences and historical events.

With over a hundred dialects and languages spoken in the country, the use of language in literature
has been a significant aspect of Filipino literary works. The evolution of the national language, Filipino, from
its origins as a standardized version of Tagalog to its present-day status as an official language, has played
a significant role in shaping Philippine literature. This evolution has allowed writers to express their thoughts
and ideas more effectively, contributing to the growth and development of the nation's literary heritage.

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 Origin of American Literature

American literature, the body of written works produced in the English language in the United States.
Like other national literatures, American literature was shaped by the history of the country that produced
it. For almost a century and a half, America was merely a group of colonies scattered along the eastern
seaboard of the North American continent colonies from which a few hardy souls
tentatively ventured westward. After a successful rebellion against the motherland, America became the
United States, a nation. By the end of the 19th century this nation extended southward to the Gulf of
Mexico, northward to the 49th parallel, and westward to the Pacific. By the end of the 19th century, too, it
had taken its place among the powers of the world its fortunes so interrelated with those of other nations
that inevitably it became involved in two world wars and, following these conflicts, with the problems of
Europe and East Asia. Meanwhile, the rise of science and industry, as well as changes in ways of thinking
and feeling, wrought many modifications in people’s lives. All these factors in the development of the
United States molded the literature of the country.

The 17th century

This history of American literature begins with the arrival of English-speaking Europeans in what would
become the United States. At first American literature was naturally a colonial literature, by authors who
were Englishmen and who thought and wrote as such. John Smith, a soldier of fortune, is credited with
initiating American literature. His chief books included A True Relation of…Virginia…(1608) and The Generall
Historie of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles (1624). Although these volumes often glorified
their author, they were avowedly written to explain colonizing opportunities to Englishmen. In time, each
colony was similarly described: Daniel Denton’s Brief Description of New York (1670), William Penn’s Brief
Account of the Province of Pennsylvania (1682), and Thomas Ashe’s Carolina (1682) were only a few of many
works praising America as a land of economic promise.

The 18th century

In America in the early years of the 18th century, some writers, such as Cotton Mather, carried on the older
traditions. His huge history and biography of Puritan New England, Magnalia Christi Americana, in 1702, and
his vigorous Manuductio ad Ministerium, or introduction to the ministry, in 1726, were defenses of ancient
Puritan convictions. Jonathan Edwards, initiator of the Great Awakening, a religious revival that stirred the
eastern seacoast for many years, eloquently defended his burning belief in Calvinistic doctrine of the concept
that man, born totally depraved, could attain virtue and salvation only through God’s grace in his powerful
sermons and most notably in the philosophical treatise Freedom of Will (1754). He supported his claims by
relating them to a complex metaphysical system and by reasoning brilliantly in clear and often beautiful
prose.

But Mather and Edwards were defending a doomed cause. Liberal New England ministers such as John
Wise and Jonathan Mayhew moved toward a less rigid religion. Samuel Sewall heralded other changes in his
amusing Diary, covering the years 1673–1729. Though sincerely religious, he showed in daily records how
commercial life in New England replaced rigid Puritanism with more worldly attitudes. The Journal of
Mme Sara Kemble Knight comically detailed a journey that lady took to New York in 1704. She wrote vividly
of what she saw and commented upon it from the standpoint of an orthodox believer, but a quality of levity
in her witty writings showed that she was much less fervent than the Pilgrim founders had been. In the
South, William Byrd of Virginia, an aristocratic plantation owner, contrasted sharply with gloomier
predecessors. His record of a surveying trip in 1728, The History of the Dividing Line, and his account of a
visit to his frontier properties in 1733, A Journey to the Land of Eden, were his chief works. Years in England,

23 | P a g e
on the Continent, and among the gentry of the South had created gaiety and grace of expression, and,
although a devout Anglican, Byrd was as playful as the Restoration wits whose works he clearly admired.

The wrench of the American Revolution emphasized differences that had been growing between American
and British political concepts. As the colonists moved to the belief that rebellion was inevitable, fought the
bitter war, and worked to found the new nation’s government, they were influenced by a number of very
effective political writers, such as Samuel Adams and John Dickinson, both of whom favoured the colonists,
and loyalist Joseph Galloway. But two figures loomed above these Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Paine.

Franklin, born in 1706, had started to publish his writings in his brother’s newspaper, the New England
Courant, as early as 1722. This newspaper championed the cause of the “Leather Apron” man and the farmer
and appealed by using easily understood language and practical arguments. The idea that common sense
was a good guide was clear in both the popular Poor Richard’s almanac, which Franklin edited between 1732
and 1757 and filled with prudent and witty aphorisms purportedly written by uneducated but experienced
Richard Saunders, and in the author’s Autobiography, written between 1771 and 1788, a record of his rise
from humble circumstances that offered worldly wise suggestions for future success.

Franklin’s self-attained culture, deep and wide, gave substance and skill to varied articles, pamphlets, and
reports that he wrote concerning the dispute with Great Britain, many of them extremely effective in stating
and shaping the colonists’ cause.

Thomas Paine went from his native England to Philadelphia and became a magazine editor and then, about
14 months later, the most effective propagandist for the colonial cause. His pamphlet Common
Sense (January 1776) did much to influence the colonists to declare their independence. The American
Crisis papers (December 1776–December 1783) spurred Americans to fight on through the blackest years of
the war. Based upon Paine’s simple deistic beliefs, they showed the conflict as a stirring melodrama with the
angelic colonists against the forces of evil. Such white and black picturings were highly effective propaganda.
Another reason for Paine’s success was his poetic fervour, which found expression in impassioned words and
phrases long to be remembered and quoted.

The new nation

In the postwar period some of these eloquent men were no longer able to win a hearing. Thomas Paine and
Samuel Adams lacked the constructive ideas that appealed to those interested in forming a new government.
Others fared better for example, Franklin, whose tolerance and sense showed in addresses to
the constitutional convention. A different group of authors, however, became leaders in the new period
Thomas Jefferson and the talented writers of the Federalist papers, a series of 85 essays published in 1787
and 1788 urging the virtues of the proposed new constitution. They were written by Alexander
Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay. More distinguished for insight into problems of government and
cool logic than for eloquence, these works became a classic statement of American governmental, and more
generally of republican, theory. At the time they were highly effective in influencing legislators who voted on
the new constitution. Hamilton, who wrote perhaps 51 of the Federalist papers, became a leader of
the Federalist Party and, as first secretary of the treasury (1789–95), wrote messages that were influential
in increasing the power of national government at the expense of the state governments.

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The 19th century

Early 19th-century literature

After the American Revolution, and increasingly after the War of 1812, American writers were exhorted to
produce a literature that was truly native. As if in response, four authors of very respectable stature
appeared. William Cullen Bryant, Washington Irving, James Fenimore Cooper, and Edgar Allan Poe initiated
a great half century of literary development.

American Renaissance

The authors who began to come to prominence in the 1830s and were active until about the end of the Civil
War—the humorists, the classic New Englanders, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman, and others—did their work
in a new spirit, and their achievements were of a new sort. In part this was because they were in some way
influenced by the broadening democratic concepts that in 1829 triumphed in Andrew Jackson’s inauguration
as president. In part it was because, in this Romantic period of emphasis upon native scenes and characters
in many literatures, they put much of America into their books.

From the Civil War to 1914

Like the Revolution and the election of Andrew Jackson, the Civil War was a turning point in U.S. history and
a beginning of new ways of living. Industry became increasingly important, factories rose and cities grew,
and agrarian preeminence declined. The frontier, which before had always been an important factor in the
economic scheme, moved steadily westward and, toward the end of the 19th century, vanished. The rise of
modern America was accompanied, naturally, by important mutations in literature.

Literary comedians

Although they continued to employ some devices of the older American humorists, a group of comic writers
that rose to prominence was different in important ways from the older group. Charles Farrar Browne, David
Ross Locke, Charles Henry Smith, Henry Wheeler Shaw, and Edgar Wilson Nye wrote, respectively,
as Artemus Ward, Petroleum V. (for Vesuvius) Nasby, Bill Arp, Josh Billings, and Bill Nye. Appealing to a
national audience, these authors forsook the sectional characterizations of earlier humorists and assumed
the roles of less individualized literary comedians. The nature of the humour thus shifted from character
portrayal to verbal devices such as poor grammar, bad spelling, and slang, incongruously combined with
Latinate words and learned allusions. Most that they wrote wore badly, but thousands of Americans in their
time and some in later times found these authors vastly amusing.

Fiction and local colourists

The first group of fiction writers to become popular—the local colourists—took over to some extent the task
of portraying sectional groups that had been abandoned by writers of the new humour. Bret Harte, first of
these writers to achieve wide success, admitted an indebtedness to prewar sectional humorists, as did some
others; and all showed resemblances to the earlier group. Within a brief period, books by pioneers in the
movement appeared: Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Oldtown Folks (1869) and Sam Lawson’s Oldtown Fireside
Stories (1871), delightful vignettes of New England; Harte’s Luck of Roaring Camp, and Other
Sketches (1870), humorous and sentimental tales of California mining camp life; and Edward
Eggleston’s Hoosier Schoolmaster (1871), a novel of the early days of the settlement of Indiana. Down into
the 20th century, short stories (and a relatively small number of novels) in patterns set by these three
continued to appear. In time, practically every corner of the country had been portrayed in local-colour
fiction. Additional writings were the depictions of Louisiana Creoles by George W. Cable, of Virginia Blacks
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by Thomas Nelson Page, of Georgia Blacks by Joel Chandler Harris, of Tennessee mountaineers by Mary
Noailles Murfree (Charles Egbert Craddock), of tight-lipped folk of New England by Sarah Orne
Jewett and Mary E. Wilkins Freeman, of people of New York City by Henry Cuyler Bunner and William Sydney
Porter (“O. Henry”). The avowed aim of some of these writers was to portray realistically the lives of various
sections and thus to promote understanding in a united nation. The stories as a rule were only partially
realistic, however, since the authors tended nostalgically to revisit the past instead of portraying their own
time, to winnow out less glamorous aspects of life, or to develop their stories with sentiment or humour.
Touched by romance though they were, these fictional works were transitional to realism, for they did portray
common folk sympathetically; they did concern themselves with dialect and mores; and some at least
avoided older sentimental or romantic formulas.

Samuel Langhorne Clemens (Mark Twain) was allied with literary comedians and local colourists. As a printer’s
apprentice, he knew and emulated the prewar sectional humorists. He rose to prominence in days
when Artemus Ward, Bret Harte, and their followers were idols of the public. His first books, The Innocents
Abroad (1869) and Roughing It (1872), like several of later periods, were travel books in which affiliations
with postwar professional humorists were clearest. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), Life on the
Mississippi (1883), and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884), his best works, which re-created the life
of the Mississippi valley in the past, were closest to the work of older humorists and local colourists. Despite
his flaws, he was one of America’s greatest writers. He was a very funny man. He had more skill than his
teachers in selecting evocative details, and he had a genius for characterization.

Born and raised in Ohio, William Dean Howells was an effective advocate of a new realistic mode of fiction
writing. At the start, Howells conceived of realism as a truthful portrayal of ordinary facets of life—with some
limitations; he preferred comedy to tragedy, and he tended to be reticent to the point of prudishness. The
formula was displayed at its best in Their Wedding Journey (1872), A Modern Instance (1882), and The Rise
of Silas Lapham (1885). Howells preferred novels he wrote after he encountered Tolstoy’s writings and was
persuaded by them, as he said, to “set art forever below humanity.” In such later novels as Annie
Kilburn (1888) and A Hazard of New Fortunes (1890), he chose characters not only because they were
commonplace but also because the stories he told about them were commentaries upon society, government,
and economics.

The naturalists

Other American writers toward the close of the 19th century moved toward naturalism, a more advanced
stage of realism. Hamlin Garland’s writings exemplified some aspects of this development when he made
short stories and novels vehicles for philosophical and social preachments and was franker than Howells in
stressing the harsher details of the farmer’s struggles and in treating the subject of sex. Main-Travelled
Roads (1891) and Rose of Dutcher’s Coolly (1895) displayed Garland’s particular talents. These and a
critical manifesto for the new fiction, Crumbling Idols (1894), were influential contributions to a developing
movement.

Critics of the gilded age

Writers of many types of works contributed to a great body of literature that flourished between the Civil
War and 1914—literature of social revolt. Novels attacked the growing power of business and the growing
corruption of government, and some novelists outlined utopias. Political corruption and inefficiency figured
in Henry Adams’s novel Democracy (1880). Edward Bellamy’s Looking Backward (1888) was both an
indictment of the capitalistic system and an imaginative picturing of a utopia achieved by a collectivist society
in the year 2000. Howells’s Traveler from Altruria (1894) pleaded for an equalitarian state in which the

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government regimented men’s lives. The year 1906 saw the publication of Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle, first
of many works by him that criticized U.S. economic and political life and urged socialism as the remedy.

Henry Adams

One of the most devastating and most literate attacks on modern life was an autobiography of a scion of an
ancient New England family, the Adamses. Educated at Harvard and abroad, Henry Adams was a great
teacher and historian (History of the United States [1889–91] and Mont-Saint-Michel and
Chartres [1904]). The Education of Henry Adams (printed privately 1906; published 1918), however,
complained that a lifelong hunt for some sort of order in the world, some sort of faith for man, left him
completely baffled. The quiet, urbane style served well to underline, in an ironic way, the message of this
pessimistic book.

The 20th century

Writing from 1914 to 1945

Important movements in drama, poetry, fiction, and criticism took shape in the years before, during, and
after World War I. The eventful period that followed the war left its imprint upon books of all kinds. Literary
forms of the period were extraordinarily varied, and in drama, poetry, and fiction the leading authors tended
toward radical technical experiments.

Experiments in drama

Although drama had not been a major art form in the 19th century, no type of writing was more experimental
than a new drama that arose in rebellion against the glib commercial stage. In the early years of the 20th
century, Americans traveling in Europe encountered a vital, flourishing theatre; returning home, some of
them became active in founding the Little Theatre movement throughout the country. Freed from commercial
limitations, playwrights experimented with dramatic forms and methods of production, and in time producers,
actors, and dramatists appeared who had been trained in college classrooms and community playhouses.
Some Little Theatre groups became commercial producers—for example, the Washington Square Players,
founded in 1915, which became the Theatre Guild (first production in 1919). The resulting drama was marked
by a spirit of innovation and by a new seriousness and maturity.

The new poetry

Poetry ranged between traditional types of verse and experimental writing that departed radically from the
established forms of the 19th century. Two New England poets, Edwin Arlington Robinson and Robert Frost,
who were not noted for technical experimentation, won both critical and popular acclaim in this period.
Robinson, whose first book appeared in 1896, did his best work in sonnets, ballad stanzas, and blank verse.
In the 1920s he won three Pulitzer Prizes—for his Collected Poems (published 1921), The Man Who Died
Twice (1925), and Tristram (1927). Like Robinson, Frost used traditional stanzas and blank verse in volumes
such as A Boy’s Will (1913), his first book, and North of Boston (1914), New Hampshire (1923), A Further
Range (1936), and A Masque of Reason (1945). The best-known poet of his generation, Frost, like Robinson,
saw and commented upon the tragic aspects of life in poems such as “Design,” “Directive,” and “Provide,
Provide.” Frost memorably crafted the language of common speech into traditional poetic form, with
epigrammatic effect.

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Fiction

The little magazines that helped the growth of the poetry of the era also contributed to a development of
its fiction. They printed daring or unconventional short stories and published attacks upon established
writers. The Dial (1880–1929), Little Review (1914–29), Seven Arts (1916–17), and others encouraged
Modernist innovation. More potent were two magazines edited by the ferociously funny journalist-critic H.L.
Mencken—The Smart Set (editorship 1914–23) and American Mercury (which he coedited between 1924 and
1933). A powerful influence and a scathing critic of puritanism, Mencken helped launch the new fiction.

Critics of society

F. Scott Fitzgerald’s This Side of Paradise (1920) showed the disillusionment and moral disintegration
experienced by so many in the United States after World War I. The book initiated a career of great promise
that found fruition in The Great Gatsby (1925), a spare but poignant novel about the promise and failure of
the American Dream. Fitzgerald was to live out this theme himself. Though damaged by drink and by a failing
marriage, he went on to do some of his best work in the 1930s, including numerous stories and essays as
well as his most ambitious novel, Tender Is the Night (1934). Unlike Fitzgerald, who was a lyric writer with
real emotional intensity, Sinclair Lewis was best as a social critic. His onslaughts against the “village virus”
(Main Street [1920]), average businessmen (Babbitt [1922]), materialistic scientists (Arrowsmith [1925]),
and the racially prejudiced (Kingsblood Royal [1947]) were satirically sharp and thoroughly documented,
though Babbitt is his only book that still stands up brilliantly at the beginning of the 21st century. Similar
careful documentation, though little satire, characterized James T. Farrell’s naturalistic Studs
Lonigan trilogy (1932–35), which described the stifling effects of growing up in a lower-middle-class family
and a street-corner milieu in the Chicago of the 1920s.

Hemingway, Faulkner, and Steinbeck

Three authors whose writings showed a shift from disillusionment were Ernest Hemingway, William Faulkner,
and John Steinbeck. Hemingway’s early short stories and his first novels, The Sun Also Rises (1926) and A
Farewell to Arms (1929), were full of the existential disillusionment of the Lost Generation expatriates.
The Spanish Civil War, however, led him to espouse the possibility of collective action to solve social
problems, and his less-effective novels, including To Have and Have Not (1937) and For Whom the Bell
Tolls (1940), embodied this new belief. He regained some of his form in The Old Man and the Sea (1952)
and his posthumously published memoir of Paris between the wars, A Moveable Feast (1964). Hemingway’s
writing was influenced by his background in journalism and by the spare manner and flat sentence rhythms
of Gertrude Stein, his Paris friend and a pioneer Modernist, especially in such works of hers as Three
Lives (1909). His own great impact on other writers came from his deceptively simple, stripped-down prose,
full of unspoken implication, and from his tough but vulnerable masculinity, which created a myth that
imprisoned the author and haunted the World War II generation.

Lyric fictionists

An interesting development in fiction, abetted by Modernism, was a shift from naturalistic to poetic writing.
There was an increased tendency to select details and endow them with symbolic meaning, to set down the
thought processes and emotions of the characters, and to make use of rhythmic prose. In varied
ways Stephen Crane, Frank Norris, Cabell, Dos Passos, Hemingway, Steinbeck, and Faulkner all showed
evidence of this—in passages, in short stories, and even in entire novels. Faulkner showed the tendency at
its worst in A Fable (1954), which, ironically, won a Pulitzer Prize.

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Literary criticism

Some historians, looking back over the first half of the 20th century, were inclined to think that it was
particularly noteworthy for its literary criticism. Beyond doubt, criticism thrived as it had not for several
generations. It was an important influence on literature itself, and it shaped the perceptions of readers in
the face of difficult new writing.

Socio-literary critics

In this period of social change, it was natural for critics to consider literature in relationship to society and
politics, as most 19th-century critics had done. The work of Van Wyck Brooks and Vernon L.
Parrington illustrated two of the main approaches. In America’s Coming-of-Age (1915), Letters and
Leadership (1918), and The Ordeal of Mark Twain (1920), Brooks scolded the American public and attacked
the philistinism, materialism, and provinciality of the Gilded Age. But he retreated from his critical position in
the popular Makers and Finders series, which included The Flowering of New England (1936), New England:
Indian Summer (1940), The World of Washington Irving (1944), The Times of Melville and Whitman (1947),
and The Confident Years (1952). These books wove an elaborate cultural tapestry of the major and minor
figures in American literature. In Main Currents in American Thought (1927–30), Parrington, a progressive,
reevaluated American literature in terms of its adherence to the tenets of Jeffersonian democracy.

Moral-aesthetic critics

Wilson and Burke, like Cowley, Morton D. Zabel, Newton Arvin, and F.O. Matthiessen, tried to strike a balance
between aesthetic concerns and social or moral issues. They were interested both in analyzing and in
evaluating literary creations—i.e., they were eager to see in detail how a literary work was constructed yet
also to place it in a larger social or moral framework. Their work, like that of all critics of the period, showed
the influence of T.S. Eliot. In essays and books such as The Sacred Wood (1920) and The Use of Poetry and
the Use of Criticism (1933), Eliot drew close attention to the language of literature yet also made sweeping
judgments and large cultural generalizations. His main impact was on close readers of poetry—e.g., I.A.
Richards, William Empson, and F.R. Leavis in England and the critics of the New Criticism movement in
the United States, many of whom were also poets besides being political and cultural conservatives. Along
with Eliot, they rewrote the map of literary history, challenged the dominance of Romantic forms and styles,
promoted and analyzed difficult Modernist writing, and greatly advanced ways of discussing literary structure.
Major examples of their style of close reading can be found in R.P. Blackmur’s The Double Agent (1935), Allen
Tate’s Reactionary Essays on Poetry and Ideas (1936), John Crowe Ransom’s The World’s Body (1938), Yvor
Winters’s Maule’s Curse (1938), and Cleanth Brooks’s The Well Wrought Urn (1947). Though they were later
attacked for their formalism and for avoiding the social context of writing, the New Critics did much to further
the understanding and appreciation of literature.

After World War II

The literary historian Malcolm Cowley described the years between the two world wars as a “second
flowering” of American writing. Certainly American literature attained a new maturity and a rich diversity in
the 1920s and ’30s, and significant works by several major figures from those decades were published after
1945. Faulkner, Hemingway, Steinbeck, and Katherine Anne Porter wrote memorable fiction, though not up
to their prewar standard; and Frost, Eliot, Wallace Stevens, Marianne Moore, E.E. Cummings, William Carlos
Williams, and Gwendolyn Brooks published important poetry. Eugene O’Neill’s most distinguished play, Long
Day’s Journey into Night, appeared posthumously in 1956. Before and after World War II, Robert Penn
Warren published influential fiction, poetry, and criticism. His All the King’s Men, one of the best American
political novels, won the 1947 Pulitzer Prize. Mary McCarthy became a widely read social satirist and essayist.
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When it first appeared in the United States in the 1960s, Henry Miller’s fiction was influential primarily
because of its frank exploration of sexuality. But its loose, picaresque, quasi-autobiographical form also
meshed well with post-1960s fiction. Impressive new novelists, poets, and playwrights emerged after the
war. There was, in fact, a gradual changing of the guard.

The novel and short story

Realism and “metafiction”

Two distinct groups of novelists responded to the cultural impact, and especially the technological horror,
of World War II. Norman Mailer’s The Naked and the Dead (1948) and Irwin Shaw’s The Young Lions (1948)
were realistic war novels, though Mailer’s book was also a novel of ideas, exploring fascist thinking and
an obsession with power as elements of the military mind. James Jones, amassing a staggering quantity of
closely observed detail, documented the war’s human cost in an ambitious trilogy (From Here to
Eternity [1951], The Thin Red Line [1962], and Whistle [1978]) that centred on loners who resisted adapting
to military discipline. Younger novelists, profoundly shaken by the bombing of Hiroshima and the real threat
of human annihilation, found the conventions of realism inadequate for treating the war’s
nightmarish implications.

Southern fiction

Post-World War II Southern writers inherited Faulkner’s rich legacy. Three women—Eudora Welty, Flannery
O’Connor, and Carson McCullers, specialists in the grotesque—contributed greatly to Southern fiction.
O’Connor, writing as a Roman Catholic in the Protestant South, created a high comedy of moral incongruity
in her incomparable short stories. Welty, always a brilliant stylist, first came to prominence with her
collections of short fiction A Curtain of Green (1941) and The Wide Net, and Other Stories (1943). Her career
culminated with a large family novel, Losing Battles (1970), and a fine novella, The Optimist’s
Daughter (1972), which was awarded the 1973 Pulitzer Prize. McCullers is best remembered for her first
book, The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter (1940), an intricate gothic novel set in a small town in the Deep South.

African American literature

Black writers of this period found alternatives to the Richard Wright tradition of angry social protest. James
Baldwin and Ralph Ellison, both protégés of Wright, wrote polemical essays calling for a literature that
reflected the full complexity of Black life in the United States. In his first and best novel, Go Tell It on the
Mountain (1953), Baldwin portrayed the Harlem world and the Black church through his own adolescent
religious experiences. Drawing on rural folktale, absurdist humour, and a picaresque realism, Ralph Ellison
wrote a deeply resonant comic novel that dealt with the full range of Black experience—rural sharecropping,
segregated education, northward migration, ghetto hustling, and the lure of such
competing ideologies as nationalism and communism. Many considered his novel Invisible Man (1952) the
best novel of the postwar years.

New fictional modes

The horrors of World War II, the Cold War and the atomic bomb, the bizarre feast of consumer culture, and
the cultural clashes of the 1960s prompted many writers to argue that reality had grown inaccessible,
undermining the traditional social role of fiction. Writers of novels and short stories therefore were under
unprecedented pressure to discover, or invent, new and viable kinds of fiction. One response was
the postmodern novel of William Gaddis, John Barth, John Hawkes, Donald Barthelme, Thomas
Pynchon, Robert Coover, Paul Auster, and Don DeLillo—technically sophisticated and highly self-conscious

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about the construction of fiction and the fictive nature of “reality” itself. These writers dealt with themes such
as imposture and paranoia; their novels drew attention to themselves as artifacts and often used realistic
techniques ironically. Other responses involved a heightening of realism by means of intensifying violence,
amassing documentation, or resorting to fantasy. A brief discussion of writers as different as Norman
Mailer and Joyce Carol Oates may serve to illustrate these new directions.

The influence of Raymond Carver

Perhaps the most influential fiction writer to emerge in the 1970s was Raymond Carver. He was another
realist who dealt with blue-collar life, usually in the Pacific Northwest, in powerful collections of stories such
as What We Talk About When We Talk About Love (1981) and Cathedral (1983). His self-destructive
characters were life’s losers, and his style, influenced by Hemingway and Samuel Beckett, was spare and flat
but powerfully suggestive. It was imitated, often badly, by minimalists such as Frederick Barthelme, Mary
Robison, and Amy Hempel. More-talented writers whose novels reflected the influence of Carver in their
evocation of the downbeat world of the blue-collar male included Richard Ford (Rock Springs [1987]), Russell
Banks (Continental Drift [1984] and Affliction [1989]), and Tobias Wolff (The Barracks Thief [1984] and This
Boy’s Life [1989]).

Multicultural writing

The dramatic loosening of immigration restrictions in the mid-1960s set the stage for the rich multicultural
writing of the last quarter of the 20th century. New Jewish voices were heard in the fiction of E.L. Doctorow,
noted for his mingling of the historical with the fictional in novels such as Ragtime (1975) and The
Waterworks (1994) and in the work of Cynthia Ozick, whose best story, Envy; or, Yiddish in America (1969),
has characters modeled on leading figures in Yiddish literature. Her story The Shawl (1980) concerns the
murder of a baby in a Nazi concentration camp. David Leavitt introduced homosexual themes into his
portrayal of middle-class life in Family Dancing (1984). At the turn of the 21st century, younger Jewish writers
from the former Soviet Union such as Gary Shteyngart and Lara Vapnyar dealt impressively with the
experience of immigrants in the United States.

Poetry

The post-World War II years produced an abundance of strong poetry but no individual poet as dominant
and accomplished as T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, Wallace Stevens, Robert Frost, or William Carlos Williams, whose
long careers were coming to an end. The major poetry from 1945 to 1960 was Modernist in
its ironic texture yet formal in its insistence on regular rhyme and metre. Beginning in the late 1950s,
however, there were a variety of poets and schools who rebelled against these constraints and experimented
with more-open forms and more-colloquial styles.

Autobiographical approaches

With the autobiographical knots and parables of Reasons for Moving (1968) and Darker (1970), Mark
Strand’s paradoxical language achieved a resonant simplicity. He enhanced his reputation with Dark
Harbor (1993) and Blizzard of One (1998). Other strongly autobiographical poets working with subtle
technique and intelligence in a variety of forms included Philip Levine, Charles Simic, Robert Pinsky, Gerald
Stern, Louise Glück, and Sharon Olds. Levine’s background in working-class Detroit gave his work a unique
cast, while Glück and Olds brought a terrific emotional intensity to their poems. Pinsky’s poems were collected
in The Figured Wheel (1996). He became a tireless and effective advocate for poetry during
his tenure as poet laureate from 1997 to 2000. With the sinuous sentences and long flowing lines
of Tar (1983) and Flesh and Blood (1987), C.K. Williams perfected a narrative technique founded on

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distinctive voice, sharply etched emotion, and cleanly observed detail. He received the Pulitzer
Prize for Repair (2000). Adrienne Rich’s work gained a burning immediacy from her lesbian feminism. The
Will to Change (1971) and Diving into the Wreck (1973) were turning points for women’s poetry in the wake
of the 1960s.

Drama

Miller, Williams, and Albee

Two post-World War II playwrights established reputations comparable to Eugene O’Neill’s. Arthur
Miller wrote eloquent essays defending his modern, democratic concept of tragedy; despite its abstract,
allegorical quality and portentous language, Death of a Salesman (1949) came close to vindicating his views.
Miller’s intense family dramas were rooted in the problem dramas of Henrik Ibsen and the works of the
socially conscious ethnic dramatists of the 1930s, especially Clifford Odets, but Miller gave them
a metaphysical turn. From All My Sons (1947) to The Price (1968), his work was at its strongest when he
dealt with father-son relationships, anchored in the harsh realities of the Great Depression. Yet Miller could
also be an effective protest writer, as in The Crucible (1953), which used the Salem witch trials to attack the
witch-hunting of the McCarthy era.

Literary and social criticism

Until his death in 1972, Edmund Wilson solidified his reputation as one of America’s most versatile and
distinguished men of letters. The novelist John Updike inherited Wilson’s chair at The New Yorker and turned
out an extraordinary flow of critical reviews collected in volumes such as Hugging the Shore (1983) and Odd
Jobs (1991). Gore Vidal brought together his briskly readable essays of four decades—critical, personal, and
political—in United States (1993). Susan Sontag’s essays on difficult European writers, avant-garde film,
politics, photography, and the language of illness embodied the probing intellectual spirit of the 1960s. In A
Second Flowering (1973) and The Dream of the Golden Mountains (1980), Malcolm Cowley looked back at
the writers between the world wars who had always engaged him. Alfred Kazin wrote literary history (An
American Procession [1984], God and the American Writer [1997]) and autobiography (Starting Out in the
Thirties [1965], New York Jew [1978]), while Irving Howe produced studies at the crossroads
of literature and politics, such as Politics and the Novel (1957), as well as a major history of Jewish
immigrants in New York, World of Our Fathers (1976). The iconoclastic literary criticism of Leslie Fiedler, as,
for example, Love and Death in the American Novel (1960), was marked by its provocative application of
Freudian ideas to American literature. In his later work he turned to popular culture as a source of revealing
social and psychological patterns. A more-subtle Freudian, Lionel Trilling, in The Liberal Imagination (1950)
and other works, rejected Vernon L. Parrington’s populist concept of literature as social reportage and
insisted on the ability of literature to explore problematic human complexity. His criticism reflected the inward
turn from politics toward “moral realism” that coincided with the Cold War. But the cultural and political
conflicts of the 1960s revived the social approach among younger students of American literature, such
as Henry Louis Gates, Jr., who emerged in the 1980s as a major critic, theorist, and editor of Black writers
in studies such as Figures in Black (1987) and The Signifying Monkey (1988). In the 1990s Gates evolved
into a wide-ranging essayist, along with Cornel West, Stanley Crouch, bell hooks, Shelby Steele, Stephen
Carter, Gerald Early, Michele Wallace, and other Black social critics.

Literary biography and the “new journalism”

The waning of the New Criticism, with its strict emphasis on the text, led not only to a surge of historical
criticism and cultural theory but also to a flowering of literary biography. Major works included Leon Edel’s
five-volume study of Henry James (1953–72), Mark Schorer’s Sinclair Lewis: An American
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Life (1961), Richard Ellmann’s studies of James Joyce (1959) and Oscar Wilde (1988), R.W.B. Lewis’s
revealing biography of Edith Wharton (1975), Joseph Frank’s five-volume biography of Dostoyevsky (1976–
2002), Paul Zweig’s brilliant study of Walt Whitman (1984), and Carol Brightman’s exhaustive life of Mary
McCarthy (1992).

Theory

The major New Critics and New York critics were followed by major but difficult academic critics, who
preferred theory to close reading. European structuralism found little echo in the United States,
but poststructuralist theorists such as Michel Foucault, Roland Barthes, and Jacques Derrida found a
welcome in the less-political atmosphere, marked by skepticism and defeat, that followed the 1960s. Four
Yale professors joined Derrida to publish a group of essays, Deconstruction and Criticism (1979). Two of the
contributors, Paul de Man and J. Hillis Miller, became leading exponents of deconstruction in the United
States. The other two, Harold Bloom and Geoffrey H. Hartman, were more interested in the problematic
relation of poets to their predecessors and to their own language. Bloom was especially concerned with the
influence of Ralph Waldo Emerson on modern American poets. After developing a Freudian theory of literary
influence in The Anxiety of Influence (1973) and A Map of Misreading (1975), Bloom reached a wide
audience with The Western Canon (1994) and Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human (1998), both of
which explored and defended the Western literary tradition.

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 REFLECTION

American literature, a vast and diverse collection of works, has played a significant role in shaping
the cultural identity of the United States. From its humble beginnings to its current prominence, American
literature has evolved through various themes, styles, and genres which makes American literature
interesting and unique from other place’s literature.

One of the most significant lessons learned from American literature is the importance of embracing
and celebrating the diverse voices that contribute to its richness. American literature is a melting pot of
various cultures, ethnicities, and experiences. From Native American tales to African-American narratives,
literature has given a platform to marginalized communities to share their stories and perspectives. This has
not only enriched the literary landscape but also fostered a deeper understanding of the complexities of
American society.

It has its ability to mirror the society it represents. Throughout history, literature has served as a
barometer of social, political, and cultural changes. From the transcendentalist movement in the 19th century
to the Beat Generation in the mid-20th century, American literature has captured the zeitgeist of its time. By
studying these literary works, we can gain valuable insights into the evolution of American values and beliefs.

American literature has demonstrated the transformative power of storytelling. By sharing personal
experiences, authors have been able to connect with readers on a deeply emotional level. This connection
fosters empathy, understanding, and compassion. From Mark Twain's "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" to
Harper Lee's "To Kill a Mockingbird," these stories have left an indelible mark on the hearts and minds of
readers, sparking conversations about race, class, and social justice.

It taught us the importance of adapting and evolving. The writing styles and techniques used in
American literature have undergone significant changes over the years. From the formal prose of the 19th
century to the experimental styles of modernism and postmodernism, American literature has embraced
innovation and pushed the boundaries of what is considered "good" writing. This willingness to experiment
and grow has allowed American literature to remain relevant and engaging for generations of readers.

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 ENGLISH LITERATURE

English literature, the body of written works produced in the English language by inhabitants of the British
Isles (including Ireland) from the 7th century to the present day. The major literatures written in English
outside the British Isles are treated separately under American literature, Australian literature, Canadian
literature, and New Zealand literature.

There are seven (7) major periods during English Literature,

▪ Old English Literature: 450-1066

▪ Medieval English Literature: 1066-1500
▪ The Renaissance Period: 1500–1660
▪ The Neoclassical Period: 1660–1798
▪ The Romantic Period: 1798-1837
▪ The Victorian Period: 1837–1901
▪ The Modern Period: 20th Century Literature

Old English Literature: 450-1066

FOUR INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT THE OLD ENGLISH / ANGLO-SAXON LITERATURE:

▪ The Anglo-Saxons came from Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands.

▪ The first Anglo-Saxons were Pagans.
▪ The days of the week we use come from Anglo-Saxon times.
▪ Norwich and Birmingham are named after Anglo-Saxon settlements.
Anglo-Saxon is derived from two Germanic tribes: the Angles and the Saxons. This literary period
begins around 450 when they invaded Celtic England (together with the Jutes). In 1066, Norman France, led
by William, defeated England, bringing the period to a close. The historical events that happened in that
period greatly influenced the literature at the time. Though Christianity was present, paganism dominated
the literature in this period. The history of English Literature starts with the Germanic tradition of Anglo-
Saxon settlers which were around 5th to 11th century AD and the first long narrative poems in the history of
English Literature were Beowulf and Widsith. These two were highly narrative poems of this early period of
the history of English Literature. Earlier, to understand the temperament of readers, writers would make use
of alteration rather than a rhyming scheme. Moreover, some of the famous writers of old English literature
were Cynewulf and Caedmon.

Beowulf is considered as the first English Epic poem and some of the other famous works produced
during the Old English Literature include:

▪ Genesis
▪ Exodus
▪ The Wanderer
▪ Wife’s lament
▪ Husbans’s message
▪ The battle of Maldon

Old English / Anglo-Saxon were first written with a version of the Runic alphabet known as Anglo-Saxon
or Anglo-Frisian runes, or futhorc/fuþorc. This alphabet was an extended version of Elder Futhark with
between 26 and 33 letters. Anglo-Saxon runes were used probably from the 5th century AD until about the
10th century. They started to be replaced by the Latin alphabet from the 7th century, and after the 9th

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century the runes were used mainly in manuscripts and were mainly of interest to antiquarians. Their use
ceased not long after the Norman Conquest.

Anglo-Frisian runes, or futhorc/fuþorc

Medieval English Literature: 1066-1500

Also referred to as the Later Middle English Literary Period, the Medieval English Literature comprises
of a diverse range of works as the population of England during this time was literate and a considerable
portion was also bilingual and trilingual. Geoffrey Chaucer is amongst the highly regarded poets within the
period of 1342 to1400 and was renowned for his courtly love poetry including the famous “Canterbury Tales”
though it was left incomplete; “The House of Fame”, and ‘The Book of the Duchess’. He became one of the
core political servants in Britain’s court. William Langland’s famous religious works including “Piers Plowman”
also deserves a crucial mention as it represents another popular genre of this period of English Literature
which was secular and religious prose. During the era of Medieval English Literature, the most esteemed
works also include morality plays, miracle plays and interludes. ‘Everyman’ was a noted Morality play of the
time and Miracle plays were taken from the Bible and were frequently performed in churches.

Classic Works of Medieval Literature

1. Dante, The Divine Comedy.

2. Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales.
3. Margery Kempe, The Book of Margery Kempe.
4. Marco Polo, Travels.
5. Geoffrey of Monmouth, The History of the Kings of Britain.
6. Anonymous, The Nibelungenlied.
7. Anonymous, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.

The Renaissance Period: 1500–1660

The term ‘’Renaissance’’ means ‘’revival’’ or ‘’rebirth.’’ It was a movement that swept across Europe over the
course of several centuries. It was a time of social change where people’s lives were altered by urbanization
and agricultural advances. This period, spanning roughly a century, is considered a golden age of English
literature. By far the most influential writer of this period is William Shakespeare (1564-1616). Shakespeare
authored at least 38 plays and 154 sonnets during his career, many of which are still widely read, studied,
and performed around the world today. The influence that Shakespeare had on English literature and the
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world, In general, was profound and essentially unprecedented. His famous plays include Macbeth, Romeo
and Juliet, and Much Ado About Nothing.

Although critics and literary historians have begun to refer to this time as “Early Modern,” we will continue
to refer to it as “Renaissance.” The period includes the Elizabethan Age (1558–1603), the Jacobean Age
(1603–1625), the Caroline Age (1625–1649), and the Commonwealth Period (1649–1660) are commonly
separated into four parts.

❖ ELIZABETHAN AGE (1558-1603)

➢ Reign of Queen Elizabeth I: A period of relative peace, exploration, and national pride. This era
witnessed an explosion of creativity in various genres.

This falls within the later stages of the Renaissance. However, historians often see it as a distinct
period with its own unique characteristics, such as a focus on exploration, national identity, and a
specific style of literature.

Famous writers with their major works:

1. William Shakespeare
➢ England’s national poet or the “Bard of Avon”, is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the
English language and the world’s pre-eminent dramatist.
• “Romeo and Juliet” (1597)
- Is a classic love story with a tragic ending.
• “Hamlet” (1603)
- Revenge and madness
• “Macbeth” (1606)
- Ambition and guilt
• Othello
- Jealousy and betrayal

2. Christopher Marlowe(1564-1593)
➢ A contemporary of Shakespeare, Marlowe is known for his dramatic characters and use of blank
verse
• “Doctor Faustus” (c. 1592)
- Tells the story of a man who sells his soul to the devil for knowledge and power.
• “Tamburlaine, Parts 1 and 2” (c. 1587-1588)
- is a two-part play about a ruthless conqueror. Historical play that depicts the rise and fall
of the conqueror Tamburlaine.
• “The Jew of Malta” (c. 1589)
– A dark comedy that revolves around the character Barabas, a cunning and vengeful Jew.

3. Ben Johnson(1572-1637)
➢ Jonson was a playwright and poet who often used satire and wit in his comedies.
• “Every Man in His Humour” (1598)
- Pokes fun at different personality types
• “Volpone” (1606)
- Rich guy fakes illness to trick greedy friends into giving him gifts, highlighting human greed
in a funny way.
• “The Alchemist” (1610)

4. Edmund Spenser(1552-1599)
➢ Spenser is a major figure in English poetry.
• “The Faerie Queene” (Books I-III published in 1590, Books IV-VI published in 1596)

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5. Philip Sidney(1554-1586)
➢ A courtier and poet, Sidney is known for his sonnet sequence
• “Astrophel and Stella” (published posthumously in 1591)
- explores love and desire.
• “The Defence of Poesy” (written around 1580, published in 1595)
- Is an essay arguing for the importance of poetry.

6. Thomas Kyd (1558-1594)

- Kyd is best known for his play.
• “The Spanish Tragedy” (c. 1587)
- a revenge drama full of violence and suspense.
7. John Donne
- Is a metaphysical poet who wrote about love, religion, and death in a passionate and intellectual way.
Donne wrote many poems, and his works include:
• “The Sun Rising”
- Is a poem about a lover persuading the sun not to rise and interrupt their night together.
• “Holy Sonnets.”
- Explores religious themes.
• “Devotions upon Emergent Occasions”(1624)
- is a collection of meditations written during a time of illnesses.

❖ JACOBEAN AGE
➢ The Jacobean Age was a period in British history that lasted during the reign of King James I
(1566-1625). The period followed the successful Elizabethan era and encompassed 1603 to 1625,
coinciding with James I’s rule. The Jacobean Age describes the visual arts and literature produced
during that time. It was also an influential period for architecture.
One of the most important developments of the Jacobean Age was the creation of the King James Version
of the Bible, which came about in 1611. The King James Bible is considered the most successful English
translation and proved highly influential for English literature. Many of the developments in visual art were
influenced by the influx of foreign artists living in England at the time.

1. John Webster
- John Webster was an English playwright known for his dark and intense tragedies during the Jacobean
era.
• The Duchess of Malfi” (1614):
- The play revolves around the Duchess of Malfi, who secretly marries her steward. Her
brothers, driven by jealousy and a desire for control, plot a tragic and murderous course.

2. Thomas Middleton:
- Thomas Middleton, a versatile playwright, wrote during the Jacobean period, contributing to both comedy
and tragedy.
• “The Changeling” (1653, co-authored with William Rowley): The Changeling explores themes of
desire, murder, and deception. The central character, Beatrice-Joanna, engages in a dark plot to be
with her true love, leading to tragic consequences.

3. Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher:

- Beaumont and Fletcher were a collaborative duo, known for their joint contributions to Jacobean drama.
• “The Maid’s Tragedy” (1619)
- The play follows the tragic story of Amintor, who discovers the infidelity of his betrothed, Evadne,
leading to a series of revenge and tragedy.
• “Philaster, or Love Lies a-Bleeding” (c. 1609):
- This romantic tragicomedy involves the love triangle between Philaster, Arethusa, and the
villainous King, exploring themes of love, honor, and betrayal.

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 ❖ CAROLINE AGE

➢ The Caroline Era marked a unique chapter In English literature during the reign of King Charles
I, characterized by its emphasis on metaphysical poetry and a blending of classical and innovative
literary styles. The word “Caroline” comes from the name “Charles,” who was king of England
from 1625 to 1649.

1. Thomas Carew (1595-1640)

➢ A Cavalier poet, Carew wrote witty and sometimes bawdy poems about love and desire.
• ”To My Inconstant Mistress” criticizes a woman who changes her affections easily.
• A Rapture” is a passionate love poem celebrating physical beauty.

2. John Donne (1572-1631)

➢ A metaphysical poet, Donne used complex metaphors and intellectual ideas to explore love,
religion, and death.
• ”Holy Sonnets” are a series of poems grappling with religious faith and doubt.
• ”Devotions upon Emergent Occasions” is a collection of meditations on illness, faith, and life’s
uncertainties
• ”A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” is a love poem reassuring a lover that their separation
won’t diminish their love.

3. Robert Herrick (1591-1674)

➢ A country poet, Herrick celebrated the simple pleasures of rural life, love, and beauty.
• “Hesperides” is a collection of poems on a variety of topics, including love, nature, and drinking
songs.
”To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time” urges young women to enjoy their youth before it fades.

3. George Herbert (1593-1633)

➢ A devotional poet, Herbert wrote deeply religious poems expressing his faith and love for God.
• ” The Temple” is a collection of poems exploring themes of faith, prayer, and the beauty of nature
reflecting God’s presence.

• ” Easter Wings” celebrates the joy of Christ’s resurrection.

4. Richard Crashaw (1613-1649)

➢ A religious poet, Crashaw is known for his passionate and ecstatic poems about his faith.
• ”Steps to the Temple” is a collection of religious poems expressing intense devotion and love
for God.
• “The Flaming Heart” is a poem comparing the Virgin Mary’s love for Christ to a burning heart.

5. Thomas Browne (1605-1682)

➢ A prose writer, Browne explored philosophical and scientific questions in a unique and poetic
style.
• ”Religio Medici” (The Religion of a Physician) is a personal exploration of faith,
science, and doubt.

6. John Milton (1608-1674):

➢ A poet and polemicist, Milton wrote epic poems on religious and historical themes.
• ”Comus” is a masque (a dramatic entertainment) that explores themes of chastity
and resisting temptation.
• ”Lycidas” is an elegy (a poem lamenting death) for a friend who died young.
• ”Sonnet XVIII: On the Late Massacre in Piedmont” condemns the persecution
of Protestants in Italy.

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John Milton’s early poems (“L’Allegro” and “Il Penseroso”) showcase his mastery of language.

❖ COMMONWEALTH PERIOD (1649-1660)

➢ political structure during the period from 1649 to 1660 when England and Wales, later along with
Ireland and Scotland, were governed as a republic after the end of the Second English Civil War and
the trial and execution of Charles I. The period from 1649 to 1660, when England was without a king,
is called the English Interregnum.

1. John Milton (1608-1674)

A poet and polemicist (someone who writes to argue a cause), Milton is best known for his epic poems on
religious and historical themes. He was blind by his mid-40s but continued to dictate his works.

• ”Paradise Lost” (1667)

An epic poem in blank verse that tells the story of Adam and Eve’s temptation and expulsion from the Garden
of Eden. It explores themes of free will, disobedience, and the nature of good and evil.

• ”Paradise Regained” (1671)

A sequel to Paradise Lost, it focuses on Jesus Christ resisting temptation in the wilderness.

• “Samson Agonistes” (1671)

A dramatic tragedy based on the biblical story of Samson, a blind strongman who seeks revenge on the
Philistines.

2. Andrew Marvell (1621-1678)

➢ A metaphysical poet who also wrote political satire.

• To His Coy Mistress” (c. 1650):

A witty and playful poem urging a woman to seize the day and enjoy love before it’s too late.

• ”Upon Appleton House” (1651)

A country house poem praising the beauty of nature and the simple life.

3. Thomas Browne (1605-1682): (already described above)

• ”Hydriotaphia, Urn Burial” (1658)

A philosophical meditation on death and mortality, prompted by the discovery of ancient urns.

• The Garden of Cyrus” (1658)

Explores religious and philosophical ideas through the lens of gardens and their design.

4. John Bunyan (1628-1688)

➢ A preacher and allegorical writer.

• The Pilgrim’s Progress” (Part 1, 1678; Part 2, 1684)

A Christian allegory that tells the story of Christian, a man who journeys through a perilous landscape to
reach the Celestial City (Heaven). It explores themes of faith, perseverance, and the challenges of the
Christian life.

5. Richard Baxter (1615-1691)

➢ A Puritan minister and prolific writer on religious topics.

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 • ”The Saints’ Everlasting Rest” (1650)
A religious treatise that offers comfort and assurance to believers about the joy of eternal life in Heaven.

6. Aphra Behn (1640-1689):

➢ A pioneering woman playwright and novelist.

• ”Oroonoko” (1688): A novel based on a true story, it explores themes of slavery,
colonialism, and forbidden love.

NEOCLASSICAL PERIOD
Neoclassical literature was written between 1660 and 1798. This time period is broken down into three parts:
the Restoration period, the Augustan period, and the Age of Johnson. Writers of the Neoclassical period tried
to imitate the style of the Romans and Greeks. Thus the combination of the terms ‘neo,’ which means ‘new,’
and ‘classical,’ as in the day of the Roman and Greek classics.

❖ RESTORATION PERIOD(1649-1659)

➢ The Restoration period of English literature roughly lasts from 1660 to 1688. It begins with
Charles II returning to the throne following the rule of various republican governments that
ruled England from 1649 to 1659 after Charles I was executed.

1. John Dryden
- John Dryden, a prominent English poet and playwright of the 17 th century, is known for his contributions
to both literature and drama during the Restoration period.
• “Absalom and Achitophel” (1681)
A satirical poem that allegorically addresses political events of the time, particularly the Exclusion Crisis. It
explores the biblical story of Absalom’s rebellion against King David to comment on contemporary political
intrigue.
• “The Relapse” (1696)
Dryden’s play is a sequel to his earlier work “Aureng-zebe” and is considered a comedy of manners. It
satirizes the societal norms and behaviors of the time.

2. Samuel Pepys
- Samuel Pepys was an English naval administrator and Member of Parliament, but he is best known for
his detailed and candid diary that provides a firsthand account of life in 17 th-century England.
• The Diary of Samuel Pepys” (1660–1669)
• Pepys’ diary is a remarkable record of his daily life, covering a wide range of topics including
personal experiences, historical events, and insights into the culture of the time. It is a valuable
historical document.

3. John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester

- John Wilmot, the Earl of Rochester, was a libertine poet and courtier known for his wit, satirical verses,
and scandalous lifestyle during the Restoration period.
• “A Satyr Against Reason and Mankind” (1679)
This poem is a satirical critique of human nature and reason. Rochester challenges societal norms and
expresses skepticism towards the rationality of mankind, using sharp wit and unconventional language to
convey his views.

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 ❖ AUGUSTAN AGE

➢ The Augustan Age is characterized by satire in novels, poems, and plays. The so-called
Augustan Age spanned the period from the beginning of the 18 th century to its end, normally
dated to the deaths of two writers of the period, Alexander Pope (who died in 1744) and
Jonathan Swift (who died in 1745).

1. Alexander Pope
• “The Rape of the Lock” (1712)
- “The Dunciad” (1728)
2. Jonathan Swift
• “Gulliver’s Travels” (1726)
3. Joseph Addison and Richard Steele (collaborative)
• “The Spectator” (1711-1712)
4. Daniel Defoe
• “Robinson Crusoe” (1719)
5. John Gay
• “The Beggar’s Opera” (1728)

❖ AGE OF JOHNSON

➢ The Age of Johnson was an eighteenth-century period of English literature named for Samuel
Johnson (1709- 1784), an acclaimed poet, essayist, literary critic, lexicographer, and
biographer.
Also referred to as the Age of Sensibility, the Age of Johnson was nestled between the Augustan Age-
distinguished by writers such as Jonathan Swift and Alexander Pope-and the Romantic period, when Lord
Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Mary Shelly, and William Wordsworth wrote their most celebrated works.

1. Samuel Johnson
• “A Dictionary of the English Language” (1755)
• “The Lives of the Poets” (1779-1781)

2. Oliver Goldsmith
• “The Vicar of Wakefield” (1766)
• “She Stoops to Conquer” (1773)

3. Samuel Richardson
• “Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded” (1740)

4. Henry Fielding
• “Tom Jones” (1749)

5. Edward Gibbon
• “The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire” (1776-1788)

The Romantic Period: 1798-1837

The Romantic age of the history of English literature experimented with the earlier forms of poetry
and brought many interesting genres of prose fiction. Romanticism was characterized by a celebration of
nature and the common man, a focus on individual experience, and idealization of women, ad and embrace
of isolation and melancholy. Romanticism was not about love but drew its meaning from the French word
romaunt (a romantic story told in verse).

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PROMINENT ROMANTIC WRITERS:
➢ WILLIAM BLAKE - He is considered to be one of the greatest visionaries of the early Romantic era.
Famous Works: Songs of Innocence (1789)
Songs of Experience (1794)
➢ WILLIAM WORDSWORTH - He was an English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge,
helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication Lyrical Ballads
(1798).
Famous Works: The Prelude (1850)
I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud (1807)
➢ JOHN KEATS - He is best known for his odes, which are lyrical poems that express his emotions and
thoughts on various subjects, such as nature, art, love, death, and beauty.
Famous Works: Ode on a Grecian Urn (1789)
Ode to a Nightingale (1819)
➢ PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY - His poetry expressed themes of political and social change through figures
like the poet and nature.
Famous Works: Ode to the West Wind (1820)
Ozymandias (1818)
➢ MARY SHELLEY - She is a novelist and passionate advocate of educational and social equality for
women.
Famous Works: Frankenstein (1818)
Mathilda (1959)

The Victorian Period: 1837–1901

Victorian literature flourished in the period of Queen Victoria. Victorian period was the golden age of
English literature, especially for British novels. Victorian era reflected realities and sufferings of the world,
especially people working in factories, treating the lower class and condition of women and children.

PROMINENT NOVELIST:
➢ CHARLES DICKENS - He was an English novelist and social critic who created some of the world's
best-known fictional characters, and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian
era.
Famous Works: The Pickwick Papers (1837), Oliver Twist (1838), A Christmas Carol (1843),
David Copperfield (1850), Bleak House (1853), and Great Expectations (1861)

➢ WILLIAM THACKERAY - His novels are full of picaresque adventure and satire—but he throws some
Victorian earnestness and morality into the mix.
Famous Works: The Yellowplush Papers (1837), Catherine (1839–1840), A Shabby
Genteel Story (1840), The Paris Sketchbook (1840), Second Funeral of Napoleon
(1841), The Irish Sketchbook (1842)

➢ THREE BRONTE SISTERS - Charlotte, Emily, and Anne who would grow to become some of the most
celebrated Victorian era novelists in history. They drew upon their imaginations, on their personal
experiences and the landscape and characters around them, but their mature poems and novels are
also rooted in the themes of the early writings of their childhood and adolescence
Famous Works: Jane Eyre, Wuthering Heights, and The Tenant of Wildfell Hall

➢ GEORGE ELIOT - She was an English Victorian novelist known for the psychological depth of her
characters and her descriptions of English rural life.
Famous Works: Adam Bede (1859), The Mill on the Floss (1860), Silas Marner
(1861), Middlemarch (1871–72), and Daniel Deronda (1876)

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 ➢ THOMAS HARDY - He writes about the life of poor peasant family and their problems as being poor
in the society. He also portrays the customs of love, marriage and the conflict between the rich and
the poor
Famous Works: Far from the Madding Crowd (1874), The Mayor of Casterbridge
(1886), Tess of the d'Urbervilles (1891) and Jude the Obscure (1895)

The Modern Period: 20th Century Literature

The modern period began in 1901 with the end of the Victorian era and literature. The prominent
feature of modern English literature opposed the common attitude towards the life portrayed in Victorian
literature. The modern period is typically referred to as the work written after the start of World War 1.
Common themes of the era were bold experimentation with the subject matter, style, narratives, verse and
drama.

NOTABLE AUTHORS:
➢ JOSEPH CONRAD - He is a novelist and short story writer and regarded as one of the greatest writers
in the English language though he did not speak English fluently until his twenties, he came to be
regarded a master prose stylist who brought a non-English sensibility into English literature.
Famous Works: Lord Jim (1900), Nostromo (1904), The Secret Agent (1907), Heart of
Darkness (1902)

➢ RUDYARD KIPLING - He was an English novelist, short-story writer, poet, and journalist. He was born
in British India, which inspired much of his work.
Famous Works: The Jungle Book, 1894; The Second Jungle Book, 1895), Kim (1901),
Just So Stories (1902) and many short stories, including "The Man Who Would Be King"
(1888).

➢ VIRGINIA WOOLF - She pioneered the use of the stream-of-consciousness narrative device and
created ground breaking feminist works. Her writing is characterized by experiments in language,
narrative, and the treatment of time.
Famous Works: Mrs. Dalloway (1925) and To the Lighthouse (1927)

➢ T.S. ELIOT – He is a poet, essayist, publisher, playwright, literary critic and editor. His use of language,
writing style, and verse structure reinvigorated English poetry.
Famous Works: The Waste Land (1922), Four Quartets (1943), and the play Murder
in the Cathedral (1935).

➢ HENRY JAMES - Honored as one of the greatest artists of the novel, and regarded as one of America's
most influential critics and literary theorists. He authored 22 novels, hundreds of short stories, and
dozens of volumes of non-fiction including biographies, travel writing, art and literary criticism, and
memoirs.
Famous Works: The Portrait of a Lady (1881), The Bostonians (1886), The
Ambassadors (1903). “The Figure in the Carpet” (1896) and The Turn of the Screw
(1898)

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 REFLECTION

English literature, an integral part of Great Britain's cultural heritage, has undergone a remarkable
evolution over the centuries. From the earliest Old English writings to the modern contemporary works, this
literary tradition has shaped and reflected the society, its values, and its people.

The origins of English literature can be traced back to the Anglo-Saxon period, spanning from the 5th
to the late 11th century. During this time, Old English, a Germanic language, was spoken. The most
prominent literary works from this era include epic poems like "Beowulf," which showcases the heroic spirit
and oral storytelling tradition of the Anglo-Saxons. Additionally, different religious texts were written in Old
English, demonstrating the influence of Christianity on the emerging literary tradition. Following the Norman
Conquest in 1066, Middle English emerged as the dominant language. This period witnessed significant
literary developments, with the introduction of Romance languages' influence, particularly French and Latin.
As a result, the chivalric romance genre flourished, with works like "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight" and
"The Canterbury Tales" by Geoffrey Chaucer. Chaucer's work marked a turning point in English literature, as
it combined elements of both traditional oral storytelling and the emerging written tradition.

The Renaissance, a period of intellectual and cultural rebirth, had a profound impact on English
literature. This era, spanning from the 14th to the 17th century, saw the emergence of humanism, which
emphasized the importance of the individual and the pursuit of knowledge. During this time, the printing
press was invented, making books more accessible to the public. William Shakespeare, widely regarded as
the greatest writer in the English language, flourished during the Renaissance. His works, including plays like
"Hamlet," "Macbeth," and "Romeo and Juliet," showcased a mastery of language, character development,
and themes that continue to resonate today. Other notable authors from this period include Christopher
Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, and Philip Sidney, who contributed to the development of tragedy, pastoral
poetry, and the English sonnet.

The Elizabethan Era, named after Queen Elizabeth I, marked a significant turning point in the history
of the English language. During this period, England experienced a cultural and literary renaissance, which
saw the birth of Early Modern English. The Renaissance was characterized by a renewed interest in classical
literature, the arts, and humanism, leading to an explosion of creativity in theatre, poetry, and prose. William
Shakespeare, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language, played a crucial role in shaping
the English vocabulary during this era. His extensive use of metaphors, puns, and neologisms enriched the
language and expanded its expressive capabilities. The works of other notable authors such as Christopher
Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, and Sir Philip Sidney also contributed to the development of English literature
during this time.

Moreover, the 17th century witnessed the rise of the Age of Reason and the Enlightenment, which
had a profound impact on the English language. This period was characterized by a growing emphasis on
rationality, scientific inquiry, and critical thinking. As a result, the English language became more precise and
analytical, with a focus on clarity and simplicity. And during the 18th century, the Age of Sentimentality
emerged, characterized by a focus on emotions, empathy, and individualism. This period also coincided with
the Industrial Revolution, which led to significant social and economic changes in Britain. The English
language continued to evolve, reflecting these shifting societal dynamics.

English literature, which reflects the rich cultural heritage of Great Britain, has had a significant impact
on the global literary landscape. From its earliest days to contemporary works, this literary tradition has not
only shaped its unique society and values but has also left an indelible mark on world literature. English
literature has contributed to shape the global literary community. British authors' works have inspired and
influenced writers from a range of cultural backgrounds, establishing a sense of shared literary heritage. This
interconnectedness has led to exchange of ideas, collaborations, and the birth of new literary movements,
such as the Harlem Renaissance in the United States, which was influenced heavily by British Romanticism.
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The evolution of English literature has also led to the development and refinement of various literary
techniques and genres that helps writers and readers today to understand themselves and history itself.

Additionally, through the exposure to English literature, students were able to delve to diverse
perspectives, ideas, and themes, encouraging them to analyze and evaluate various aspects of human
existence. By engaging with classic and contemporary works, students develop their critical thinking abilities,
which are essential for navigating complex issues in their personal and professional lives. The study of English
literature helps students improve their language proficiency, including reading comprehension, writing, and
speaking skills. Analyzing literary texts allows students to understand the nuances of language, such as
figurative language, tone, and style, ultimately enriching their communication abilities. It also offers insights
into the history, values, and beliefs of Great Britain and other cultures represented in the works. By studying
these texts, students gain a deeper understanding of the societal context in which they were created,
fostering empathy, tolerance, and an appreciation for diverse perspectives.

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 REFERENCES:

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