Guide Through The Abhidhamma Pitaka (Nyanatiloka Mahathera)

Guide Through the
Abhidhamma Piṭaka
A Synopsis of the Philosophical

Collection of
the Theravāda Buddhist Canon
Followed by an Essay on
Dependent Origination
by
Nyanatiloka Mahāthera
Buddhist Publication Society

Kandy • Sri Lanka
First Edition: 1938
Second Revised and Enlarged Edition: 1957
(Published by the Bauddha Sahitya Colombo)
Third Edition: 1971
Fourth Edition: 1983 (Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy)
Fifth Revised Edition: 2008
Copyright © Buddhist Publication Society, 1971, 2008
National Library of Sri Lanka-Cataloguing in Publication Data

Nyanatiloka Thera
Guide through the Abhidhamma Pitaka/ Nyanatiloka Thera.
Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society Inc., 2008.- p.262;
21cm.
ISBN 978-955-24-0321-7 Price Rs.
i. 294.3824 DDC 21 ii. Title
1. Abhidhamma Pitaka 2. Buddhism
Typeset in Times-BPS and NCS-BPS at the BPS.
Printed by
Ajith Printers,
85/4, Old Kesbewa Road,
Gangodawila, Nugegoda.
Dedicated to the memory of my Burmese dāyikā:
The Late
Mrs. Hla Oung, M.B.E., K.I.H.
In token of admiration for her great services rendered to the

Buddhist cause in general, as well as to the work of uplifting her
own people.
Contents
Introduction 1
The Matrix (Mātikā): The Schedule of the
Abhidhamma Piṭaka ................................................................... 5
I. Dhammasaṅgaṇī: ‘Enumeration of Phenomena’............... 16
II. Vibhaṅga: ‘The Book of Treatises’.................................... 33
III. Dhātukathā: ‘Discussion with reference to
the Elements’ ...................................................................... 72
IV. Puggalapaññatti: ‘Description of Individuals’ .................. 80
V. Kathāvatthu: ‘Points of Controversy’ ............................... 83
VI. Yamaka: “The Book of Pairs” ......................................... 125
VII. Paṭṭhāna: “The Book of Origination” ........................... 162
Appendix I: Dependent Origination ...................................... 222
Appendix II: Tables ............................................................... 243
Preface
TO THE FIRST EDITION
I owe the idea for the present work to the late Mr. S. W. Wijaya-
tilake of Matale, editor of the Buddhist Annual of Ceylon. When
he asked me to write a summary of the whole Abhidhamma
Piṭaka of the Pāli Canon to be published in parts in the Buddhist
Annual, it appeared to me such a difficult undertaking that at
first I refused; but after Mr. Wijayatilake’s repeated entreaties I
finally yielded.
Indeed, of the seven collections of this intricate labyrinth of
the most abstruse trains of ideas presented in an old Indian dia-
lect, only a little more than one-sixth has been translated into a
Western tongue.
With regard to the Dhammasaṅgaṇi and the Kathāvatthu, my
task was greatly facilitated by the translations of Rhys Davids
(see Introd.). I further consulted the Burmese edition of the Pāli
commentaries and of the sub-commentary (Mūlaṭīkā), as well as
the Pāli treatise on Yamaka by the Burmese scholar Ledi
Sayādaw. The Sinhalese paraphrase of Dhātukathā by my friend
D. Gunaratana Thera, also proved of some help.
I am well aware that this first attempt of mine, of giving a
complete and clear synopsis of such intricate problems, cannot be
free from imperfections or shortcomings, especially if one consid-
ers the limited period of time that had been at my disposal. I,
therefore, beg the reader to be lenient in his judgement, remem-
bering at the same time that this pioneer task has hitherto never
yet been attempted by anyone, not even in Ceylon or Burma, the
strongholds of pristine Buddhism.
Nyanatiloka
Island Hermitage,
Dodanduwa, Ceylon,
Aril 1938
vi
Preface
TO THE SECOND EDITION
This very valuable synopsis of canonical Abhidhamma litera-

ture has been out of print for a long time and greatly missed by
students of Buddhist philosophy. It is therefore much appreci-
ated that the Bauddha Sāhitya Sabhā has undertaken to reprint
it, thus continuing the laudable service rendered by that society
in the field of Buddhist literature.
It was the venerable author’s wish to revise this book fully
and enlarge it himself, but the infirmities of old age obliged him
to entrust this task to his pupil, the undersigned.
At his suggestion, a new introductory chapter on the
Abhidhamma Mātikā, with a complete translation of it, has been
included. As to the previously existing chapters, the most numer-
ous additions are those made to Chapter II, on the Vibhaṅga.
Here, for instance, the intricate divisions and sub-divisions found
in some of the sections have been outlined and partly illustrated
by extracts. The details of these rather involved classifications
certainly do not make interesting reading, yet the editor regarded
it as a principal aim of this book to clarify the structure of the
several Abhidhamma works and thus aid closer study of them.
With that aim in view, tables have been included in the chapter
on the Paṭṭhāna which show by symbols some of the regular per-
mutations of terms used in that work. But owing to restrictions of
space required by the present edition, the chapter on Paṭṭhāna
could not be extended beyond its present limits.
For some of the additions incorporated here, use has been
made of the more extensive German version of the book, which
has been prepared by the author himself, but still remains
unpublished. However, many extracts from the Pāli text and
explanatory additions have been contributed by the editor, who
assumes, therefore, responsibility for any shortcomings that
may be found in the book in its present shape.
vii
While the final proofs of this book were being read by the
editor, the Venerable author passed away, on May 28, 1957.
Nyanaponika
Colombo (Ceylon)
28th November, 1956
Publisher’s Preface
TO THE THIRD EDITION
This edition is an unchanged reprint of the second revised and

enlarged edition (1957) of the work. The first two editions were
issued by the Bauddha Sāhitya Sabhā of Colombo to which our
sincere thanks are due for ceding to our society the publication
rights and for contributing towards the printing costs of this
volume.
For the information of students of Abhidhamma, we wish to
supplement here the list of English translations of canonical
Abhidhamma books by the following titles which have appeared
after the publication of the first two editions of this book
Discourse on Elements (Dhātukathā). A translation with
charts and explanations by U Nārada (Mūla Paṭṭhāna Sayādaw)
of Rangoon. London 1962, Pali Text Society.
Conditional Relations (Paṭṭhāna). Being a translation of
Vol. I of the Chaṭṭhasaṅgāyana text of this work, by U Nārada
(Mūla Paṭṭhāna Sayādaw). London 1969, Pali Text Society.
The Book of Analysis (Vibhaṅga). Translated by
Paṭhamakyaw Ashin Thiṭṭila. London 1969, Pali Text Society.

February 1971
viii
Publisher’s Preface
TO THE FOURTH EDITION
The BPS is pleased to reprint this this valuable and unique work
in a newly typeset edition. Venerable Bhikkhu Bodhi made
some minor changes to the first four chapters. Further, the
translation of a few terms has been updated to reflect modern
usage.
Given the complex nature of the book, with its many
headings, styles and tables, the typesetting and proofreading
were time-consuming tasks. Our sincere thanks go to Mr. Bill
Hamilton who kindly helped with digitalising the book from
chapters V onward and also did the initial typesetting and
proofreading of the whole text.
Bhikkhu Nyanatusita
Forest Hermitage
2008
ix
Abbreviations
AN Aṅguttara Nikāya (Book & Sutta number)

As Atthasālinī
Dhs Dhammasaṅgaṇī
DN Dīgha Nikāya (Sutta number)
Kv Kathāvatthu
MN Majjhima Nikāya (Sutta number)
Paṭṭh Paṭṭhāna
PTS Pali Text Society
Pug Puggalapaññatti
SN Saṃyutta Nikāya (Book & Sutta number)
Vibh Vibhaṅga
Vism Visuddhimagga (Chapter number)
Yam Yamaka
x
INTRODUCTION
The third collection of the Pāli Tipiṭaka, or ‘Triple Basket,’ the

so called Abhidhamma Piṭaka, belongs—at least in its form
handed down to us—undoubtedly to a younger period than the
other two collections. But in spite of this fact, it should in no
way be considered a corruption or distortion of the Buddha’s
doctrine but rather an attempt to systematize all the doctrines
laid down in the Suttas, and to elucidate them from the
philosophical or, more correctly speaking, psychological and
physiological standpoint.
Now, just as this Abhidhamma Piṭaka of the oldest form of
Buddhism, the Theravāda school, preserved in Pāli, consists of
seven books, so does the Abhidhamma Piṭaka of the so-called
Sarvāstivāda school, preserved in its Chinese version. The
names of the seven books of both, the Theravāda and the
Sarvāstivāda schools, are as follows:
Theravāda Sarvāstivāda (Pāli: Sabbatthivāda)
1. Dhammasaṅgaṇī Sangītipariyāyapāda
2. Vibhaṅga Dharmaskandha
3. Dhātukathā Dhātukāyapāda
4. Puggalapaññatti Prajñapatipāda
5. Kathāvatthu Vijñāṇapāda
6. Yamaka Prakaraṇapāda
7. Paṭṭhāna Jñāṇaprasthāna
Though, judging by the similarity of the names, we should
rather expect No. 1, 3, 4 and 7 of either schools to be identical in
contents, it nevertheless does not seem to be the case. Vibhaṅga
and Dharmaskandha, however, coincide nearly completely with
Guide through the Abhidhamma Piṭaka
one another with regard to the subject matter of their respective

chapters, as I have ascertained after collating both works with
the help of Prof. Takakusu’s article on the Abhidhamma
literature of the Sarvāstivādins in the Journal of the Pali Text
Society, 1904–1905.
The Vibhaṅga has eighteen chapters, while the
Dharmaskandha has twenty one, of which fourteen have their
counterpart in Vibhaṅga as shown here below:
Vibh: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Dharm.: 19 18 20 10 17 21 9 7 8 15 – 11 12 1 – – 16 –
Chapters 11, 15, 16, and 18 of Vibhaṅga are not found in

Dharmaskandha.
It may here be stated that several of the formerly existing
so-called Hīnayāna schools, especially the Sautrāntikas,
contested the authenticity of the Abhidhamma altogether.
The complete text of the Pāli Abhidhamma Piṭaka in the
Siamese Tipiṭaka edition—for the gracious donation of which
by His Majesty the King of Siam I wish in this connection to
express my deepest indebtedness—comprises 6297 pp. Roy. 8
vol; and of these, only 1152 pp., i.e. a little more than one sixth,
has been translated into Western languages, namely,
Dhammasaṅgaṇī into English by Mrs. Rhys Davids (1900), and
into German by my pupil Nyanaponika (1950); Kathāvatthu
(1915) into English by Shwe Zan Oung and Mrs. Rhys Davids;
Puggalapaññatti by me into German (1910), and by B.C. Law
into English (1924).
A very succinct résumé of all the essential doctrines of the
Abhidhamma is given in that ingenious little vade-mecum
called Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha, written by Anuruddha who is
believed to have lived not earlier than the eighth century. In
Burma, of one who wishes to study the Abhidhamma it is
expected that he first thoroughly learns by heart and masters this
short epitome; once he has mastered it, he will have grasped the
whole substance of the Abhidhamma.
2
Introduction
By the way, it may here be noted that, just as in the

Abhidhamma Piṭaka many terms are being found, which one
may in vain may look for in the Sutta Piṭaka, so again in the
Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha and the commentaries, various other
new terms, and even teachings, are introduced. This, however,
does not necessarily imply any deviation from the canonical
Abhidhamma with regard to its contents, but may show the
necessity felt of having terms better fitted for the work of
summarizing and systematizing. It would prove of no little
interest to have all those technical terms not met with in the
earliest books collected and chronologically registered.
Regarding the difference between the Suttas and the
Abhidhamma, the ‘Higher Doctrine,’ it does not really so much
concern the subject, but rather its arrangement and treatment.
The subject in both is practically the same. Its main difference in
treatment, briefly stated, may be said to consist in the fact that in
the Suttas the doctrines are more or less explained in the words
of the philosophically incorrect ‘conventional’ everyday
language (vohāra-vacana) understood by anyone, while the
Abhidhamma, on the other hand, makes use of purely
philosophical terms true in the absolute sense (paramattha-
vacana). Thus the Suttas often speak of individuals and persons,
of ‘I,’ ‘you,’ and ‘self,’ even of the rebirth of a self, etc., as if
such so-called individualities really existed. The Abhidhamma,
however, treats of realities (paramattha-dhamma), i.e. of
psychical and physical phenomena, which alone may be rightly
called realities, though only of momentary duration, arising and
passing away every moment. For in reality, or in the ‘absolute
sense’ (paramattha), as the expression runs, there does not exist
any real, self-dependent, permanent ‘entity,’ no such thing as the
so-called ‘ego,’ but only this ever-changing process of
conditionally arising and passing phenomena. Hence, the whole
Abhidhamma has to do only with the description, analysis, and
elucidation of such phenomena.
3
While these phenomena are in the Suttas treated under the

aspects of the five groups (khandha), i.e. corporeality, feeling,
perception, mental formations, and consciousness (rūpa,
vedanā, saññā, saṅkhāra, viññāṇa), the Abhidhamma treats
them generally under three aspects: consciousness, mental
concomitants, and corporeality (citta, cetasika, rūpa).
Before entering into the discussion of the contents of the
seven Abhidhamma books, I wish to point out that the study of
the Abhidhamma requires a previous thorough acquaintance
with the fundamental teachings and ethical aims of Buddhism;
and it is only to those who have fulfilled this preliminary
condition that, by thus recapitulating their learning and by
philosophically deepening their insight, the Abhidhamma may
prove to be of real benefit.
4
THE MATRIX (MĀTIKĀ)
THE SCHEDULE OF THE ABHIDHAMMA PIṬ AKA
PRELIMINARY REMARKS
In all editions of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka, the first book, the
Dhammasaṅgaṇī, is preceded by a list of terms, called mātikā in
Pāli. A close examination reveals it as embracing the entire
universe, classifying it under a great number of psychological,
ethical, and doctrinal aspects. These classifications are arranged
in groups, of three terms and two terms, called tika (triad) and
duka (dyad) respectively. The list is not, as it is sometimes
assumed, merely a part of the analytical Dhammasaṅgaṇī, but is
basic to the whole Abhidhamma, serving as the explicit
framework for the most important of the seven books. It may be
compared to a mould, or matrix, for casting metal, which is why
that very term ‘matrix’ has been chosen here for rendering the
cognate Pāli word mātikā. An alternative, and no less apt,
rendering is ‘schedule’ as used by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli in his
English translation of the Visuddhimagga, named The Path of
Purification.
This list is divided into the Abhidhamma Matrix and the
Suttanta Matrix.
The Abhidhamma Matrix, which is by far the more
important of the two, consists of twenty-two triads (groups of
threefold classifications). These are defined and explained
analytically in the Dhammasaṅgaṇī and its commentary, the
Atthasālinī. They are also used in the Vibhaṅga. Furthermore,
they are the subject matter proper of the Paṭṭhāna, where the
twenty-four modes of conditionality are applied to all terms of
the Abhidhamma matrix in succession.
For the most part the Abhidhamma triads and dyads

comprise, each group in itself, all of reality, classified from
differing angles. The Atthasālinī calls these all-comprehensive
groups of terms nippadesa, i.e. ‘with unlimited range;’ the other
groups are called sappadesa, ‘with limited range.’ The later are
indicated by an asterisk in the following translation of the
Matrix.
The Suttanta Matrix may be regarded as a kind of appendix,
which, as the name indicates, looks more to the Suttas than to
the terminology and method of the Abhidhamma. It consists of
42 dyads, which are explained only in Book III of the
Dhammasaṅgaṇī without being utilized there for the
Abhidhamma investigations proper, and they do not appear in
any other book of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka. Practically all the
terms can be traced to the Sutta Piṭaka, chiefly to the Saṅgīti
Sutta (DN 33), or to the Aṅguttara Nikāya, with parallels in the
fourth book of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka, the Puggalapaññatti,
which similarly has a loose connection with the rest of the
Abhidhamma Piṭaka.
Also most of the terms of the Abhidhamma Matrix itself can
be traced directly to the Suttas, or are derived from Sutta terms
and teachings; an illustration of the close inner connection
between the teachings of the two Piṭakas.
The Matrix provides a screen for sorting the fundamental
raw material of the Abhidhamma for further analytical and
relational treatment. The classifications, each by its particular
angle, process the brute facts of experience, so bewildering in
their enormous complexity, and lend to them an orderly
arrangement, thus rendering them pliable and workable for more
detailed analysis of other sorts.
The final purpose here is a practical one: to help in the
realization of liberation through insight. The Abhidhamma
serves that purpose (1) by breaking up the seeming unity or
compactness of things and persons (ghana-vinibbhoga) by
analysis; and (2) by breaking into the intimidating ‘hardness of
6
The Matrix (Mātikā)
objective facts,’ showing their dependent origination and their

complex inter-relatedness. Thus these ‘hard facts’ of the inner
and outer world are demonstrated to be accessible to the
transforming power of a mind developed by virtue, meditation,
and insight.
The final purpose of the Abhidhamma explains the
character—the angle—of the list’s categories. That aim, and not
any intention to provide a complete catalogue or inventory from
a supposedly ‘objective’ standpoint, has dictated the selection of
the categories. It also explains why purely material
classifications appear in the terminology of the list only in a
very few instances (e.g., in Triad 22, Dyads 9, 10, 11). Matter is,
however, included in each of the ‘all-comprehensive’
(nippadesa) triads and dyads, as specified in the respective
definitions given in the Dhammasaṅgaṇī; and there is,
furthermore in the same work (repeated in the Vibhaṅga), a
separate ‘matrix of corporeality,’ which is subordinate to the
general Matrix. Matter is viewed here only as a division in the
range of cognizable objects, and as one among the constituents
of so-called personality, misconceptions about which it is the
Abhidhamma’s task to eliminate by the special methods it
employs.
The paragraph numbers added in brackets to the following
translation of the Matrix indicate those passages in the first two
books of the Dhammasaṅgaṇī where the respective triads and
dyads are explained. The Abhidhamma Matrix, but not the
Suttanta Matrix, is also treated in the fourth supplementary book
of that work: the triads in §§1368–1423, and the dyads in
§§1424–1599. The paragraphing refers to the edition of the Pali
Text Society.
7
A. THE ABHIDHAMMA MATRIX
(ABHIDHAMMA-MĀTIKĀ)
I. THE MATRIX OF THE TRIADS

(TIKA-MĀTIKĀ)
Groups marked by an asterisk (*) have a ‘limited range’
(sappadesa); all others are all-comprehensive, having an
‘unlimited range’ (nippadesa).
1. States that are kammically wholesome—unwholesome—
neutral (§§980, 981–983)
2. States that are associated with pleasant—painful—neutral
feeling (§§984–986)
3. States that are kamma-results—subject to kamma-results—
neither kamma-results nor subject to kamma-results
(§§987–989)
4. States that are kammically acquired and subject to
clinging—not kammically acquired but subject to
clinging—neither kammically acquired nor subject to
clinging (§§990–992)
5. States that are defiled and subject to defilements—undefiled
but subject to defilements—neither defiled nor subject to
defilements (§§993–995)
6. *States with thought-conception and discursive thinking—
without thought-conception but with discursive thinking—
without either (§§996–998)
7. * States accompanied by rapture—by joy—by equanimity
(§§999–1001)
8. States to be abandoned by understanding—by mental
development—by neither (§§1002–8)
9. States having roots to be abandoned by understanding—by
mental development—by neither (§§1009–12)
The Abhidhamma Matrix
10. States leading to kamma-increase—to kamma-decrease—to

neither (§§1013–15)
11. States pertaining to one in higher training—to one of
completed training—to one who is neither in higher training
nor has completed it (§§1016–18)
12. States that are limited—exalted—immeasurable (§§1019–21)
13. *States that have limited objects—exalted objects—
immeasurable objects (§§1022–4)
14. States that are inferior—medium—superior (§§1025–17)
15. States with certainty of wrongness (in result)—with
certainty of rightness (in result)—with neither (§§1028–30)
16. *States that have the path as object—as root—as
predominant factor (§§1031–4)
17. States that are arisen—not arisen—bound to arise (§§1033–7)
18. *States that are past—future—present (§§1038–40)
19. *States having a past object—a future object—a present
object (§§1041–3)
20. States that are internal—external—both (§§1044–6)
21. *States having internal objects—having external objects—
having both internal and external and external objects
(§§1047–9)
22. States that are visible and resistant—invisible and
resistant—invisible and non-resistant (§§1050–2)
II. THE MATRIX OF THE DYADS

(DUKA-MĀTIKĀ)
Section on Roots
1. States that are roots—not roots (§§1053–72)
2. States that have roots—that have no roots (§§1073–4)
3. States that are associated with roots—dissociated from roots
(§§1075–6)
4. *States that are roots and have (other) roots—that are roots,
but have no (other) roots (§§1077–8)
5. *States that are roots and are associated with roots—that are
9
not roots, but are associated with roots (§§1079–80)

6. *States that are not roots, but may either have roots or not
(§§1081–2)
Minor Intermediate Section (§§1083–95)

7. States that are conditioned—unconditioned
8. States that are formed—unformed
9. States that are visible—invisible
10. States that are resistant—non-resistant
11. States that are corporeal—non-corporeal
12. States that are mundane—supramundane
13. States cognizable by a certain one (of the 6 kinds of
consciousness)—not cognizable by a certain one (of the 6
kinds of consciousness)
Section on Taints (§§1096–1112)

14. States that are taints—not taints
15. States that are subject to taints—not subject to taints
16. States that are associated with taints—dissociated from taints.
17. * States that are taints and subject to them—that are not
taints, but subject to them
18. * States that are taints and associated with taints—that are
not taints but associated with taints
19. * States, however, that are dissociated from taints, may be
either subject to taints or not
Section on Fetters (§§1113–1134)

20. States that are fetters—not fetters
21. States that are subject to fetters—not subject to fetters
22. States that are associated with fetters—dissociated from
fetters
23. * States that are fetters and subject to them—that are not
fetters, but subject to them
10
24. * States that are fetters and associated with fetters—that are
not fetters, but associated with fetters
25. * States, however, that are dissociated from fetters, may be
either subject to fetters or not
Section on Ties (§§1135–1150)

26. States that are ties—not ties
27–31. (corresponding to 15–19)
Section on Floods (§§1151)

32. States that are floods—not floods
Section on Yokes
(PTS §1151 in error for 1151a)
38. States that are yokes—not yokes
Section on Hindrances (§§1152–1173)

44. States that are hindrances—not hindrances
Section on Misapprehensions (§§1174–1184)

50. States that are misapprehensions—not misapprehensions
51. States that are subject to misapprehensions—not subject to
misapprehensions
52. States that are associated with misapprehensions—
dissociated from misapprehensions
53. *States that are misapprehensions and subject to them—that
are not misapprehensions, but subject to them
54. *States, however, that are dissociated from
misapprehensions, may be either subject to
misapprehensions or not
11
Major Intermediate Section (§§1185–1212)

55. States that take objects—that do not
56. States that are consciousness—that are not
57. States that are mental concomitants—that are not
58. *States that are associated with consciousness—dissociated
from consciousness
59. *States that are conjoined with consciousness—disjoined
from it
60. States that are produced by consciousness—that are not
61. States that are co-existent with consciousness—that are not
62. States that are parallel with consciousness—that are not
63. States that are conjoined with consciousness and produced
by it—that are not
64. States that are conjoined with consciousness produced by it
and co-existent with it—that are not
65. States that are produced by consciousness, produced by it
and parallel with it
66. States that are internal—external
67. States that are derivative (upon the primary elements of
matter)—that are not
68. States that are kammically acquired—that are not
Section on Clinging (§§1213–1228)

69. States that are clinging—that are not
Section on Defilements (§§1229–53)

75. States that are defilements—that are not
76. States that are subject to defilements—that are not
77. States that are defiled—that are not
78. States that are associated with defilements—dissociated
from defilements
79. *States that are defilements and subject to them—that are
not defilements, but subject to them
12
80. *States that are defilements and defiled—that are not

defilements, but defiled
81. *States that are defilements and associated with defilements
—that are not defilements, but associated with defilements
82. *States however, that are dissociated from defilements, may
be either subject to defilements or not
Final Section (§§1254–95)

83. *States to be abandoned by understanding—not to be
abandoned by understanding
84. *States to be abandoned by mental development—not to be
abandoned by mental development
85. *States having roots to be abandoned by understanding—
having no roots to be abandoned by understanding
86. *States having roots to be abandoned by mental
development—having no roots to be abandoned by mental
development
87. States with thought-conception—without thought-conception
88. States with discursive thinking—without discursive thinking
89. States with rapture—without rapture
90. States accompanied by rapture—not accompanied by rapture
91. States accompanied by joy—not accompanied by joy
92. States accompanied by equanimity—not accompanied by
equanimity
93. States belonging to the sense sphere—not belonging to it
94. States belonging to the fine-material sphere—not belonging
to it
95. States belonging to the immaterial sphere—not belonging to it
96. States included (in individual existence)—not included
97. States leading out (of existence)—not leading out
98. States with certainty (of result)—without certainty
99. States that are surpassable—not surpassable
100. States with conflict—without conflict
13
B. THE SUTTANTA MATRIX

(§§1296–1367)
1. *States partaking of wisdom—partaking of ignorance
2. *States comparable to lightning—comparable to the
diamond
3. *States of foolishness—of prudence
4. *States that are dark—that are bright
5. *States causing remorse—causing no remorse
6. States that are designations—within the range of
designation
7. States that are verbal expressions—within the range of
verbal expressions
8. States that are concepts—within the range of concepts
9. Mentality and corporeality
10. *Ignorance and craving for (continued) existence
11. *The false views of existence and non-existence
12. *The false views of eternity and annihilation
13. *The false views of finiteness and infinity
14. *The false views of past and future
15. *Shamelessness and unscrupulousness
16. *Shame and scrupulousness
17. Inaccessibility to advice and keeping bad company
18. *Accessibility to advice and keeping good company
19. *Skill in (knowledge about) offences and rehabilitation
20. *Skill in the absorptions and in emerging from them
21. *Skill in the (18) elements and in wise attention to them
22. *Skill in the (12) sense bases and in the dependent
origination
23. *Skill with regard to possibilities and impossibilities
24. * Uprightness and gentleness
25. *Patience and kindness
26. *Friendliness and politeness
27. Heedlessness at the sense-doors and immoderation in eating
28. *Heedfulness at the sense-doors and moderation in eating
29. *Lack of mindfulness and lack of clear comprehension
14
30. *Mindfulness and clear comprehension

31. *Power of reflection and power of meditation
32. *Tranquillity and insight
33. *The sign of tranquillity and the sign of insight
34. * Firmness and collectedness
35. *Failure in morality and views
36. Success in morality and views
37. *Purity of morality and views
38. *Purity of views and the (appropriate) effort of one who
holds right views
39. *Being stirred on stirring occasions, and earnest effort of
one who is stirred
40. *Not being contented with good achievements, and
unfaltering effort
41. *Wisdom and deliverance
42. *Knowledge of making an end (of defilements), and
knowledge of (final) non-arising (of defilements)
15
I
DHAMMASAṄGAṆĪ
‘Enumeration of Phenomena’
PRELIMINARY REMARKS
This fundamental first book of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka,
together with the gigantic seventh work, the Paṭṭhāna,
constitutes the quintessence of the entire Abhidhamma. We may
even say that these two books embody the quintessence of the
entire Buddhist doctrine, that is, its two basic teachings of the
egolessness or emptiness (anattatā, suññatā), and the
conditionality (idappaccayatā) of all existence. While the first
book, Dhammasaṅgaṇī, generally proceeds analytically,
dissecting existence into its ultimate constituents which are bare
impersonal phenomena (dhammā), the last book, Paṭṭhāna, uses
the method of synthesis, showing that all these phenomena are
related and conditioned.
According to the Abhidhamma, all phenomena of existence
may be classified under three ultimate terms or realities
(paramattha): (I) states of consciousness (citta); (2) mental
concomitants (cetasika); (3) corporeality (rūpa); as the fourth
reality, Nibbāna is added. Now, in the Dhammasaṅgaṇī, the first
three realities are treated from the ethical, or more exactly, the
kammical standpoint, and divide accordingly in (A) kammically
wholesome phenomena (kusala-dhammā); (B) kammically
unwholesome phenomena (akusala-dhammā); (C) kammically
neutral phenomena (avyākata-dhammā), which make up the
first triad of the Abhidhamma Matrix. Consciousness and
mental concomitants may be either kammically wholesome,
unwholesome or neutral, while corporeality is always
kammically neutral; and so is the fourth reality, Nibbāna.
Dhammasaṅgaṇī
Accordingly, Part I of the Dhammasaṅgaṇī, dealing with

consciousness and mental concomitants only, divides into the
aforementioned sections A, B, and C. Part II is an analysis of
corporeality (belonging to section C), and includes in its first
paragraph also Nibbāna, being likewise kammically neutral (see
p.43. Then 4 Part III, Summary, and Part IV, Synopsis).
I. CONSCIOUSNESS AND ITS CONCOMITANTS

(CITTUPPĀDAKAṆḌA)
A. Kammically wholesome (kusala) states may belong to the
sense sphere, the fine-material sphere, the immaterial sphere, or
to the ‘unrelated’ (apariyāpanna) to individual existence (a
name for the supramundane states of the four Noble stages).
(1–8)1 In the sense sphere (kāmāvacara), eight classes of
wholesome (kusala) consciousness can be distinguished.
Wholesome consciousness, namely, may be accompanied by
happiness or neutral feeling combined with knowledge or no,
premeditated2 or not. Thus we get four classes accompanied by
happiness, and four by equanimity; and of either tetrad, two
classes are combined with knowledge, and two are not; and of
each such pair, one is premeditated, and one is not. This is the
text of the first class of consciousness:
(1–2) “Whenever a state of wholesome consciousness
belonging to the sensuous sphere has arisen, accompanied by
joy and combined with knowledge (and unpremeditated) due
to any object, an object of sight, sound, smell, taste, tangible
object, or mind object, at that occasion there is:
1. The numbers in parentheses in connection with conscious states

always refer to the Table in Appendix II.
2. Premeditated or ‘prepared’ (sa-saṅkhāra, lit. ‘with effort’), means
that the karmical consciousness (=kamma) in question does not arise
spontaneously, but requires some effort or instigation, either by others
or by oneself; for example, if only after being instigated by others, one
gives alms etc., or, owing to one’s own stinginess etc., requires some
preparatory effort of mind to do so.
17
1. (Mental) impression (phassa)

2. Feeling (vedanā; here: happiness)
3. Perception (saññā)
4. Volition (cetanā)
5. Mind (citta = consciousness)
6. Thought conception (vitakka)
7. Discursive thinking (vicāra)
8. Joy (pīti; enthusiasm)
9. Happiness (sukha)
10. One-pointedness of mind (cittass’ ekaggatā = samādhi)
11. Faculty of faith (saddh’- indriya)
12. Faculty of energy (viriy’-indriya)
13. Faculty of mindfulness (sat’-indriya)
14. Faculty of concentration (samādh’-indriya)
15. Faculty of wisdom (pañña’-indriya)
16. Faculty of mind (man’-indriya)
17. Faculty of gladness (somanass’-indriya)
18. Faculty of vitality (jīvit’-indriya)
19. Right understanding (sammā-diṭṭhi)
20. Right thought (sammā-saṅkappa)
21. Right effort (sammā-vāyāma)
22. Right mindfulness (sammā-sati)
23. Right concentration (sammā-samādhi)
24. Power of faith (saddhā-bala)
25. Power of energy (viriya-bala)
26. Power of mindfulness (sati-bala)
27. Power of concentration (samādhi-bala)
28. Power of wisdom (paññā-bala)
29. Power of moral shame (hiri-bala)
30. Power of moral dread (ottappa-bala)
31. Non-greed (alobha)
32. Non-hatred (adosa)
33. Non-delusion (amoha)
34. Non-avarice (anabhijjhā)
35. Non-ill will (avyāpāda)
36. Right understanding (sammā-diṭṭhi)
37. Moral shame (hiri)
38. Moral dread (ottappa)
39. Tranquillity of (mental) body (kāya-passaddhi)
18
Dhammasaṅgaṇī
40. Tranquillity of consciousness (citta-passaddhi)

41. Agility of (mental) body (kāya-lahutā)
42. Agility of consciousness (citta-lahutā)
43. Pliancy of (mental) body (kāya-mudutā)
44. Pliancy of consciousness (citta-mudutā)
45. Adaptability of (mental) body (kāya-kammaññatā)
46. Adaptability of consciousness (citta-kammaññatā)
47. Proficiency of (mental) body (kāya-pāguññatā)
48. Proficiency of consciousness (citta-pāguññatā)
49. Uprightness of (mental) body (kāy’-ujukatā)
50. Uprightness of consciousness (citt’-ujukatā)
51. Mindfulness (sati)
52. Clear comprehension (sampajañña)
53. Tranquillity (samatha)
54. Insight (vipassanā)
55. Determination (paggaha)
56. Undistractedness (avikkhepa)
These, or whatever other1 conditionally arisen non-
corporeal phenomena there are on that occasion—these
phenomena are kammically wholesome.”
The above phenomena constitute really only thirty distinct
factors, as one and the same factor may often be found there
under different names, or in other connections, as will be clearly
seen from the following index:
1 11 (= 24) — see 12 31 (= 34) 41 — see 13

2 (= 9,17) 12 (= 21, 25, 55) — ” 13 32 (= 35) 42 — ”15
3 13 (= 22, 26, 51) — ” 10 — see 15 43 — ” 10
4 — see 10 — ” 11 — ” 31 44 — ” 15
5 (= 16) 15 (= 19, 28, 33, 36, — ” 12 — ” 32 45 — ” 12
52, 54)
1. In the Visuddhimagga nine further phenomena are enumerated,

namely: the 3 abstinences, i.e., abstinence from wrong deeds, wrong
bodily action and wrong livelihood, and the 2 boundless states:
compassion (karuṇā) and sympathetic joy (muditā), equilibrium
(tatramajjhattatā; see Buddhist Dictionary), advertence, intention,
determination.
19
6 (= 20) — see 5 — ” 13 — ” 15 46 — ” 10
7 — see 2 — ” 10 — ” 29 47
8 18 — ” 15 — ” 30 48
— see 2 — ” 15 29 (= 37) 39 49
10 (= 14, 23, —”6 30 (= 38) 40 50
27, 53, 56)
After a detailed explanation, and description, of each of the

above phenomena, there follows a synthetical grouping of them
into separate categories, with continued questioning and
explanations, which I shall outline here only in a very
condensed way.
“On this occasion there are four groups (feeling,
perception, consciousness, mental formations, which latter
comprise all the remaining phenomena mentioned above); 2
bases (mind, mind-object); 2 elements (mind-consciousness,
mind-object); 3 nutriments (impression, mind-volition,
consciousness); 8 faculties (11–18); 5 jhāna factors; (6–10); 7
powers (24–30); 3 root-conditions (31–33); 1 impression (1), 1
feeling (2), 1 perception (3) … These, or whatever other
conditionally arisen non-corporeal phenomena might be
present, these phenomena are kammically wholesome.”
On groups, bases, elements, faculties, see Vibh I, II, II, V.
On nutriments, jhāna factors, root-conditions, see Paṭṭh Introd.
§§15, 17, I.
(3–4, 7–8) In wholesome consciousness uncombined with
knowledge, there are absent all the aspects of wisdom (15, 19,
28, 33, 36, 52, 54), and in consciousness accompanied by
equanimity (5–8), happiness is replaced by equanimity.
(9–13) Kammically wholesome phenomena of the fine-
material sphere (rūpāvacara) are the 5 absorptions (jhāna; see
Vibh XII) and their mental concomitants. I give here only the
introductory words to the analysis of the first absorption:
“Whenever one is developing the way to the attainment of
the fine-material world and, being detached from sensual
things, detached from unwholesome phenomena, has entered
20
Dhammasaṅgaṇī
into the first absorption produced by the earth-kasiṇa1 which

is accompanied by thought-conception (vitakka) and discursive
thinking (vicāra), born of detachment (=concentration,
samādhi), filled with rapture (pīti) and happiness (sukha), at
such a time there is: impression, feeling, etc.”
After all the absorptions have thus been analysed, the same
analysis is made in regard to their combination with the four
kinds of progress (difficult, or easy, with either sluggish, or
quick, intuition), then with regard to the limited or unlimited
nature of the absorptions and their objects, after which
everything said is repeated again for the other seven kasiṇas.
Thereafter, again, the absorptions are analysed in
connection with the so-called ‘spheres of mastery’
(abhibhāyatana), the four paths of progress, the deliverances
(emptiness, desirelessness, conditionlessness) the four divine
states (loving-kindness, compassion, sympathy, equanimity),
and at last with the cemetery meditations.
(14–17) This is followed by an analysis of the four
absorptions of the immaterial sphere (arūpāvacara).
The next sections give a synthetical grouping of all the
above-mentioned kammically wholesome states of
consciousness, with regard to the four predominant factors
(concentrated resolve, energy, consciousness, investigation; see
Vibh IX; Paṭṭh, Intr. §3) and also with regard to the degree of
kammic efficiency—great, medium, or low.
(18–21) The treatment of wholesome consciousness ends
with an investigation into those states of consciousness known
as the supramundane Paths (lokuttara-magga) of the four Noble
stages, reached by the Noble Disciples; (1) The ‘Stream-winner’
(sotāpanna), (2) ‘Once-returner’ (sakadāgāmin), (3) ‘Non-
1. The earth-kasiṇa consists in fixing one’s whole undivided attention

on some piece of earth, till finally all sense impressions vanish, and
one enters into the first absorption. A full explanation of all the 10
kasiṇa exercises is given in Vism IV–V.
21
returner’ (anāgāmin), and (4) ‘Holy One’ (arahant), beginning

with the words:
“Whenever one is developing the supramundane
absorption (lokuttara-jhāna) leading to the escape (from the
round of rebirths) and its undoing, for the overcoming of all
views and the attaining to the first Noble stage, … on that
occasion there is: impression, feeling etc. (just as above, and
besides:) the ‘I’ shall come to know the unknown” faculty (an-
aññātaññassāmīt’indriya; cf. Vibh V), right speech, right
action, right living.”
According to the commentary, the last three phenomena,
though not enumerated in the first wholesome consciousness,
are nevertheless implied there by the additional phrase: “These,
or whatever other phenomena.” Cf. p.19.
The explanation of the mental concomitants is here just as
given above, except that thought-conception (vitakka) is now
called a link of the eightfold path (right thought), and joy (pīti,
rapture or interest) a link of enlightenment (see Vibh X), etc.
Thereafter the three further supramundane jhānas are analysed,
first in a general way, then as different paths of progress, further
as path of ‘emptiness,’ ‘aimlessness,’ and ‘conditionlessness,’
then these latter together with the paths of progress. In exactly
the same way are treated the remaining three Noble Paths (see
Vibh V note).
B. Kammically unwholesome (akusala) states are rooted
either in greed, hatred, or delusion (lobha, dosa, moha).
(22–29) Greedy consciousness may be accompanied either
by happiness or by equanimity, combined with wrong views or
not, premeditated or not. Hence we get eight classes of greedy
consciousness.
(30–31) Hateful consciousness, which always is
accompanied by sadness, may be premeditated or not. Hence we
get two classes of delusive consciousness.
(32–33) Delusion consciousness, which always is
accompanied by equanimity, may be accompanied either by
22
Dhammasaṅgaṇī
scepticism (vicikicchā), or merely by restlessness (uddhacca).

Hence, we get two classes of delusive consciousness.
In unwholesome consciousness too, just as in wholesome
consciousness, we find all those mental concomitants which
either form the inseparable elements in any mind-consciousness,
or which are, as such, kammically (morally) neutral: impression,
feeling, perception, volition, mind, thought-conception,
discursive thinking, joy, happiness, one-pointedness of mind,
energy, tranquillity; but instead of the wholesome phenomena
we find: wrong views (only in four classes), wrong thought,
wrong effort, wrong concentration, shamelessness, lack of
moral dread, greed, hatred, delusion, etc.
Greed is absent in hateful consciousness and hatred in
greedy consciousness, but delusion is present in both. In mere
delusive consciousness greed and hatred are absent. In hateful
consciousness, sadness, (painful mental feeling) is present
instead of happiness and equanimity.
According to the Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha, the four evil
phenomena present in every unwholesome consciousness, are:
delusion, lack of moral shame, lack of moral dread, restlessness
(moha, ahirika, anottappa, uddhacca). Conceit (māna) may be
present only in greedy consciousness uncombined with wrong
views; envy and worry (issā, kukkucca), only in hateful
consciousness.
C. Kammically neutral (avyākata) stages are either
kamma-results (vipāka), or kammically neutral ‘functions’
(kriyā or kiriyā).
(a) Results of Wholesome Kamma (kusala-vipāka) are:
(34–38) The five classes of sensuous consciousness (i.e., seeing,

hearing, etc.) with desirable objects. Of them, consciousness of
eye, ear, nose, and tongue are accompanied by neutral feeling,
but bodily consciousness is accompanied by bodily agreeable
23
feeling. The text to the analysis of eye-consciousness as a result

of wholesome kamma begins thus:
“Whenever, through the performing and accumulating
(in a former birth) of wholesome kamma (actions) connected
with the sensuous sphere, eye-consciousness as kamma-
result has arisen, which is accompanied by neutral feeling
and has something visible as object, on that occasion there
are present: a (sensuous) impression, feeling, perception,
volition, mind, equanimity, one-pointedness of mind, mind-
faculty, equanimity-faculty, vitality-faculty … These, or
whatever other conditionally arisen uncorporeal phenomena
are present on such an occasion, these are kammically
neutral phenomena.”
According to the Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha, the seven
inseparable mental concomitants in all classes of consciousness
are: impression, feeling, perception, volition, concentration
vitality, attention (phassa, vedanā, saññā, cetanā,
cittassekaggatā, jīvitindriya, manasikāra). Cf. table on pp.18–19.
(39) The mind-element (mano-dhātu) with a desirable
object. This too is accompanied by equanimity, but besides the
above mentioned seven inseparables, there are present: thought-
conception (vitakka) and discursive thinking (vicāra).
This kamma-resultant mind-element, according to the
commentaries, performs the function of receiving
(sampaṭicchana) the sense objects. (Cf. Vibh III, and Table in
Appendix II.)
(40–41) Mind-consciousness element (mano-viññāṇa-dhātu)
with a desirable object. It is accompanied either by joy, happiness
or by equanimity. (Cf. Vibh III.)
This kamma-resultant (vipāka) mind-consciousness
element, according to the commentaries, performs the functions
of ‘investigating’ (santīraṇa) the sensuous object and
‘registering’ (tad-ārammaṇa) any sensuous or mental object.
Accompanied by equanimity, it may also function as rebirth-
consciousness, sub-consciousness, and death-consciousness.
24
Dhammasaṅgaṇī
The above classes of kamma-resultant consciousness are not

accompanied by root-conditions (see Paṭṭh Introd. § 1).
(42–49) The 8 kamma-results of the 8 wholesome states of
the sensuous-sphere, with which they otherwise are perfectly
identical.
According to the commentaries, they may be operative in
the next existence at conception, in sub-consciousness, and at
death, as well as in the role of registering (tad-ārammaṇa). (See
Abhidh-s V.28; Vism XIV.122; Vibh III).
(57–65) The jhānas as kamma-results.
They operate in the next existence at conception (etc.), in
sub-consciousness, and at death (Comm.).
(66–69) The supramundane jhānas of the four Noble Paths
appearing as kamma-results.
At first, all these states are analysed in a general way, then,
as shown above, in connection with the four paths of progress,
etc., etc., then with the supramundane foundations of
mindfulness (satipaṭṭhāna, see Vibh VII), the supramundane
right efforts (see Vibh VIII), etc., etc.
(b) Results of Unwholesome Kamma (akusalavipāka) are:

(50–54) The 5 classes of sensuous consciousness with
undesirable objects. Of these, eye-, ear-, nose-, and tongue-
consciousness are accompanied by neutral feeling; body-
consciousness, however, by bodily painful feeling.
(55) The ‘mind-element’ (mano-dhātu) with an undesirable
object, accompanied by neutral feeling.
(56) The ‘mind-consciousness-element’ (mano-viññāṇa-
dhātu) with undesirable objects (without root-conditions),
accompanied by indifferent feeling.
In the Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha, ‘receptive consciousness’
(sampaṭicchana-citta) stands for mind-element, and
‘investigating consciousness’ (santīraṇa-citta) for mind-
consciousness-element. (cf. Vibh III.)
25
(c) Kammically Neutral Functionals (kriyā) are neither

kamma-results, nor productive of kamma-results, but consist
simply in ‘mere doing’ (karaṇa-matta). To this class belong:
(70) The ‘mind-element’ (mano-dhātu), which always is
accompanied by neutral feeling and is without root-conditions.
This functional (kriyā) mind-element, according to the
commentaries, performs the ‘adverting to the threshold of the 5
senses’ (pañcadvāravajjana).
(71) The mind-consciousness-element (mano-viññāṇa-
dhātu) accompanied by equanimity (without root-conditions),
which, even as kammically neutral function, is found in all
sentient beings.
This element performs he functions of ‘adverting’
(āvajjana), and ‘determining’ (votthapana).
(72) The ‘mind-consciousness element’ accompanied by
happiness (without root-conditions), which, according to the
Commentary, as kammically neutral function, is found only in
the Arahat (with the function of impulsion, or javana).
In the Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha, these 3 functional states
are given as: (70) pañcadvāravajjana-citta (adverting to the
threshold of the 5 senses), (71) manodvārāvajjana-citta
(adverting to the threshold of the mind), (72) hasituppāda-citta
(consciousness producing pleasure). No. 71, however, performs
also the function of determining (votthapana).
(73–80) Eight functional states which, in every other respect,
are identical with the 8 classes of wholesome consciousness of the
sensuous sphere, and also accompanied by root-conditions, but as
functional states (kriyā) found only in the Arahat.
(81–89) The jhānas as practised by the Arahat.
The Table in Appendix II gives a concise and clear survey
of all the aforementioned 89 classes of consciousness, their
functions and their varying combinations with the 52 mental
concomitants (cetasika). The latter figure derives from
Visuddhimagga and Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha, where the
26
Dhammasaṅgaṇī
elaborate lists of the Dhammasaṅgaṇī are condensed by

elimination of parallel factors (as exemplified on page 19–20).
A similar table, attached to my Buddhist Dictionary, has
been based upon the division of phenomena into five groups of
existence (khandha), as used in Visuddhimagga. For that reason,
only 50 mental factors are given there as making up the group of
formations (saṅkhāra-kkhandha); the remaining two mental
concomitants are identical with the groups of feeling and
perception, respectively, and listed separately.
II. CORPOREALITY
(Rūpa-kaṇḍa)
This chapter may also be regarded as supplement to Section C
of the first chapter, dealing with ‘kammically neutral states.’
This is indicated by the first paragraph which refers to all
kammically neutral states, and not only to corporeality as the
rest of this chapter does:
“Which phenomena are kammically neutral (avyākata)?
Those kamma-results (vipāka) which belong to the sensuous-
sphere, the fine-material-sphere, and the immaterial-sphere,
or to the ‘unrelated’ (i.e., those pertaining to the fruitional
states of consciousness), consisting in feeling, perception,
etc.; further, those kammically neutral ‘functions’ (kriyā); …
further all corporeality (rūpa), as well as the uncreated
element (Nibbāna—these things are kammically neutral.”
Now, the words of the first paragraph all corporeality are
taken up, and in the next paragraph the question is posed “What
is ‘all corporeality?’” The answer is: “The four primary
physical elements (solid, liquid, heat, motion) and the
secondary physical phenomena derived from them—these
are called ‘all corporeality.’”
As a further reply to the question about all corporeality
follows now a separate Matrix, or Schedule, for corporeality, in
which the latter is classified first under single headings, then
27
under two, three, up to eleven headings. After that all the terms
of the Matrix are explained.
According to the classification under single headings, all
corporeality, is e.g., said to be without root-conditions (hetu:
greed, hatred, delusion, and their opposites), of conditioned
origin, worldly, subject to the taints (sāsava), the fetters (which
bind beings to the wheel of rebirth), to the mental hindrances,
etc.; not to be abandoned by understanding or by mental
development (only mental states, e.g., attachment to corporeality,
can thus be abandoned); belonging to the sense-sphere,
cognizable by the six kinds of consciousness, impermanent, etc.
Twofold classifications are, for instance, derived or
underived, kammically acquired or not, visible or invisible,
produced by consciousness or not, internal or external, gross or
subtle, etc.
As ‘derived’ (upādā)—i.e. from the four primary physical
elements—are considered 23 phenomena, to wit: the 5 physical
sense-organs, visible object, sound, smell, taste, (the tangible
object is ‘underived,’ q.v.), femininity, virility, (physical)
vitality, bodily intimation, verbal intimation, (intervening)
space, bodily lightness, plasticity, wieldiness, integration,
subsistence, decay, impermanence, nutriment.
None of the canonical Abhidhamma books mention the
‘heart-base’ (hadaya-vatthu), or any other special organ, as the
physical base of mind.
As ‘underived’ (no upādā) are designated the four primary
physical elements, the solid, liquid (cohesion), heat, motion, of
which the solid, heat, and motion constitute the tangible object.
As ‘internal’ (‘own’) are considered the 5 sense-organs: as
‘external,’ the 5 objects; as ‘not kammically acquired’, the 5
sense objects, bodily and verbal intimation; as ‘visible,’ only the
object of sight (colour, etc.).
Thereafter, all the categories of corporeality are in a similar
way treated in groups of three, four, five, etc.
28
Dhammasaṅgaṇī
III. SUMMARY
(NIKKHEPA-KAṆḌA)
The third chapter contains a full explanation of all terms of the
Abhidhamma Matrix and of the Suttanta Matrix as well, and
follows the sequence of these schedules. It begins thus:
“Which phenomena are kammically wholesome (kusala)?
The 3 roots of wholesome kamma (kusala-hetu): non-greed,
non-hatred, non-delusion, and those groups of feeling,
perception, mental formations, and consciousness which are
associated with them; further all bodily, verbal, or mental
kamma (action=volition) rooted in them. Which phenomena
are kammically unwholesome (akusala)? The 3 roots of
unwholesome kamma: greed, hatred, delusion, (etc. as
above). Which phenomena are kammically neutral
(avyākata)? The results (vipāka) of wholesome and
unwholesome kamma … the kammically neutral functionals
(kriyā) … all corporeality, as well as the uncreated element
(nibbāna).”
Then follow such questions as:
“Which phenomena are accompanied by pleasant feeling?
… by unpleasant feeling? … by neutral feeling? Which are
kamma-results? … productive of kamma results?…neither
kamma-results, nor productive of kamma-results? Which are
to be overcome by insight or vipassanā? (Answer: The first
three fetters, which are: self-delusion, scepticism,
attachment to mere rules and rituals: these are overcome at
the first Noble stage)…. Which by mental development
(bhāvanā)? (Answer: The remaining seven fetters1)…neither
by understanding nor by mental development? (Answer: The
kammically wholesome and neutral states). Which
phenomena appertain to those who are in the state of
training (sekha)? (Answer: The four Noble Paths (magga),
and the fruitions (phala) of the three lower paths). Which to
those who have completed their training (asekha)? (Answer:
The highest Noble goal, Arahatship). Which to these “Who
1. About the 10 fetters and the 4 Noble stages see further below.
29
are neither training, nor have completed their training”?

(Answer: “All the remaining states).”
Groups of root-conditions (hetu): There are 3 kammically
wholesome root-conditions (kusala-hetu): non-greed, non-hate,
non-delusion; 3 kammically unwholesome root-conditions
(akusala-hetu): greed, hatred, delusion; 3 kammically neutral
root-conditions: non-greed, non-hate, non-delusion; being either
kamma-results (vipāka-hetu), or mere functionals (kiriyā-
hetu)….
The latter ones, according to the commentaries, are present
in those kamma-resultant classes of consciousness (42–49),
which correspond to the eight wholesome classes (1–8), and
which may function as registering (tad-ārammaṇa)
consciousness, rebirth-consciousness, sub-consciousness, and
death-consciousness, further, in the corresponding mere
functional classes (73–89), which in the Arahat are functioning
as impulsion (javana) consciousness.
After that, an explanation follows of the four evil taints
(āsava): sensual craving, craving for existence, speculative
views, ignorance, then of the 10 fetters (saṃyojana) binding
beings to the wheel of rebirths, which, in their wording and
order, here somewhat differ from those usually mentioned in the
Suttas. They are: (1) sensual craving, (2) ill-will, (3) conceit, (4)
erroneous views, (5) scepticism (6) attachment to mere rules and
rituals, (7) craving for existence, (8) envy, (9) avarice, (10)
ignorance. According to the commentary at the first Noble stage
(Sotāpatti) 4, 5 & 6 have disappeared, at the second stage
(Sakadāgāmi) 1 & 2 are very weak, at the third stage (Anāgāmi)
they have entirely disappeared, and the fourth stage
(Arahatship) is free from all the 10 fetters.
This is followed by an explanation of the four ties, four
floods, four yokes, 6 hindrances (in the Suttas only 5 hindrances
are mentioned, leaving out ‘ignorance’).
Thereafter follow such investigations, as: “Which states have
objects? (The four mental groups: feeling, perception, mental
30
Dhammasaṅgaṇī
formations, consciousness.) Which have not? (All corporeality

and the uncreated element.)—Which phenomena are states of
consciousness, or mental concomitants, and which are not?
Which are mental corruptions, and which are not?”
Thus, in each of these many investigations, the nature and
functions of the respective phenomena are determined with
utmost precision.
Next follows the explanation of the Suttanta Matrix (see
page 14). The answers to the two-term questions are generally
very short and do not use any specific Abhidhamma
terminology, but reproduce, where applicable, formulations
known from the Suttas. Some of the ‘definitions by synonyms,’
however, are identical with those used in the Dhammasaṅgaṇī,
e.g. for ‘mindfulness’, etc.
IV. SYNOPSIS
(ATTHUDDHĀRA-KAṆḌA)
The last chapter, the Synopsis (lit. ‘The Extract of Meaning’) is
probably of later origin, as indicated by the terminology used in
it, and also by the alternative title, ‘The Commentary Section’
(aṭṭhakathā-kaṇḍa), given to it in the Atthasālinī where it is
ascribed to the great disciple of the Buddha, Sāriputta Thera.
This chapter follows likewise the sequence of the Abhidhamma
Matrix but is more condensed than Chapter III. It does not deal
with the Suttanta Matrix. In the answers, reference is made
throughout to the planes of consciousness (bhūmi)1 and to the
classes of consciousness, called here citt’uppāda (lit, ‘uprising
of consciousness’), a term used, in the earlier parts of the
Dhammasaṅgaṇī, only as the title of the first chapter.
We shall give here only one passage from this chapter to
show the way of formulation used in it:
1. The four planes of consciousness (or, of existence) are: the sense
sphere, the fine-material sphere, the immaterial sphere, and the supra-
mundane or ‘the unrelated (to existence)’ (apariyāpanna).
31
“Which phenomena are kammically wholesome?

(Everything) wholesome on the four planes (of consciousness).
Which phenomena are kammically unwholesome? The
twelve unwholesome classes of consciousness (see Table).
Which phenomena are kammically neutral? The kamma-
results on four planes; the functionally neutral on three
planes; further, all corporeality and Nibbāna.”
32
II
VIBHAṄGA
‘THE BOOK OF TREATISES’
PRELIMINARY REMARKS
The second work of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka, the Vibhaṅga,
consists of a series of 18 treatises, or Vibhaṅgas, all complete in
themselves and independent one of the other. Each treatise, as a
rule, consists of 3 parts: the Sutta-explanation, the
Abhidhamma-explanation, and a Catechetic Section by way of
questions and answers.
By reason of its first treatises, the Vibhaṅga, in a certain
measure, is supplementary to the Dhammasaṅgaṇī and at the same
time, a foundation for the Dhātukathā. Those 3 treatises are entirely
devoted to an exhaustive investigation of three categories of highest
importance for a real understanding of Buddhist philosophy, that is:
the 5 ‘groups’ of existence (khandha), the 12 ‘bases’ (āyatana), and
the 18 psycho-physical ‘elements’ (dhātu), with reference to which
3 aspects, in the Dhātukathā all the phenomena of existence are
categorized and brought into relationship. Besides, these 3
categories form the subjects of the first 3 chapters of Yamaka,
while in the Puggalapaññatti they head the table of contents
(mātikā). Many of the passages in Vibhaṅga are also found in the
Paṭisambhidāmagga of the Khuddaka-Nikāya, to which it has a
great resemblance, in contents, as well as in arrangement. Both
works are often referred to and quoted in the Visuddhimagga.
I. THE FIVE GROUPS OF EXISTENCE

(KHANDHA-VIBHAṄGA)
These 5 groups—which, in their 3 aspects as consciousness,
mental concomitants, and corporeality, have already been
described in Dhammasaṅgaṇī—form the so-called individual
existence or, in its wider sense, existence altogether: (1)
corporeality (rūpa), (2) feeling (vedanā), (3) perception (saññā),
(4) mental formations (saṅkhāra), and (5) consciousness
(viññāṇa).
Sutta-explanation: Here the 5 groups are described as either
past, future, or present, internal or external, gross or subtle, low
or lofty, far or near (see Anattalakkhaṇa-sutta). Then follow
explanations of each of these terms, by ways of questions and
answers, for each group separately. Thus, for instance, gross
corporeality is said to consist of the 5 physical sense bases
(organs) and the corresponding sense objects; subtle
corporeality, of femininity, virility, bodily and vocal intimation,
etc. For the group of feeling (vedanā-kkhandha) the explanation
of these terms runs as follows:
“Kammically unwholesome feeling is gross, wholesome
and neutral feelings are subtle; wholesome and unwholesome
feelings are gross, neutral feeling is subtle; painful feeling is
gross, pleasant and neutral feelings are subtle; pleasant and
painful feelings are gross, indifferent feeling is subtle; the
feeling of one without a meditative attainment is gross, the
feeling of one with a meditative attainment is subtle; feelings
subject to taints (sāsava) are gross, those not subject to taints
are subtle. That is to say: this or that feeling is gross or
subtle in comparison with another one.”
Abhidhamma-explanation: The explanation of corporeality
consists of a literal repetition of the Matrix for corporeality, as
give in Dhs II (see Ch. 1 above).
The statements about each of the four mental khandhas are
grouped in four sections. The first 3 sections consist of
numerous sets of single, 2-fold, 3-fold up to 10-fold
34
Vibhaṅga
classifications of the respective khandha. The fourth section

contains various sets of 7-fold, 24-fold, 30-fold and manifold
classifications. We shall exemplify the procedure by the group
of feeling. The first set of classification in the first section runs
here as follows:
“What is here the group of feeling? The group of feeling is
single (ekavidhena): in being associated with sense-
impression (phassa-sampayutta);
twofold: root-accompanied or not (sahetuko, ahetuko; =
2nd dyad of the Matrix);
threefold: belonging to the sense sphere—the fine-
material sphere—the immaterial sphere;
fivefold: bodily ease, bodily pain, gladness, sadness,
equanimity;
sixfold: born of eye-impression, born of ear-, nose-,
tongue, body-, or mind-impression;
sevenfold: born of eye-impression, born of ear-, nose-,
tongue-, body-, impression, born of the impression of the mind-
element (mano-dhātu) or of the mind-consciousness-element
(manoviññāṇa-dhātu);
eightfold: born of eye-, ear-, nose-, tongue-, impression;
born of body-impression, either pleasant or painful; born of
the impression of the mind-element or of the mind-
consciousness-element:
ninefold: born of eye-, ear-, nose-, tongue-, body-
impression; of the impression of the mind-element, or of the
mind-consciousness-element which may be kammically
wholesome, unwholesome, or neutral;
tenfold: born of eye-, ear-, nose-, tongue-impression; born
of body-impression, either pleasant or painful; born of the
impression of the mind-element or of the mind-
consciousness-element which may be wholesome,
unwholesome, or neutral.”
In all the following classificatory sets of the first 3 sections,
the single and fourfold up to tenfold classifications are identical
35
within the treatment of each khandha; only the twofold and

threefold classifications vary as indicated in the following.
The first section is called duka-mūlaka, ‘based on the dyads
(of the Matrix),’ because here the twofold classification is made
up by each of the applicable dyads in succession, followed by
the applicable triads forming the threefold classification.
In the second section, called tika-mūlaka, ‘based on the
triads,’ the applicable triads are the governing permutation,
preceded by the applicable dyads forming the twofold
classification.
According to the commentary, this will amount to 950
classificatory sets for each of the first two sections. In the Pāli
text, however, they are condensed to four and 5 sets respectively.
In the third section, called ubhato vaḍḍhaka, ‘increase of
both,’ the dyads and triads follow each other in parallel
progression, in each set. Since there are in all 19 triads
applicable to the group of feeling, only 19 of the applicable
dyads are given in conjunction with them. Therefore, only 19
classificatory sets are found in this section.
The fourth section has no sub-title of its own, and contains
several sets of 7-fold, 24-fold, 30-fold, and manifold
classifications of which the 10 applicable triads form a part.
The treatment of the remaining 3 groups (khandha) follows
the same method, with variations in details as required for the
respective group.
Catechetic section (pañha-pucchaka): Here questions about
the 5 Groups are posed in terms of all triads and dyads of the
Abhidhamma Matrix, as far as applicable. For instance:
“How many groups are kammically wholesome—
unwholesome—neutral? How many groups are associated
with pleasant—painful—neutral feeling?”
In the answers, for which a few examples are given here,
generally only numbers are given in the text, not the names of
36
Vibhaṅga
the respective groups, which have been supplied here together

with additional explanations.
“The corporeality group is kammically neutral. (The
other) four Groups may be either wholesome, unwholesome,
or neutral.
“Two groups (i.e. corporeality and feeling) are not
classifiable (na vattabbā) in terms of ‘associated with
pleasant, painful, and neutral feeling.’ Three groups (i.e.
perception, mental formations, consciousness) may be
associated with either pleasant, painful, or neutral feeling.
“The corporeality group is neither a kamma-result nor
subject to kamma-result (because these terms refer only to
mental phenomena). (The other) four groups may be either
kamma-results, or subject to kamma-results (= kamma), or
neither (= kriyā ‘mere functionals’ operating independently
of kamma).
The corporeality group may be either ‘kammically
acquired and subject to clinging’ (upādiṇṇ’upādāniya)
[namely the sense-organs], or ‘not kammically acquired, but
subject to clinging’ [all other corporeality]. (The other) four
groups may be either ‘kammically acquired and subject to
clinging’ [all kamma-results], or ‘not kammically acquired,
but subject to clinging’ [all kammic states of consciousness,
wholesome and unwholesome], or they may be neither of the
two [the supramundane Paths].
“The corporeality group is ‘not associated with
consciousness’ [the term ‘associated’ (sampayutta) being used
only for the conjunction of mental phenomena]. The
consciousness group is not classifiable as ‘associated with
consciousness,’ nor as ‘not associated.’ (The other) three
groups are ‘associated with consciousness.”
With regards the 5 groups of existence see also Yamaka II.
37
II. THE TWELVE BASES

(ĀYATANA-VIBHAṄGA)
The twelve sense bases are:
(1) eye (7) visible object
(2) ear (8) sound
(3) nose (9) smell
(4) tongue (10) taste
(5) body (11) tangible object (= 3 elements:
solid, heat, motion)
(6) mind-base (12) mind-object
Sutta-explanation: Here the bases are described as
‘impermanent, miserable, non-ego, subject to change.’
Abhidhamma-explanation: Here they are fully explained as
to their nature, for example:
“What is the eye-base (cakkhāyatana)? The eye,
consisting in ‘sensitivity’ (pasāda), derived from the four
primary physical elements, related to individual existence,
invisible (visible are only impressions of colour, light, etc.;
see below), but resistant to sense impressions (sappaṭigha);
this invisible eye resistant to sense impressions, by means of
which one has seen, sees, will see, or may see the visible
object; this is the eye, ... etc …”
The four remaining sense-organs are described in exactly
analogous words.
According to a sevenfold classification given here, the
mind-base (manāyatana) comprises: eye-, nose-, tongue-, body-
consciousness, mind-element (mano-dhātu) and mind-
consciousness-element (mano-viññāṇa-dhātu). In other words,
it is a collective term for consciousness in its entirety (see Vibh
III). The descriptive procedure for the mind-base is again that of
several sets of single, twofold, up to tenfold classifications. The
first 5 classifications are identical with those for the group of
feeling, as quoted in Vibh I. The second classificatory set ends
with a reference to a ‘manifold classification,’ therefore, we
38
Vibhaṅga
probably have to fill in here all classifications applicable to the

group of consciousness as given in Vibh I.
Regarding the ‘mind-object-base’ (dhammāyatana) it is said:
“What is the mind-object-base? The feeling-group,
perception-group, formations-group, as well as that invisible
physical condition which is not resistant to sense-
impressions and is included in the mind-object-base; further
the Uncreated Element…. Now, what is that invisible, non-
resistant corporeal phenomenon that is considered as mind-
object-base; further the uncreated element…. Now, what is
that invisible, non-resistant corporeal phenomenon that is
considered as mind-object-base? It is femininity, virility,…
material nutriment…etc. And what is the uncreated element
(asaṅkhata-dhātu=nibbāna)? It is the annihilation of greed,
hatred, and delusion.”
Thus, of the 12 bases, the 5 sense-organs and 5 objects are
physical, the mind-base (consciousness) mental, while the
mind-object may be anything whatever—past, present, future,
physical or mental, real or imaginary.
The Catechetic Section is similar to that in I. For further
details see Yamaka III.
III. THE EIGHTEEN ELEMENTS

(DHĀTU-VIBHAṄGA)
Sutta-explanation: At first are treated the following 6 elements:
the solid, liquid, heat, motion, space, consciousness, which are
here described just as in the Rāhulovāda Sutta (MN 62). Then
follow 6 elements consisting of 5 kinds of feeling (see Vibh I),
and ignorance as sixth element; then 6 elements, consisting of 3
kinds of wrong thoughts. (lust, malevolence, cruelty) and their 3
opposites, as in the Bahudhātuka Sutta (MN 115).
Abhidhamma-explanation: Here are treated the eighteen
psychophysical elements, namely:
39
(1) eye (7) visible object (13) eye-consciousness

(2) ear (8) sound (14) ear-consciousness
(3) nose (9) odour (15) nose-consciousness
(4) tongue (10) taste (16) tongue-consciousness
(5) body (11) tangible object (17) body-consciousness
(6) mind- (12) mind-object- (18) mind-consciousness-
element element element
(mano-dhātu) (dhamma-dhātu) (mano-viññāṇa-dhātu)
(1)–(5) and (7)–(12) are exactly the same as in II. The mind-
element (mano-dhātu), however, is not identical with the mind-
base (manāyatana-dhātu), but is comprised within the mind-base:
The mind-base, namely, is a collective term for the 5 kinds of
sense-consciousness, mind-element (mano-dhātu), and mind-
consciousness-element (mano-viññāṇa-dhātu). The descriptions
of 6 and 18 are as follows:
“Immediately after the arising and passing away of the
eye-consciousness-element, there arises mind (citta, mano),
consciousness…the corresponding mind-element (mano-
dhātu); or, the first reaction to all these phenomena: this is
called the mind-element.”
“Immediately after the arising and passing away of the
eye-consciousness-element, there arises the mind-element;
and, again immediately after the arising and passing away of
the mind-element, there arises the mind, the corresponding
mind-consciousness-element.”
The two passages quoted above refer to the momentary stages
in a single process of cognition (citta-vīthi). There are a few other
references to these stages in the Paṭṭhāna and also in the
Paṭisambhidāmagga. But the full series of these stages of
cognitive consciousness, with nomenclature and explanations, is
found only in the commentarial literature. Taking as an example
visual cognition (eye-consciousness), the following stages obtain:
As soon as the visible object enters the field of presentation,
there occurs (1) subconsciousness (bhavaṅga), (2) a
perturbation (bhavaṅga-calana) and (3) a breaking-off of
40
Vibhaṅga
subconsciousness (bhavaṅgupaccheda), which in rapid

succession is followed by: (4) advertence to the threshold of the
sense-stimulus (pañca-dvārāvajjana), (5) eye-consciousness
(cakkhu-viññāṇa), (6) recipient consciousness (sampaṭicchana-
citta), (7) investigating consciousness (santīraṇa-citta), (8)
determining consciousness (votthapana-citta), (9) the 7
impulsion moments (javana-citta), and finally (10) registering
consciousness (tadārammaṇa-citta), after which the whole
experience sinks again below the threshold of full
consciousness, and gets immersed in sub-consciousness.—(4)
and (6) are mind-element; (7), (8), and (10) are mind-
consciousness element. (Cf. Table in Appendix II.)
Catechetic Section: “The mind-object-element and mind-
consciousness-element may be either kammically wholesome,
unwholesome, or neutral; the rest, including the mind-object,
are kammically neutral.”
“Ten elements (5 sense-organs, and 5 objects) are not
classifiable as either accompanied by agreeable, disagreeable, or
neutral feeling. Body-consciousness is accompanied either by
agreeable or disagreeable feeling, while the other kinds of sense-
consciousness are accompanied by neutral feeling. 10 (physical)
elements are neither kamma-result nor productive of kamma-
results (cf. Kv 118–19. The mind-element, however, may be
kamma-result (39, 55); or it may be neither kamma-result nor
productive of kamma-results (70), 2 elements (mind-object and
mind-consciousness) may be kamma-results (see Dhs I. C), or
productive of kamma-results; or they may be neither kamma-
results nor productive of kamma-results. The mind-object may be
a mental concomitant (cetasika), or not (i.e. as a corporeal
phenomenon; cf. end of II).” See Yamaka IV for more details.
IV. THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

(SACCA-VIBHAṄGA)
Sutta-explanation: Here the Four Noble Truths, constituting the
whole teaching of the Buddha—i.e. the truth about suffering or,
41
better said, ‘unsatisfactoriness’ (of all forms of existence), its

Origin (craving), its Extinction (nibbāna), and the Path to its
Extinction—are explained in exactly the same words as in the
Mahā-Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta.
Abhidhamma-explanation: Here the explanation of the
Truths is given in 9 sets of slightly differing definitions,
dividing into 3 sections. There are also 2 formal differences
from the Sutta-explanation: (1) the truths are called here
throughout ‘the four Truths’, and not ‘Noble Truths’; (2) their
explanation starts with the second Truth, followed by the first,
third and fourth Truths, though in the preceding brief
enumeration of the Truths the ordinary sequence is preserved.
The first set of explanations has the following wording:
“Four Truths: Suffering, Origin of Suffering, Extinction
of Suffering, the Path leading to the Extinction of Suffering.”
“What here is Origin of Suffering? Craving (taṇhā).”
“What here is Suffering? (a) The remaining defilements
(kilesa), (b) the remaining kammically unwholesome states,
(c) the 3 wholesome roots, as far as subject to taints (tīṇi ca
kusala-mūlāni sāsavāni), (d) the remaining wholesome
states, as far as subject to taints, (e) the kamma-results
(vipāka) of wholesome and unwholesome states, (f) the states
that are independent of kamma (functional; kiriyā), being
neither wholesome nor unwholesome nor kamma-results;
and (g) all corporeality.”
“What is here the Extinction of Suffering? The
abandoning of craving.”
“What is here the Path leading to the Extinction of
Suffering? Whenever the monk develops the supramundane
absorption (lokuttarajjhāna) leading to escape (from the
round of rebirth) and (its) undoing for the purpose of
overcoming all false views and attaining to the first stage of
Noble stage (sotāpatti), and being detached from sensuous
things … has entered into the first absorption, with difficult
progress and slow comprehension … at such a time there
42
Vibhaṅga
exists the eightfold path: right understanding … right

concentration.”
“What is here Right Understanding … Right
Concentration?” (The explanations are given in terms of
synonyms, as in the Dhammasaṅgaṇī.)
“The other (wholesome) states (present at that time) are
associated with the path leading to the extinction of
suffering.”
The first part of this explanation of the 4th Truth
corresponds to the basic text for ‘supramundane consciousness,’
in Dhs I. The entire passage explaining the 4th Truth is identical
in the following sets of the first section.
In the second to fifth set of the first section, the factors (b) to
(d) in the definition of the 1st Truth, are successively transposed
into the definition of the 2nd Truth, so that in the last, the fifth,
set only the factors (e), (f) and (g) remain as the definition of the
1st Truth. Also, the definition of the 3rd Truth varies in
accordance with the increasing number of factors given for the
2nd Truth (origin).
The 5th and last set of this first section of the Abhidhamma-
explanation may therefore be summarized as follows: 2nd Truth
(Origin) consists here of craving and the remaining defilements
as well as all mundane wholesome and unwholesome kamma.
The 1st Truth (Suffering) consists of all remaining mundane
(lokiya) states of consciousness (i.e. kamma-results and
kammically independent or functional states) and of all
corporeality.
The permutations between the definitions of the 2nd and 1st
Truths indicate that, according to a given case or a chosen view-
point, these 2 truths may be formulated with certain variations, up
to a maximum or down to a minimum of factors. The first set
gives the single minimal factor for the 2nd Truth and the maximal
number of factors for the 1st; the fifth set gives the maximal
number of factors for the 2nd Truth and the minimal for the 1st.
43
The beginning of the second and third section of

explanatory sets is marked in the text by the brief enumeration
of the Truths, as quoted above: ‘Four truths…’
In both the two sets of the second section, the last portion in
the definition of the 4th Truth reads: “at such a time there is a
fivefold path: right understanding, right thought, right effort,
right mindfulness, right concentration.” These are the 5 path
factors which are always present, while the other 3 are not
constant factors.
In the third section, the last portion in the explanation of the
4th Truth reads: “at such a time there is sense-impression …
undistractedness,” as in Dhs 277 (PTS). This method is included
for indicating that the Noble Eightfold Path consists not only of
the 8 or 5 factors usually enumerated, but also of all the other
mental states that belong to a moment of consciousness of the
respective class which is here supramundane.
In the description of the supramundane absorption, only its
first type is given in the text. The description has to be thought to
continue with the numerous variations or methods (naya) which
are elaborated in Dhs §§277–364. The same holds good for the
treatment of supramundane absorption in the Abhidhamma-
explanations of the subsequent chapters Vibh VII–XI. The
methods applicable in the individual cases, are mentioned in the
Commentary. In the case of the present chapter, the number of
variations or methods will, according to the Commentary, amount
to no less than 60,000, if fully expanded.
Catechetic Section: In the brief introductory enumeration of
the Truths, they are called again ‘Noble Truths.’ This is
obviously meant to indicate that here the Sutta-explanation of
the first 2 truths has to be applied, and not that given in the
Abhidhamma-section. This can be seen from the answer to the
first question:
“How many of the Four Noble Truths are wholesome,
how many are unwholesome, how many are neutral? The
Truth of Origin (craving) is unwholesome; the Truth of the
44
Vibhaṅga
Path is wholesome; the Truth of Extinction is neutral; the

Truth of Suffering may be either wholesome, unwholesome
or neutral.”
The 4th Truth, however, is considered in its supramundane
aspect, as in the Abhidhamma-explanation. This is evident from
the following answers:
“The Path Truth refers to one in higher training (sekha), the
other three refer neither those to in Higher Training nor to
those who have completed it (n’eva sekha nāsekha).”
“Two truths (1, 2) are mundane, two (3, 4) are
supramundane.”
Other answers are:
“Two truths (2, 4) may be accompanied either by pleasant or
neutral feeling; the Truth of Extinction is not classifiable by
either of the three feelings; the Truth of Suffering may be
accompanied by either of the three feelings.”
“The Truth of Origin may have a limited object (paritt’
ārammaṇa) [if one enjoys things of the Sense Sphere] or a
developed object [if one enjoys objects of developed
consciousness, i.e. of the fine-material or immaterial sphere]
or it may have an object not classifiable by either of the two [if
one enjoys a conceptual object (paññatti), e.g. a kasiṇa after-
image]; it never has an unlimited (=supramundane) object.”
The truth of suffering may have either of the above three
objects [limited and developed: see above; unlimited, if one
reviews one’s experience of the nine supramundane states];
or it may not be classifiable by either of the three [if
reviewing a conceptual object.] The Truth of Extinction has
no object; the Path Truth has an unlimited object.”
“The Truth of Extinction has no object. The
[supramundane] Path Truth has an external object
[=Nibbāna]. The Truth of Origin may have an internal,
external, or internal and external object; the Truth of
Suffering may have either of the three, or an object not
classifiable by either of the three [at the time of attaining to
the sphere of nothingness].”
45
The last two quotations show that a very careful

consideration of all possibilities is sometimes required for a
correct reply to the questions in the Catechetic Section.
V. THE TWENTY-TWO FACULTIES
(INDRIYA-VIBHAṄGA)
There are 22 faculties, or controlling factors (indriya), of partly
physiological, partly mental or ethical import. The are:
}
1. eye
2. ear
3. nose (The 6 kinds of
4. tongue organs )
5. body
6. mind
7. femininity (itthindriya)
8. virility (purisindriya)
}
9. vitality (jīvitindriya)
10. bodily ease (sukha)
11. bodily pain (dukkha)
12. glad-mindedness (somanassa) (The 5 kinds of
13. sad-mindedness (domanassa) feelings )
14. equanimity (upekkhā)
}
15. faith (saddhā)
16. energy (viriya)
17. mindfulness (sati)
(The 5 spiritual
18. concentration (samādhi)
faculties)
19. wisdom (paññā)
20. the thought: “I shall come
}
to know the unknown”
(anaññātaññassāmītindriya) (The 3
21. the faculty of understanding (aññindriya) supra-
22. the faculty of ‘one who has understood’ mundane
(aññātāvindriya) faculties)
46
Vibhaṅga
This chapter has no Sutta-explanation. The Abhidhamma-

explanation, after listing the 22 faculties, gives a definition of
each.
1–6 are identical with the corresponding bases (āyatana; see
Vibh II). Here too, the mind faculty (No. 6) is explained by
several sets of classifications, just as the mind base in Vibh II).
and the group of consciousness in Vibh I. The treatment is here
greatly abridged.
7–9 = Dhs §633f. 9 may be either physical (rūpa-
jīvitindriya) or mental (arūpa-jīvitindriya).
Also all other definitions are identical with those in Dhs.
14 usually translated ‘equanimity,’ does not refer here to the
ethical quality of that name, which belongs to the group of
mental formations. The faculty intended here belongs to the
group of feeling, being identical with neutral feeling
(adukkhamasukhā vedanā).
There is also a Catechetic Section in this chapter.
For further details see Yamaka X.
VI. THE MODES OF DEPENDENCY

(PACCAYĀKĀRA-VIBHAṄGA)
The Sutta-explanation begins with the formula of ‘dependent
origination’ (paṭicca-samuppāda; see Appendix) as it is usually
found in the Suttas:
“On ignorance (avijjā) depend the kamma-formations
(saṅkhārā=cetanā, volition); thereon consciousness (viññāṇa;
at rebirth); thereon mentality and corporeality (nāma-rūpa);
thereon the 6 sense-bases (sa¿āyatana); thereon (sense-, or
mind-) impression (phassa); thereon feeling (vedanā);
thereon craving (taṇhā); thereon clinging (upādāna); thereon
the process of becoming (bhava; here kamma-bhava, kamma-
process); thereon rebirth (jāti) thereon old age and death
(jarā-maraṇa),” etc.
47
This formula is followed by definitions of each of its 12

terms. The explanations are almost identical with those given,
e.g., in the Nidāna-Saṃyutta. Here, however, bhava (becoming)
is explained as dividing into kamma-bhava (kamma-process)
and upapatti-bhava (rebirth-process). The former may be said to
be identical with the second link, saṅkhārā, but more widely
includes ‘all action leading to becoming.’ Upapatti-bhava is
defined by way of three triads, the most important of which is;
sense-sphere becoming, fine-material-sphere becoming, and
immaterial-sphere becoming.
The Abhidhamma-explanation begins with a schedule or
matrix (mātikā) which, however, refers only to the section on
unwholesome consciousness in the subsequent exposition
(niddesa). There is no matrix for wholesome or neutral
consciousness, for reasons mentioned in the Commentary.
The matrix lists a great number of modes, or variations, of
the normal formula of ‘Dependent Origination.’ These amount
to no less than 144 modes, which obtain through 16 basic
modes, divided into four tetrads, which occur in each of 9 larger
divisions, called ‘methods’ (nayā) in the Commentary. The
differentiating feature in these 9 large divisions is only the
variable beginning in terms of the ‘dependent origination.’ The
first of the 9 begins, as in the normal formula, with “Through
ignorance conditioned is the kamma-formation,” and continues
in accordance with each of the 16 basic modes. The second
method begins: “Through the kamma-formations conditioned is
ignorance,” and continues with the normal sequence, “through
ignorance conditioned is the kamma-formation….” Similarly,
each of the other seven methods opens with the next link, i.e.
‘consciousness’ up to ‘clinging,’ on which ignorance is said to
be dependent; the continuation proceeds again with each of the
sixteen basic modes which will be described below.
Only the first of the 9 methods is elaborated in the Matrix
and in the following exposition of it. The other 8 methods are
merely indicated at the end of the Matrix.
48
Vibhaṅga
One of the features in common to all modes is that the

second link of the dependent origination is always given in the
singular, as ‘kamma-formation’ (saṅkhāra), while in the Suttas
always the plural is used (‘kamma-formations,’ saṅkhārā). The
reason for that divergence will become apparent in the
subsequent Exposition of the Matrix, from which it will be seen
that the present treatise, in its ‘Abhidhamma-explanation,’ deals
with dependent origination only as far as it operates within a
single moment of consciousness (Comy.: eka-citta-khaṇika-
paṭicca-samuppāda). Since, as the Commentary points out,
there cannot be several volitions (cetanā=saṅkhāra) in a single
moment of consciousness, the singular is used here.
Other divergences from the normal formula will be pointed
out and explained in notes accompanying the following
description of the 16 basic modes. The source of these
explanations is the Commentary on the Vibhaṅga
(Sammohavinodanī). In the following only those links of the
Dependent Origination will be mentioned which differ from the
normal formulation or from the first mode.
I. The ‘Conditioned’ Tetrad (paccaya-catukka)
1. Through ignorance conditioned is the kamma-formation

(saṅkhāra); through the kamma-formation, conscious-
ness; through consciousness, mentality (nāma); through
mentality, the sixth base (chaṭṭhāyatana); through the
sixth base, sense-impression… old age and death.
According to Comy., this first mode is meant to contain
only those factors which, being included in a single moment, are
common to all processes of consciousness. Therefore, only
mentality is mentioned instead of mentality and corporeality
(nāma-rūpa), and the sixth (=mind) base instead of the 6 bases
(sa¿āyatana). This first mode applies as well to immaterial
existence.
49
2. “ … through consciousness, mentality; through mentality,

sense-impression….”
Here the sixth base is omitted firstly, for indicating that not
only the mind base (=viññāṇa-khandha) is a condition for sense-
impression, but that also the three other mental groups (feeling,
etc.), included in the term ‘mentality’ (nāma), are conditions for
it; secondly, for including the method of the Mahānidāna Sutta
(DN 15) where likewise the term ‘six bases’ (sa¿āyatana) is
entirely omitted. Also this second mode applies to immaterial
existence.
3. “…through consciousness, mentality and corporeality

(nāma-rūpa); through mentality and corporeality, the
sixth base….”
Applies to embryonic life in the sense-sphere, to
spontaneously arisen beings with incomplete sense-organs, and
to fine-material existence. ‘Corporeality’ (rūpa) refers here to
the heart basis (hadaya-vatthu) only.
4. “… through consciousness, mentality and corporeality;

through mentality and corporeality, the six bases….”
Applies to beings with complete sense-organs, be it of the
sense sphere or those spontaneously arisen. This mode differs
from the normal Sutta formulation only as to the second link
which is in the singular here.
II. The Tetrad ‘Rooted In …’ (hetu-catukka)
5–8 These four modes correspond exactly to 1–4, with the
only difference that, up to ‘clinging’ inclusively, each
conditioned factor is once more said to be ‘rooted in’ its
conditioning factor, e.g.,
“Through ignorance conditioned is the kamma-formation

rooted in ignorance (avijjā-hetuko) ….”
50
Vibhaṅga
III. The Tetrad ‘Associated With…’ (sampayutta-catukka)

9–12. Here the addition, up to ‘clinging’ is ‘associated
with,’ e.g.,
“Through ignorance conditioned is the kamma-formation

associated with ignorance (avijjā-sampayutto)…”
IV. The Tetrad of Mutuality (aññamañña-catukka)
13–16. Here, up to ‘clinging,’ each statement of
conditionality is repeated in reverse order, e.g., “Through
ignorance conditioned is the kamma-formation, and through the
kamma-formation conditioned is ignorance (saṅkhāra-paccayā
pi avijjā)
Now, the Exposition (niddesa) that follows the Matrix,
shows how Dependent Origination, in its various modes,
operates within each of the 89 classes of consciousness
described in Dhs I. Thus the analytical method of
Dhammasaṅgaṇī is supplemented and, we may say, activated,
by the relational statements of Dependent Origination. In the
Commentary it is noted which of the 24 types of conditionality
(see Ch. VII, Paṭṭhāna) obtain in each case.
The exposition starts with the first (Tab. 22) of the 12
classes of unwholesome consciousness, connecting it with the
first mode, or variation, of Dependent Origination.
“Which states are unwholesome? Whenever a state of

unwholesome consciousness has arisen, accompanied by
happiness and associated with wrong views, due to any
object …, at that occasion is conditioned through igno-
rance the kamma-formation; through the kamma-forma-
tion, consciousness; through consciousness, mentality;
through mentality, the sixth base; through the sixth
base, sense-impression … old age and death. Thus is the
origin of this whole mass of suffering.”
From the definitions of the links of dependent origination
that follow now, we note the following divergences which are
51
required by the context: ‘clinging.’ (upādāna) is defined by only

one of its four divisions, i.e. ‘wrong views’ (diṭṭhi) and its
synonyms. ‘becoming’ (bhava): ‘the groups (khandha) of
feeling, perception, formations and consciousness, with the
exception of clinging.’
The definition of clinging is worded thus because clinging
ultimately consists of two mental factors, greed and wrong
views; greed comprises clinging to sense pleasures, wrong
views the other three types of clinging. Now since greed is
identical with craving, and greed cannot be its own condition
within the same unit of consciousness, this leaves wrong view as
the only factor of clinging for which craving can be a condition.
According to the requirements of the context, there are
alterations: (a) in the other modes of the formula, (b) in the
definitions of terms, (c) in the case of the other classes of
consciousness. These divergences are pointed out in the
Commentary and have to be noted carefully by the student. We
shall add here only a few typical instances of such divergences:
in Tab. 24, 25 (‘without wrong views’), ‘through clinging’ is
replaced by ‘through determination’ (adhimokkha); in all
wholesome classes, ‘through ignorance’ is replaced by ‘through
the wholesome roots’ (kusalamūla-paccayā), ‘craving’ by
‘confidence’ (pasāda), ‘clinging’ by ‘determination.’ In the
classes of neutral consciousness, ignorance, craving, and
clinging are omitted.
In the classes of consciousness dissociated from wrong view
there is no clinging conditioned by craving, for no views are
present to be conditioned by the mental factor greed. Therefore,
for these classes of consciousness, the text supplies
‘determination’ (adhimokkha) in place of clinging, for
determination is said to be similar to clinging in having a strong
impact (da¿hanipātinā) on the mind. In the wholesome classes
of consciousness Ignorance is absent, and therefore, in place of
ignorance, the text inserts ‘the wholesome roots,’ which
exercise an influence on the associated states similar to that
52
Vibhaṅga
which ignorance exerts in the unwholesome classes of

consciousness, craving is replaced by ‘confidence’ (pasāda), the
wholesome counterpart of craving; both establish a positive
evaluation of the object, though in ethically opposite ways. As
clinging is absent, determination is stated in its place.
After all 89 classes of consciousness have been treated in
the way indicated, another three concluding sections are added.
The first is called ‘exposition of wholesome consciousness,
starting with ignorance’ (avijjāmūlaka-kusalaniddesa). Here, in
the case of all 21 wholesome classes of consciousness, the
dependent origination begins with ‘ignorance,’ which,
according to the comy., is to be understood here in the sense of a
condition of decisive support (upanissaya-paccaya) and not as a
simultaneous condition.
Second and third concluding section: Here, in the case of
wholesome kamma-results, the formula begins with
‘conditioned through the wholesome roots’; in the case of
unwholesome kamma-results, with ‘conditioned through the
unwholesome roots.’ Both are intended as ‘decisive support’
conditions only.
There is no Catechetic Section in this chapter.
If the vast frame provided here by the 144 modes of
dependent origination in permutation with the 89 classes of
consciousness should actually be filled in, in all details, one can
well imagine how enormous the resulting material will be; it
will fill thousands of pages. This is an impressive illustration of
the Buddha’s saying that mind is more variegated than even the
animal kingdom with its vast number of species and individual
beings.
VII. THE FOUR FOUNDATIONS OF MINDFULNESS

(SATIPAṬṬHĀNA-VIBHAṄGA)
These are: The contemplation of body, feeling, mind, and mind-
objects (kāya, vedanā, citta, dhamma).
53
The Sutta-explanation gives extracts from the Satipaṭṭhāna

Sutta, with variations, additional comments and abridgements.
A characteristic feature here is that each statement on the four
contemplations is repeated with reference to the internal, the
external, and internal-external, while, in the discourse, this
application is included in a general statement following each
exercise. Our text begins as follows:
“Here a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body
internally—dwells contemplating the body in the body
externally—dwells contemplating the body in the body
internally and externally, ardent, clearly comprehending and
mindful, having overcome, in this world, covetousness and
grief.” And so with feelings, etc.
For the contemplation of the body, only the reflection on
repulsiveness (i.e. the thirty-one parts of the body) is given here,
repeated thrice, with reference to the internal, etc. As a
transition to the second and the third repetition, the following
sentences are included, so also in the other contemplations with
due alterations:
“He cultivates that object (of contemplation), develops it,
practices it and establishes it firmly. Having cultivated it…
he turns his mind to the (contemplation of the) body
externally … internally and externally.”
Now follow explanations of some of the terms in the textual
passage quoted first. The treatment of the contemplations of
feeling and mind follows the same procedure.
From the contemplation of mind-objects only the sections
on the hindrances and the enlightenment-factors are selected
here. Both in conjunction, are repeated thrice, with reference to
the internal, etc.
In the Abhidhamma-explanation the presence of the four
foundations of mindfulness in the supramundane absorptions is
stated in a similar way as exemplified in the case of the Path
Truth in the Abhidhamma-explanation of Vibh IV.
54
Vibhaṅga
Also in the Catechetic Section the reference is to

Satipaṭṭhāna in supramundane consciousness only, as indicated
by some of the answers. The foundations of mindfulness are
said to be wholesome or neutral; associated with pleasant or
neutral feeling; associated with thought-conception and
discursive thinking (in the 1st supramundane absorption), or
without thought-conception and only with discursive thinking
(in the 2nd absorption), or without both (in the 3rd to 5th
absorptions); belonging either to one in higher training (sekha)
or one beyond it (asekha); they are conditioned, non-corporeal,
supramundane, etc.
VIII. THE FOUR GREAT EFFORTS

(SAMMAPPADHĀNA-VIBHAṄGA)
They are: the effort (1) to avoid and (2) to overcome
unwholesome states; (3) to develop and (4) to maintain
wholesome states.
The Sutta-explanation gives the standard text of these four,
as in the Suttas, followed by explanations of the principal terms
used in it, from which we quote: The ‘unwholesome states’ are
the three unwholesome roots, the defilements conjoined with
them, the four mental groups (khandha) associated with them,
and the bodily, verbal, or mental kamma produced thereby. The
‘wholesome states’ are the three wholesome roots, the four
mental groups, etc.
The Abhidhamma-explanation refers again to
supramundane consciousness and it is stated that each of the
four great Efforts is present in the supramundane absorptions.
In the Catechetic Section, where reference is likewise to
supramundane consciousness, they are said to be always
wholesome (not neutral).
55
IX. THE FOUR ROADS TO POWER

(IDDHIPĀDA-VIBHAṄGA)
They are: the road to power, accompanied by intent effort and
concentration of (1) intention, (2) energy, (3) consciousness, (4)
investigation (chanda-, viriya-, citta-, vīmaṃsā-samādhi-
ppadhānasaṅkhāra-samannāgato iddhipādo).
The Sutta-explanation gives first the standard text of these
four, followed by an explanation of the components of the above
compound term, which is nearly, though not fully, identical with
that given in Iddhipāda-Saṃyutta No. 13.
The Abhidhamma-explanation demonstrates the presence of
the four in supramundane absorption.
In the Catechetic Section they are said to be wholesome,
belonging to those in higher training (sekha); ‘Investigation’
(=non-delusion amoha) is a root cause (hetu); the other three are
not, but occur together with the wholesome root causes
(sahetuka). All four are conditioned, non-corporeal,
supramundane.
X. THE SEVEN FACTORS OF ENLIGHTENMENT

(BOJJHAṄGA-VIBHAṄGA)
They are: mindfulness (sati), investigation of dhamma (or of
states; dhamma-vicaya), energy (viriya), rapture (pīti),
tranquillity (passaddhi), concentration (samādhi), equanimity
(upekkhā).
The Sutta-explanation consists of three sets of expositions.
The first set, referring to mundane consciousness, gives a
general definition of each enlightenment factor. In the second
and third set, both the mundane and the supramundane aspects
are intended, according to the Comy. The second set gives a
twofold division of each factor, as in Bojjhaṅga-Saṃyutta No.
52. The third set refers to the actual meditative development of
the Enlightenment Factors (Comy.: bhāvanāvasena pavattaṃ):
56
Vibhaṅga
“Here a monk develops the enlightenment factor mindfulness,

based on seclusion, based on dispassion, based on cessation,
inclined towards relinquishment” (Bojjhaṅga-Saṃy., No 1).
The Abhidhamma-explanation and the Catechetic section
apply again to supramundane consciousness.
XI. THE EIGHTFOLD PATH

(MAGGA-VIBHAṄGA)
The Sutta-explanation consists of two expositions of the Path
Factors. The first is identical with that given for the 4th Truth in
the Sutta-explanation of Vibh IV. The second exposition refers
to the development of the Path Factors, describing them as
‘based on seclusion’ etc. (see previous chapter).
Here too the Abhidhamma-explanation refers to
supramundane absorption, and the 8- and 5-fold Path (see Vibh
IV) is, in various methods of treatment, shown to be present in it.
According to the Catechetic Section the 8 Path Factors may
be either wholesome or neutral; they are neutral in the case of
kamma-resultant consciousness and in the karmically
independent (functional) consciousness of the Arahat.
Right Thought (sammā-saṅkappa) is accompanied by
pleasant feeling; the other Path Factors, with either pleasant or
neutral feeling. Supramundane Right Thought, which alone is
relevant here, is identical with Right Thought-conception
(vitakka; see MN 117), and in the first supramundane absorption
it is always associated with the jhāna-factor happiness (sukha).
Right Thought is not associated with thought-conception (being
identical with it), but with discursive thinking (vicāra).
All 8 may belong to one in higher training or one who has
completed it. Right Understanding (= undeludedness) is a root
cause (hetu) and occurring with (the other) root causes
(sahetuka); the other seven occur with root causes but are not
root causes themselves. All eight are conditioned, formed, non-
corporeal, supramundane.
57
XII. THE ABSORPTIONS

(JHĀNA-VIBHAṄGA)
The Sutta-explanation is introduced by a Matrix or Schedule,
which, in the phraseology of the Suttas, outlines first the
preliminary training required by a monk who wishes to attain to
the meditative absorptions. He has first to follow strictly the
moral and disciplinary rules of the Order, and to train himself in
sense restraint, moderation in eating, watchfulness (reduction of
sleep), and mindfulness in all his actions. Then, having gone to a
secluded place, he should free himself from the 5 mental
hindrances (nīvaraṇa), and he will then be able to enter the first
absorption (jhāna). The Matrix closes with the standard text of
the four fine-material and four immaterial absorptions.
Now follows a very detailed commentary on almost every
word of the Matrix. The definitions of mental factors occurring
in the Matrix are identical with those in Dhs.
Abhidhamma-explanation The text for the first absorption
(kusala-jjhāna) is as follows:
“Which phenomena are karmically wholesome?
Whenever the monk develops the way for rebirth in the fine-
material (sphere), and, being detached from sensual things,
detached from unwholesome phenomena…enters and dwells
in the first absorption produced by the earth kasiṇa, at such
a time there are five absorption-factors: thought-conception,
discursive thinking, rapture, happiness, and one-pointedness
of mind. The other mental states (present at that time) are
associated with the absorption.”
The formulations of our text are similar to those in Dhs
§160 ff., but in the concluding part of the sentences only the
respective factors of absorption (jhānaṅga) are enumerated, and
not all mental factors as in Dhs. The latter appear, however, in
the passages on kamma-resultant absorption.
The first absorption has five factors, or components, which
are principally characteristic of it: (1) thought-conception
58
Vibhaṅga
(vitakka), (2) discursive thinking (vicāra), (3) rapture (pīti), (4)

happiness (sukha), (5) mental one-pointedness (citt’ekaggatā).
The 2nd absorption has 3: rapture, happiness, mental one-
pointedness; the 3rd has 2: happiness and mental one-
pointedness; the 4th has two; mental one-pointedness and
equanimity. This pertains to the fourfold division of absorption,
as used in the Suttas. In the fivefold division, used in the
Abhidhamma, the factors of the first, third, fourth, and fifth
absorptions are identical with those of the first, second, third and
fourth absorption respectively, in the fourfold division: the second
here still has discursive thinking, but not thought-conception.
In our text, first all classes of karmically wholesome
absorption (kusala-jjhāna) are treated: (1) those of the fine-
material sphere (rūpa-jjhāna), according to (a) the 4-fold
division, (b) the 5-fold division; (2) those of the immaterial
sphere (arūpa-jjhāna or āruppa); (3) the supramundane
absorptions (lokuttara-jjhāna) in (a) the 4-fold, (b) the 5-fold
division. The four immaterial absorptions appear here under the
heading of the 4th absorption (4-fold division), since they share
with it the same jhāna-factors.
Now follow the kamma-resultant (vipāka) absorptions of
fine-material, immaterial, and supramundane type, and finally
the karmically independent (functional; kiriya) fine-material
and immaterial absorptions of the Arahat.
The treatment has to be assumed proceeding with all
divisions and subdivisions given in Dhammasaṅgaṇī for
wholesome (Dhs §§160–373), kamma-resultant (§§531–585),
and functional (§§615–618) absorption.
Catechetic Section.—The absorptions may be karmically
wholesome (in worldlings, or at attainment of the supramundane
Paths of Stream-entry, etc.); karmically neutral: (a) kamma-
resultant as the rebirth-consciousness, subconsciousness, and
death-consciousness for beings in the fine-material and
immaterial realms of existence, or as the supramundane Fruitions
of Stream-entry, etc.), (b) kammically independent (in Arahats).
59
Supramundane absorption has an unlimited object (i.e.

Nibbāna). The first three absorptions have objects not
classifiable as limited, developed, or unlimited, because their
objects, the mental after-images (nimitta), are of conceptual
nature. The fourth absorption, serving as basis for various
attainments (immaterial absorptions, supernormal powers,
supramundane states, etc.), may have either of these three
objects or may be not classifiable by them.
XIII. THE FOUR UNBOUNDED STATES

(APPAMAÑÑĀ-VIBHAṄGA)
‘Unbounded states’ is an alternative name for the four divine
abodes or sublime states (brahma-vihāra): loving-kindness,
compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity (mettā, karuṇā,
muditā, upekkhā).
The Sutta-explanation is introduced by the standard text on
the unbounded states as often found in the Suttas, followed by a
commentary on it. The four sections of the latter begin with the
following sentences:
1. Just as if one will feel loving-kindness at the sight of a
dear and agreeable person, so one pervades all beings with
loving-kindness.
2. Just as if one will feel compassion at the sight of a
miserable, poor person, in the same way, one pervades all
beings with compassion.
3. Just as if one will feel sympathetic joy at the sight of a
dear, agreeable person, in the same way, one pervades all
beings with sympathetic joy.
4. Just as if one will have equanimity at the sight of a
person who is neither agreeable nor disagreeable, so one
pervades all beings with equanimity.
The Abhidhamma-explanation shows the presence of the
four unbounded States in mundane absorption (wholesome,
kamma resultant, and functional). Since these four can have
60
Vibhaṅga
only mundane objects, i.e. the conventional concept of a living

being, the supramundane absorption, which always has the
supramundane object of Nibbāna, is not included here.
The text runs as follows:
“Whenever the monk develops the way for rebirth in the
fine-material (sphere) and…dwells in the first absorption
that is accompanied by loving-kindness, at such a time there
is amity, kindness, kind-heartedness, loving-kindness, the
deliverance of the heart. The other mental states (present)
are associated with loving-kindness.”
As evident from the continuation of the text, loving-
kindness, compassion, and sympathetic joy will produce only
the first 3 absorptions (or the first four of the 5-fold division).
The meditation upon the unbounded state of equanimity will
produce only the fourth absorption. It may be noted that our
text, in dealing with equanimity gives only the 4-fold and not
the 5-fold division of absorption, while for the other 3
unbounded states both divisions are given.
Catechetic Section: Because the objects of these four states
are of conceptual nature, they are said to be not classifiable by
the terms of the Tetrads of limited objects, etc., past objects,
etc., Path objects, etc. They have only external objects.—
Loving-kindness (=non-hatred) is a root-cause.—All four are
mundane and belong to the fine-material sphere only.
XIV. THE OBSERVANCES OF MORAL TRAINING

(SIKKHĀPADA-VIBHAṄGA)
The five observances of moral training, also known as the five
precepts (pañca-sīla), are: abstention from killing, stealing,
sexual misconduct, lying, use of intoxicants.
There is no Sutta-explanation in this chapter.
According to the Abhidhamma-explanation, the five
observances may be connected with any of the eight classes of
wholesome consciousness (Tab. 1–8), the text of which
61
provides the frame for the explanations given here. Within that
frame, each of the five observances is defined: (1) as the
respective abstention (virati) and the other wholesome states
associated with it; (2) as volition (cetanā) and associated
wholesome states; (3) by the whole list of wholesome states
constituting the respective class of consciousness.
“What is here the observance of abstaining from killing?
whenever, for one who abstains from killing, a state of
wholesome consciousness belonging to the sense-sphere has
arisen, accompanied by happiness and associated with
knowledge (and unpremeditated), the refraining from killing
at such a time, the abstention (virati), restraint, abstaining,
non-performance, not doing, not committing…that is called
the observance of abstaining from killing. The other mental
states are associated with (that) abstention.”
The second method concludes:
“…the volition (cetanā) occurring at that time, the will,
the willing, that is called the observance of abstaining from
killing. The other mental states are associated with (that)
volition.”
The third method concludes:
“…at that time there are sense-impression…non-
distraction. That is called the observance of abstaining
from killing.”
After permutations with the other 7 classes of wholesome
consciousness and with the remaining four observances, the
same treatment is repeated differentiating each class of
consciousness: (a) as to its quality (low, middle, excellent); (b)
as to its predominant factor (intention, energy, consciousness, or
investigation); (c) as to both combined.
Finally, the question is put, “Which things constitute
‘training’ (in general)?” (katame dhammā sikkhā). In reply,
the formulas for all classes of wholesome consciousness, i.e. of
the sensuous, fine-material, and immaterial sphere, and the
supramundane, are briefly indicated. This passage is perhaps
62
Vibhaṅga
intended to show that not only the 5 observances of moral

training (sikkhāpada), but all 3 kinds of training (sikkhā), i.e. in
morality, concentration, and wisdom, are expressible in
psychological terms by the classes of wholesome consciousness.
Catechetic section. The 5 observances are throughout
karmically wholesome, mundane, subject to kamma-results;
their objects are limited (i.e. of the sense sphere), external, and
present.
XV. THE FOUR DISCRIMINATIONS

(PAṬI SAMBHIDĀ-VIBHAṄGA)
1. The discrimination of the meaning (attha-paṭisambhidā), 2.
the discrimination of the law (dhamma-paṭisambhidā), 3. the
discrimination of language (nirutti-paṭisambhidā), 4. the
discrimination of sagacity (paṭibhāna-paṭisambhidā).
The Sutta-explanation gives several sets of explanations for
these terms:
(1) Attha-paṭisambhidā means atthe ñāṇa, i.e. knowledge as
to the meaning (or results), (2) dhamma-paṭisambhidā means
dhamme ñāṇa, i.e. knowledge as to the Law (or causes), (3)
discrimination of language is the knowledge about the
expression by language of the former two discriminations, (4)
discrimination of sagacity is the knowledge concerning (these)
knowledges (ñāṇesu ñāṇa).
(1) = knowledge of the Truth of Suffering, (2) = knowledge
of the Truth of Origin; (1) = knowledge of the Truth of
Cessation, (2) = knowledge of the Truth of the Path. The
explanations of (3) and (4) remain the same here and in the
following definitions.
(2) = knowledge of the cause (hetumhi ñāṇa), (1) =
knowledge of the result of the cause (hetuphala-ñāṇa).
(1) = knowledge of things born, originated, produced, etc.,
(2) = knowledge of the things from which the former have
originated.
63
(1) = knowledge of old age and death (jarā-maraṇa), (2) =

knowledge of origin of old age and death; (1) = knowledge of
the cessation of old age and death, (2) = knowledge of the path
leading to their cessation. To be continued with the preceding
links of dependent origination up to ‘formations.’
(2) obtains if one knows the doctrine the Suttas, mixed
prose, etc. (i.e. its wording); (1) obtains if one knows the
meaning of it.
In the Abhidhamma-explanation all eighty classes of
consciousness are briefly enumerated, and in the case of each of
the wholesome and unwholesome classes it is said that the
knowledge of the mental phenomena present in them is the
discrimination of the law (= cause, i.e. kamma); the knowledge
of their kamma-results (vipāka) is the discrimination of the
meaning (or result); the knowledge of the expressions and
concepts by which these are made known, is the discrimination
of language; the knowledge of these knowledges is the
discrimination of sagacity. In the case of the kamma-resultant
and karmically independent classes of consciousness, the
discrimination of the law, being of causal nature, does not apply,
and only the other three discriminations are mentioned.
Catechetic Section. The discrimination of language, being
concerned with words (or sounds; sadda) only, has a limited
object; the other three may have limited, developed or
immeasurable objects. The discrimination of language has a
present object only; the discrimination of meaning may have
past, future or present objects, or an object not classifiable (na
vattabba) in that way (i.e. Nibbāna); the discriminations of law
and sagacity may have past, future or present objects. The
discrimination of meaning may be either mundane or
supramundane; the other three are only mundane. All four are
root-causes (=non-delusion) and accompanied by (the other
two) root-causes.
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Vibhaṅga
XVI. KINDS OF KNOWLEDGE

(ÑĀṆAVATTHU-VIBHAṄGA)
This chapter does not divide into a Sutta-explanation, etc., but
consists of a Matrix or Schedule and its Exposition.
The Matrix lists numerous kinds of knowledge by way of a
single, twofold, up to tenfold classification.
The single classification is entirely devoted to statements
about the fivefold sense-consciousness (pañca-viññāṇa), i.e.
visual consciousness, etc. The first sequence of single
descriptive terms is mostly, though not exclusively, derived
from the dyads of the Abhidhamma Matrix. Here fivefold sense-
consciousness is said to be not a root-cause, conditioned,
mundane, subject to the taints, karmically acquired, not
accompanied by thought-conception and discursive thinking;
when arisen, it is cognizable by mind-consciousness, etc.
In another sequence of single terms it is said that the five
kinds of sense-consciousness are conditioned by sense-bases
(organs) and objects that are presently existent but which had
arisen earlier; they do not participate in each other’s domain,
they do not arise without attention, adverting, etc., nor together,
nor in immediate succession [because after, e.g., visual
consciousness, which is the bare awareness of the visual object,
has arisen the other cognitive stages completing the visual
perception have to follow, before another, e.g., auditory, type of
perception can follow.]
By the fivefold sense-consciousness one does not fully
cognize (or recognize; paṭivijānāti; Comy: e.g. as wholesome)
anything, except as a mere (perceptual) encounter (abhinipāta-
matta); nor does one fully cognize anything immediately after it
(i.e. by the mind-element functioning as ‘receiving,’
sampaṭicchana). Neither by the fivefold sense-consciousness
nor by the following (states of five-door cognition) does one
assume the four postures, perform bodily or vocal kamma, die
65
or be reborn, sleep, awaken or dream (because these functions

are performed by mind-door cognition).
The twofold classification consists of 35 dyads taken from the
Abhidhamma Matrix, and one concluding dyad not contained in
the latter. The 35 dyads begin with ‘mundane and supramundane
knowledge’ and end with ‘surpassable and not surpassable
knowledge.’ The additional dyad is: ‘knowledge productive of
results [or meaning]’ (attha-jāpikā paññā). The commentary says
that attha has here the fivefold meaning given in the previous
chapter, in the explanation of attha-paṭisambhidā. For a detailed
explanation of this dyad and the other terms, see the exposition in
the text and the commentary.
The threefold classification. The first group of three-term
classifications concerns knowledge in general, i.e., without
qualifying terms (Comy.: aniyamita), while in the following
groups the knowledge to be classified by the triads is qualified
(niyamita) by certain terms. The first group begins with four
triads not included in the Abhidhamma Matrix.
Knowledge derived from thinking—from learning—from
meditation (cintāmaya-sutamaya-bhāvanāmaya-paññā);
Knowledge connected with liberality—with morality—with
meditation (dānamaya-sīlamaya-bhāvanāmaya-paññā);
Knowledge of higher morality—higher mentality—higher
wisdom (adhisīle-adhicitte-adhipaññāya paññā);
Proficiency concerning growth—concerning loss—
concerning expedients (āya-apāya-upāya-kosalla).
Now follow 13 triads taken from the Abhidhamma Matrix,
beginning with “knowledge about states that are kamma-
results—that are subject to kamma-results—that are neither’;
ending with ‘knowledge about states with internal objects—
external objects—internal and external objects.”
In the following groups of this section, the knowledge to be
classified here is itself qualified first by the vitakka-ttika, and in
a second set of classifications, by the pīti-ttika, i.e. (1)
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Vibhaṅga
knowledge with thought-conception and discursive thinking—

without thought-conception, only with discursive thinking—
without either; (2) knowledge accompanied by rapture—by
happiness—by equanimity. The knowledge characterized by
each of these six terms forms the heading of the following
classificatory sets, and in each case it is stated which of the other
13 matrix-triads mentioned in the first group apply to these
types of knowledge. For instance: “Of knowledge with thought-
conception and discursive thinking, there is such concerned with
kamma-resultant states, etc…”
Here 13 triads are applicable, leaving out the vitakka-ttika
that forms the heading. Under the heading of the other two terms
of this triad only 7 and 12 threefold classifications, respectively,
apply.
The fourfold classification has 21 tetrads from which the
following may be mentioned here:
The knowledge of kamma-ownership—of adaptation to
truth—of the supramundane paths—of the supramundane
fruitions.—The knowledge of the four truths.—The knowledge
concerning the sensuous, fine-material and immaterial sphere,
and the unincluded (apariyāpanna = supramundane).—The
knowledge of Dhamma (obtained by the 6 supramundane paths
and fruitions; dhamme ñāṇa)—of conformity (between the past,
future and present Dhamma; anvaye ñāṇa)—of others’ minds
(paricce ñāṇa)—conventional knowledge (sammutiñāṇa; i.e. all
knowledge excepting the former 3 kinds).—Knowledge of the
four discriminations, the four kinds of progress, the four
objects.—Knowledge of old-age and death—of their origin—
their cessation—the path to their cessation (to be continued in
the same manner with the other links of to dependent origination
up to ‘formations’).
Fivefold classifications: (knowledge of the) fivefold right
concentration (pañcaṅgiko sammā-samādhi); the fivefold
knowledge about right concentration (pañcañāṇako sammā-
samādhi).
67
The sixfold supernormal knowledge (abhiññā).

The 77 (= seven by eleven subjects of knowledge concerning
Dependent Origination; see SN 12:34).
The eightfold knowledge about the supramundane paths and
fruitions.
The knowledge of the nine successive meditative
attainments (nava-anupubba-vihāra-samāpattiyo).
The knowledge of the ten powers of the Tathāgata (dasa
Tathāgata-bala).
In the subsequent Exposition, all classifications given in the
Matrix are explained with more or less detail.
XVII. MINOR POINTS

(KHUDDAKAVATTHU-VIBHAṄGA)
This chapter contains, in the Matrix, long lists of mental
defilements, i.e. evil qualities, which are explained in the
subsequent Exposition. The arrangement is again in groups of
single, two, up to ten terms, with an addition of the eighteen and
108 types of craving, and the 62 wrong views. This chapter is a
useful source of reference for its subject. The treatment has
however nothing characteristic of the method or terminology of
the Abhidhamma. We therefore do not include details here.
XVIII. THE HEART OF THE DOCTRINE

(DHAMMA-HADAYA-VIBHAṄGA)
The figurative expression ‘heart’ in the title is obviously meant
to signify essence, gist, or summary, as also in later-Buddhist
Sanskrit literature, e.g. in the title Prajñāpāramitā-hadaya.
It deserves mention that, according to the Atthasālinī, the
commentary on Dhammasaṅgaṇī, sectarians who did not
recognize the Kathāvatthu as canonical replaced it by a treatise
called Mahādhammahadaya. The Theravādin rejects it, saying
that the treatise does not contain anything new
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Vibhaṅga
(Subcommentary: ‘compared with the Dhammahadaya-

Vibhaṅga’), except some sections with questions (As 3).
The treatment of the Dhammahadaya-Vibhaṅga is based on
twelve categories which form here the subject of inquiry by way
of questions and answers. The 12 categories are:
Groups of existence (khandha; Vibh I) Nutriments (āhāra)
Sense-bases (āyatana; Vibh II) Sense-impressions (phassa)
Elements (dhātu; Vibh III) Feelings (vedanā)
Truths (sacca; Vibh IV) Perceptions (saññā)
Faculties (indriya; Vibh V) Volitions (cetanā)
Root-causes (hetu) Consciousness (citta)
The first five categories correspond to the first five chapters of
the Vibhaṅga. They are also identical with the first five of those
subjects which, in the Visuddhimagga, are called the ‘basis of
knowledge’ (paññā-bhūmi) and are treated in chapters XIV–
XVI of that work.
I. In the first section the questions are answered: “How
many are the groups of existence … the kinds of
consciousness?” and “Which are the 5 groups … the 7 kinds of
consciousness?”
There are 9 root-causes (hetu), i.e. three each of wholesome,
unwholesome, and neutral character. Differing from the
enumeration as 6, as usual in the Suttas, 7 types of sense-
impression, feeling, perception, volition and consciousness are
given here, i.e. conditioned by eye, ear, nose, tongue, body
mind-element, and mind-consciousness-element (see in Vibh I
the sevenfold classification of the group of feeling).
II. Questions and Answers: “How many, and which, groups
of existence, etc., are in the sensuous, fine-material, and
immaterial element (= sphere), and in (those states that are)
unincluded (in the three spheres; apariyāpanna)?” The latter
term refers here only to the eight supramundane paths and
fruitions and not to Nibbāna, included in the complete definition
of the term.
69
We exemplify a few answers;

In the sensuous, fine-material, and immaterial sphere, there
are only 3 truths, excepting the third (Nibbāna).
In the fine-material sphere, from the physical sense-bases,
only eye and ear and their objects exist; accordingly there are
only 6 sense-bases, 9 elements, 14 faculties, 3 nutriments; four
sense-impressions, feelings, perceptions, volitions, kind of
consciousness.
In the fine-material and immaterial sphere, there are only 8
root-causes, omitting ‘hatred.’ Among the faculties of feeling,
‘sadness’ (domanassa) is absent.
In the immaterial sphere all material categories are absent.
Among the faculties also the faculty ‘I shall come to know the
unknown’ (pertaining to the Sotāpanna) is left out. There is only
one kind of sense-impression, feeling, perception, and volition,
i.e. that conditioned by mind-consciousness (mano-viññāṇa),
and only one type of consciousness (citta), the mind-
consciousness-element (mano-viññāṇa-dhātu).
The unincluded (apariyāpanna), as the commentary points
out, is not an element or a sphere in the spatial sense, nor is it a
place of rebirth, since it refers only to the eight supramundane
classes of consciousness. Consequently, all material categories
are omitted. From the Truths, only the 3rd and the 4th are
present; from the root-causes, only the 6 wholesome and neutral
ones. Among 12 faculties present here, all 3 supramundane ones
are included (see Vibh V; 20–22 of the list).
Also, in the following sections, many instructive facts can
be derived from the questions and answers. But within the
limited frame of this book, we have to restrict ourselves to a
bare mention of the questions answered in them.
III. How many factors of the 12 categories, and which, are
included, and not included, in each of the three spheres? How
many belong, and do not belong, to the unincluded?
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Vibhaṅga
IV. How many factors of the 12 categories, and which, arise

at the rebirth moment (upapatti-kkhaṇe) in each of the three
spheres? (This section is rich in interesting details.)
V. This section begins with the following four dyads of the
Abhidhamma Matrix.
States belonging to the sense-spheres, and not;
States belonging to the fine-material sphere, and not;
States belonging to the immaterial sphere, and not;
States included (in the 3 spheres), and states unincluded.
The answers to the questions which these states are, are
identical with those in Dhs §§1280–87.
VI. This section is dealing with a field outside the
Abhidhamma. It deals mainly with the duration of life of the
various classes of deities.
VII. Here the method of treatment based on the 12
categories is resumed, and it is asked: Which of the 5 groups of
existence … penetrated (pariññeyya), abandoned (pahātabba),
developed (bhāvetabba), and realized (sacchikātabba), and
which are not?
VIII. (a) Which of the 5 groups … 7 types of consciousness
have objects (sārammaṇa), and which have not (anārammaṇa)?
(b) Which of them have objects that, on their part, have
objects themselves, and which have not
(sārammaṇārammaṇa—anārammaṇa)?
IX. Which of them are seen (= visible; diṭṭha), heard (=
audible; suta), sensed (by smell, taste, touch; muta), cognized
(viññāta), and which are not?
X. Which of them are karmically wholesome, etc.; are
associated with pleasant feeling, etc.; are accompanied by
thought-conception and discursive thinking, etc.? (See the
respective triads of the Abhidhamma Matrix.)
Which of them are corporeal—uncorporeal; mundane—
supramundane?
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III
DHĀTUKATHĀ
‘DISCUSSION WITH REFERENCE TO THE ELEMENTS’
PRELIMINARY REMARKS
This and the following book, the Puggalapaññatti, are in extent
the smallest books of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka. Both, from
beginning to end, are written in catechism form.
The Dhātukathā consists of 14 chapters, with some
hundreds of questions and answers. Its full title really should be
‘Khandhāyatana-dhātukathā,’ i.e. ‘Discussion with reference to
the groups, bases, and elements’ (see Vibh I–III), for here all
conceivable phenomena are discussed with reference to these
three categories, i.e. whether, and in which measure, they are
‘included’ (saṅgahita), or ‘not-included,’ in these three aspects;
whether they are ‘associated’ (sampayutta) therewith, or
‘dissociated’ (vippayutta) therefrom.
Now, with this task in view, the whole work has been
divided into the following 14 chapters, which, with regard to
their subject matter, form three distinct groups:
i. Inclusion and non-inclusion (saṅgaho asaṅgaho)
ii. Included and unincluded (saṅgahitena asaṅgahitaṃ)
iii. Unincluded and included (asaṅgahitena saṅgahitaṃ)
iv. Included and included (saṅgahitena saṅgahitaṃ)
v. Unincluded and unincluded (asaṅgahitena
asaṅgahitaṃ)
vi. Association and dissociation (sampayogo vippayogo)
vii. Association and dissociated (sampayuttena
vippayuttaṃ)
viii. Dissociated and associated (vippayuttena sampayuttaṃ)
Dhātukathā
ix. Associated and associated (sampayuttena sampayuttaṃ)

x. Dissociated and dissociated (vippayuttena vippayuttaṃ)
xi. XI. Associated with, and dissociated from, the included
(saṅgahitena sampayuttaṃ)
xii. Included and unincluded in the associated (sampayut-
tena saṅgahitaṃ asaṅgahitaṃ)
xiii. Associated with, and dissociated from, the unincluded
(asaṅgahitena sampayuttaṃ vippayuttaṃ)
xiv. Included and unincluded in the dissociated (vippayut-
tena saṅgahitaṃ asaṅgahitaṃ)
Here it should be noted that, in the Abhidhamma, the term
‘associated’ (sampayutta) is reserved for mental phenomena
only, namely for those combined in a single moment of
consciousness. The term cannot be applied to the combination
of material phenomena or their relationship to mental processes
or factors.
The aforementioned 14 headings form the first part of the
Matrix, or Schedule, with which the Dhātukathā starts. In the
second part of it, those phenomena are indicated which are the
subject of the inquiry as to their inclusion, etc., in the elements,
etc. They consist firstly of 125 phenomena enumerated in the
following, and in addition, of all triads and dyads of
Abhidhamma Matrix. The 125 phenomena are:
73
5 Groups of existence 4 Unbounded states

(khandha) (appamaññā)
12 Bases (āyatana) 5 Spiritual faculties (indriya)
18 Elements (dhātu) 5 Powers (bala)
4 Truths (sacca) 7 Factors of enlightenment
22 Faculties (indriya) (bojjhaṅga)
12 (links of the) dependent 8 (Factors of the) Path
origination (paṭicca- (magga)
samuppāda) Sense-impression (phassa)
4 Foundations of mindfulness Feeling (vedanā)
(satipaṭṭhāna) Perception (saññā)
4 Great efforts Volition (cetanā)
(sammappadhāna) Consciousness (citta)
4 Roads to power (iddhipāda) Determination
4 Absorptions (jhāna) (adhimokkha)
Attentiveness (manasikāra)
The additional inclusion of the triads and dyads among the

subjects of inquiry is indicated in the Matrix by a single
sentence: “Also the whole Dhammasaṅgaṇī (belongs to) the
matrix of the Dhātukathā.”
As will be seen from the following extracts, the respective
questions are answered in the text merely by saying how many
groups, etc., obtain in the respective case. Where it seemed
necessary, the identification of these groups, etc., by name, has
been added in brackets by the author. In a number of instances
it was not at all easy to find the correct answers to the intricate
questions. In fact, the Dhātukathā, the Yamaka, and the
catechetic sections of the Vibhaṅga are partly very severe tests
for logical and analytical thought, and for the proficiency in
using correctly the fundamental doctrinal terms that are the
subject-matter of these treatises.
For the study of the following extracts and of the original
text, reference to the following table will be helpful. Mental
phenomena are printed in italics; all others are material. Only
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Dhātukathā
the mind-object base and the mind-object element may be either

mental or material.
Groups Bases
1. Corporeality 1. Eye 7. Visual object
2. Feeling 2. Ear 8. Sound
3. Perception 3. Nose 9. Odour
4. Formations 4. Tongue 10. Taste
5. Consciousness 5. Body 11. Tangible object
6. Mind-base 12. Mind-object
(consciousness) (mental or material)
Elements
1. Eye 7. Visual object 13. Eye-consciousness
2. Ear 8. Sound 14. Ear-consciousness
3. Nose 9. Odour 15. Nose-consciousness
4. Tongue 10. Taste 16. Tongue-
5. Body 11. Tangible object consciousness
6. Mind-element 12. Mind-object- 17. Body-
element (mental consciousness
or material) 18. Mind-
consciousness
I. INCLUSION AND NON-INCLUSION

“In how many groups, bases, and elements is the corporeality-
group included? In 1 group (i.e. corporeality-group), in 11
bases (i.e. the 10 physical bases and (corporeal) mind-object;
cf. Vibh II), in 2 elements (=bases). In how many groups is it
unincluded? It is unincluded in four (mental) groups, unin-
cluded in 1 base (mind-base) and unincluded in 7 elements (i.e.
the 6 kinds of consciousness, and mind-element).”
“In how many groups, bases and elements is the feeling-
group included? It is included in 1 group (i.e. feeling-group),
75
included in 1 base (i.e. mind-object), and included in 1

element (i.e. mind-object).”
The answers for the perception and formation-groups are
analogous with the above.
“In how many groups, bases and elements is the
consciousness-group included? It is included in 1 group (i.e.
consciousness-group), included in 1 base (i.e. mind-base), and
included in 7 elements (i.e. the 6 kinds of consciousness and
mind-element).”
Thereafter, the same question is repeated with regard to the
dyads ‘corporeality and feeling,’ ‘corporeality and perception,’
‘corporeality and formations,’ ‘corporeality and consciousness,’
the triads ‘corporeality, feeling, perception,’ etc.; the tetrads
‘corporeality, feeling, perception, formations,’ etc.; the pentad
‘corporeality, feeling, perception, formations, consciousness’,
i.e. the five groups.
Then the question is asked with regard to each of the 12
bases, then with regard to the dyads formed by the eye-base in
turn with each of the remaining bases, etc. In exactly the same
way, are treated the 18 elements, similarly the four Truths (s.
Vibh IV), the absorptions (ib. XII), the four unbounded states
(ib. XIII), the 5 spiritual faculties (ib. V), the 5 spiritual powers
(the same), the 7 factors of enlightenment (ib. X), etc., etc.
In the following a few specimens of answers to these
questions are selected:
“The mind-object-base (dhammāyatana) is included in
four groups (1–4; 5, i.e. consciousness, cannot be object),
included in 1 base (mind-object), and included in 1 element
(mind-object).—The truth of suffering is included in all the 5
groups, 12 bases, and 18 elements—The vitality-faculty is
included in 2 groups (corporeality and formations group,
namely, as physical and mental vitality), in 1 base (mind-
object) and in 1 element (mind-object).—The kammically
wholesome and unwholesome phenomena are included in
four groups (2–5), in 1 base (mind-base), and in 1 element
76
Dhātukathā
(mind-consciousness).—The jhāna factors (see Vibh XII) are

included in 2 groups (happiness in the feeling-group, the
other components in the formations group), in 1 base (mind-
object), and in 1 element (mind-object).”
II. INCLUDED AND UNINCLUDED

“Those phenomena which together with the eye-base are
included in the same group—hence all the corporeal
phenomena—but which are not included in the same base
and element (namely, eye-base and eye-element), in how
many groups, bases, and elements are they unincluded? They
are unincluded in the four groups (i.e. mental groups),
unincluded in 2 bases (i.e. eye- and mind-base), and
unincluded in 8 elements (i.e. eye-element, 6 kinds of
consciousness, and mind-element).”
The question is in the same way repeated and answered with
regard to each of the remaining 9 corporeal bases and elements.
“Those phenomena which together with the eye-
consciousness-element are included in the same group (i.e.
the consciousness group)—hence the mind-element, and all
the consciousness-elements except eye consciousness—and
included in the same base (namely, the mind-base) but which
are not included in the same element (namely, eye-
consciousness-element), those phenomena are unincluded in
four groups (1–4), unincluded in 11 bases (i.e. 10 corporeal
bases, and mind-object), and unincluded in 12 elements (i.e.
eye-consciousness, ten corporeal elements, and mind-object).”
Etc., etc.
VI. ASSOCIATION AND DISSOCIATION

“With how many groups, bases and elements is the corpore-
ality-group associated? With none. From how many is it
dissociated? From four (mental) groups, 1 base (mind-base), 7
elements, (6 kinds of consciousness and mind-element); from
1 base and 1 element (mind-object) it is sometimes dissociated
77
(i.e., if the mind-object is a mental phenomenon, or Nibbāna;

see Vibh II).”
“The feeling-group, just as the perception- and
formations-groups, is associated with 3 groups (i.e. the
remaining 3 mental groups), 1 base (mind-base), 7 elements
(6 consciousness-elements and mind-element); with 1 base
and 1 element (mind-object) it is sometimes associated (i.e. if
the mind-object is a mental phenomenon). From how many
groups, bases, and elements is it dissociated? From 1 group
(corporeality), 10 bases, and 10 elements (the corporeal ones);
from 1 base and 1 element (mind-object) it is sometimes
dissociated (if the mind-object is a corporeal phenomenon, or
Nibbāna).”
XI. ASSOCIATED WITH, AND DISSOCIATED FROM,

THE INCLUDED
This chapter begins thus:

“Those phenomena (mental formations) which together
with the Origination-Truth (i.e. craving; cf. Yam, V & Vibh
IV) are included1 in the same group (i.e. here the
Formations-group), included in the same base (mind-object),
and included in the same element (mind-object), with how
many groups, bases, and elements are they associated? —
They are associated with 3 groups (feeling, perception,
consciousness), with 1 base (mind-base), with 7 elements (6
consciousness-elements and mind-element); with 1 group
(formations), 1 base, and 1 element (mind-object) they are
sometimes associated (namely, in case the mind-object
consists in feeling or perception). From how many groups,
bases, and elements are they dissociated?—They are
dissociated from 1 group (corporeality group), 10 (physical)
bases and elements; from 1 base and 1 element (mind-object)
they are sometimes dissociated (namely in case the mind-
object is a corporeal phenomenon, or Nibbāna).”
1. Read saṅgahita for asaṅgahita of the PTS’s edition
78
Dhātukathā
XIV. INCLUDED AND UNINCLUDED IN THE DISSOCIATED

“Those phenomena which are dissociated from the corpore-
ality-group, in how many groups, etc., are they included? In
four groups, 2 bases, 8 elements.—In how many groups, etc.,
are they unincluded? In 1 group, 10 bases, 10 elements.
Those phenomena which are dissociated from karmically
wholesome or unwholesome phenomena (i.e. karmically
neutral phenomena), in how many groups, etc., are they
included? Excluding the Uncreated (asaṅkhata=Nibbāna)
from the groups, they are included in (all) 5 groups, 12 bases,
18 elements.—In how many are they unincluded—In none.
Those phenomena which are dissociated from mundane
phenomena (i.e. the supramundane four paths and four
fruitions), in how many groups, etc., are they included? In
four groups, 2 bases, 2 elements—In how many groups, etc.,
are they unincluded? In 1 group, 10 bases, 16 elements.”
79
IV
PUGGALAPAÑÑATTI
‘DESCRIPTION OF INDIVIDUALS’
PREMINARY REMARKS
This smallest of the seven Abhidhamma books appears to be
somewhat out of place in the Abhidhamma Piṭaka, as is shown
even by its title ‘Description of Individuals.’ For it is one of the
main characteristics of the Abhidhamma that it does not employ
conventional concepts like ‘individual’ (puggala), etc., but deals
only with ultimates, or realities in the ‘highest sense’
(paramattha-dhamma), i.e. the mental and material phenomena,
and their classifications into groups (khandha), bases, elements,
etc. This treatise, however, in accordance with its subject-
matter, is written in the conventional language as used in the
Sutta Piṭaka. In fact, most of its contents have literal parallels in
the Aṅguttara Nikāya and the Saṅgīti Sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya.
The treatise is introduced by a Matrix and its first part is
suggestive of a formal reason for the inclusion of this book in
the Abhidhamma Piṭaka. The Matrix begins with enumerating
six kinds of ‘descriptions’ (paññatti): the description of groups
(khandha-paññatti), of bases, of elements, of truths, of faculties,
and finally, of individuals (Puggalapaññatti). The first five fall
certainly within the scope of the Abhidhamma, and may well
have been the original reason for ascribing this treatise to the
Abhidhamma Piṭaka. These five items, however, appear only in
the Matrix, which adds only their respective divisions into
corporeality-group, etc. There is no detailed treatment of them
in the main body of the book. As a reason for that omission, the
commentary mentions that the subject-matter of these five
‘descriptions’ had already been dealt with, in full detail, in the
respective chapters of the Vibhaṅga.
Puggalapaññatti
The Matrix now proceeds to give the headings for the

‘description of individuals.’ That description divides into 10
chapters, of which the first deals with single individuals, the
second with pairs, the third with groups of three, and so forth,
up to a tenfold classification. These ten chapters contain 142
groupings of individuals with 386 single individuals, which,
however, partly overlap. The detailed exposition that follows
after the Matrix has the same divisions. It contains not merely
brief definitions of the various human types, but also some fairly
long descriptions, and a number of beautiful and elaborate
similes. Apart from ethical classifications of individuals, a great
number of important specifically doctrinal terms concerning
human types are explained here, and among them also some of
relatively rare occurrence.
Therefore this little work makes a handy book of reference
that will prove very useful in Buddhist studies.
(I.9) “Which person is a worldling (puthujjana)? One who
has not yet abandoned the 3 fetters (of self-illusion,
scepticism, and trust in rules and rituals), and also is not yet
on the way to abandoning these things, such a person is
called a worldling.”
(I.10) “Which is the person who ‘attains two ends
simultaneously’ (samasīsī)? It is one in whom the end of the
taints (āsava) and the end of life take place at the same time.”
(I.20) “Which is the person who ‘can halt a world-
destruction’ (ṭhitakappī)? It is a person who is on the way to
realizing the fruition of stream-entry. If, then, it is the time
for the conflagration of the world-system (kappa), the world-
system will not be consumed by fire until that person has
realized the fruition of stream-entry.1 Also all persons who
have attained to (one of the other) paths are such who can
halt a world-destruction.”
1. The fruition of stream-entry, etc., follows immediately after the

stage called the path of stream-entry, etc., which lasts for only one
moment of consciousness.
81
(I.28) “Which person is a Fully Enlightened One (sammā-

sambuddha)? Whoever, in things previously not heard of, by
himself fully understands the truths, and therein becomes
all-knowing, and gains mastery in the (ten) powers of a
Buddha, such a person is called a Fully Enlightened One.”
(I.29) Which person is a Silent Buddha (paccekabuddha)?
Whoever, in things not previously heard of, by himself fully
understands the truths but does not become all-knowing, nor
gain mastery in the (10) powers of a Buddha, such a person is
called a Silent Buddha.”
(I.30) “Which is the person who is twice-liberated
(ubhatobhāga-vimutta)? It is one who , in his own person, has
attained to the eight liberations (=absorptions), and through
wise penetration his taints (āsava) have come to extinction.”
(I.31) “Which is the person who is liberated by wisdom
(paññā-vimutta)? —It is one who has not attained, in his own
person, to the eight liberations, but through wise penetration
his taints have come to extinction.”
(III.17) “Three teachers:
There is one teacher who proclaims as true and real a self
in this visible existence, and he proclaims as true and real a
self in future life.
There is one teacher who proclaims as true and real a self
in this visible existence, but he does not proclaim as true and
real a self in future life.
There is one teacher who neither proclaims as true and
real a self in this visible existence, nor does he proclaim as
true and real a self in future life.
The first should be understood as one who teaches
eternalism (sassata-vādo); the second, as one who teaches
annihilationism (uccheda-vādo); the third teacher who
neither proclaims as true and real a self in this visible
existence, nor in future life, he is the Fully Enlightened
One.”
82
V
KATHĀVATTHU
‘POINTS OF CONTROVERSY’
PRELIMINARY REMARKS
This book is ascribed to the Elder Moggaliputta-tissa, who
according to tradition compiled it as a polemical treatise against
the schismatic monk-groups, or schools, existing in the 3rd
century BCE, and recited it at the Third Council, at Pāṭaliputta,
the present Patna, convened by King Asoka in about 246 BCE.
This is, in short, what the Commentary to the work tells us
about the rather confused, and in no way yet settled, history of
those schools: One hundred years after the passing away of the
Buddha, the so-called Vajjiputtaka monks proposed laxer rules
of the Order, and founded the Mahāsaṅghika school from
which, in the 2nd century after the Buddha’s death five other
schools sprang up, making six schools in all. From the original
school of Buddhism, which—by reason of its having been
rehearsed by 500 Theras, or Elders, immediately after the
Buddha’s death—was called the Theravāda, there seceded 11
schools—the most important amongst them being the
Sarvāstivāda (Pāli: Sabbatthivāda) school—making twelve in
all. Thus, in the 2nd century after Buddha, i.e. the 3rd century
BCE, we find altogether 18 different schools, 17 of which were
considered schismatic by the Theravādins, the Theravāda alone
being orthodox.
Mahāsaṅghikas
Ekabbohārikas Gokulikas Paṇṇatti-vādins Bāhulikas
Theravādins Cetiyavādins
Mahiṃsāsakas Vajji-puttakas
Sabbatthivādins Dhammaguttikas Dhammuttariyas Bhadrayānikas

Kassapikas Channāgarikas Sammitiyas
Sankrantikas
Suttavādins
According to the ancient chronicles of Ceylon, the

Mahāvaṃsa and Dīpavaṃsa, however, the Vajjiputtakas were
not the founders of the Mahāsaṅghika school, but were wicked
monks who had been excommunicated from the Community of
monks; and the Mahāsaṅghikas, or ‘Adherents of the Great
assembly,’ had (in conformity with the northern tradition of
Vasumitra and Bhavya) arisen independently of the
Vajjiputtakas, which again are figuring as off-shoots of the
Theravāda. According to the southern tradition, again, the
Mahāsaṅghikas altered and falsified the Sutta and Vinaya, and
invented a number of Suttas, which they gave out as the Word
of the Buddha.
The Commentary further says that, since King Asoka
showed great regard for Buddhism and the Buddhist monks,
many teachers and adherents of other faiths sought admission to
the Order, or stealthily donned the yellow robe, whilst at the
same time still continuing their former religious views and
practices, such as fire-worship and sun-worship, and the like.
After many vain attempts to settle the troubled state of the
Buddhist monkhood, and fix the exact Word of the Buddha,
King Asoka finally convened the Council at Pāṭaliputta, where
the whole Canon was rehearsed, and the present work of
Moggaliputta-tissa, the leader of the Council, incorporated in
the Abhidhamma Piṭaka.
84
Kathāvatthu
The Kathāvatthu (edited by the Pali Text Society in 2 vols.

of altogether 628 pp.) contains 219 controversies, divided into
twenty three chapters. There is no distinct plan in the grouping
of these controversies, neither with regard to the subject-matter
nor with regard to the different schools. The whole seems rather
to have grown gradually so that, already for this reason, one
would hesitate to ascribe the entire work to one single author.
But the fact that most of the heretical opinions are ascribed to
schools that came to life several centuries later, I consider a
positive proof that Moggaliputtatissa could not have been the
only author of the work.
In the text itself no mention is made of the names of the
different schools to which the manifold theories and
speculations are assigned; this is supplied by the Commentary.
A great deal of those speculations relate, indeed, to very minor
matters, and are often merely one-sided, or misleading,
statements; and nearly all of them can be traced back to wrong
or inaccurate understanding, or to the indiscriminate use of
technical terms or of utterances occurring in the Canon. I give
here a chronologically arranged list of the schismatic schools, to
which the Commentary (5th century CE) ascribes the opinions
treated in this work. Of those schools, really only the first eight
belong to the above-mentioned heretical schools existing at
Asoka’s time, and of them, again, three are mentioned only
once, and one twice. The figures refer to the numbers of the
discussions.
85
{
Vajjiputtakas 12
Mahiṃsāsakas (Mahiṃs.) 21, 55, 59, 82, 98, 106, 161, 181, 192, 197
4th cent. BCE
Mahāsaṅghikas (Mahās.) 98–103, 105, 107-09, 112, 116-19,

135, 144, 145, 149, 155-56, 184, 201, 204
Gokulikas 18
Sabbatthivādins (Sabb.) 2, 6, 7, 19, 113
Sammitiyas (Samm.) 1-5, 19, 26, 28, 29, 66, 75, 80, 82-84, 98,
106, 141, 142, 154, 161, 162, 182
{ Bhadrayānikas 19
BCE
cent.
3rd
Kassapikas 8
Hetuvādins (Het.) 148, 150–51, 153, 157, 168–69, 192, 194, 219
Uttarāpathakas (Uttar.) 34–37, 39, 40, 45, 47, 58, 59, 74, 87,
88, 90–91, 113, 120–21, 123, 126–27, 129–30,
132, 137–38, 159–60, 175, 178–80, 185, 189, 191,
{
193, 199, 205–06, 209–11, 213, 216, 219
Andhakas (Andh.) 9, 10, 17, 19-24, 26, 28, 29, 32, 33, 41–44,
46, 48-54, 58, 60-63, 70–74, 78–81, 85, 88, 89, 96,
97, 111, 114–15, 131, 139–42, 154, 162–65, 179–
80, 182, 186, 190, 195–96, 202, 203, 205–08, 215,
217, 218
Pubba-seliyas (Pubb.) 11–16, 55, 56, 75-77, 83, 84, 86, 93–95,
110, 122, 128, 133–34, 136, 143, 158, 183, 187–
88, 198, 214
Apara-seliyas (Apar.) 11, 128, 158, 214
Rājagirikas (Rāj.) 64–69, 125, 152, 166–67
Siddhatthikas (Siddh.) 64–69, 166–67
Vetulyakas 170–74, 176, 177, 215
The method applied in the discussions is in most cases a

purely logical one, as in Yamaka, Nettippakaraṇa, and
Peṭakopadesa. As our space is limited, and, besides, the general
inquirer into Buddhism is not so much concerned with the mere
method but rather with the doctrine itself, I shall give here only
a rough idea of the logical treatment of the first and most
important dialogue, comprising 69 pages in the PTS edition. Of
all the remaining 218 dialogues, I shall give only the substance.
86
Kathāvatthu
CHAPTER I
1. Is there, in the absolute sense, any personality (puggala)
to be found?
Puggala is here explained by attan (self, ego, personal
entity), satta (being), and jīva (vital principle, soul, etc.), all
terms which in Buddhism have validity only in a relative sense,
namely, as figures of speech in popular and conventional
language (vohāra), but not in the absolute sense (cf. Intr.).
Amongst the schismatic schools, the Vajjiputtakas and
Sammitiyas advocated some sort of personality-belief. This first
controversy starts with 8 refutations.
The first refutation, of which I shall quote merely the
beginning consists of: a five fold affirmative presentation
(anuloma), a four fold rebuttal (paṭikamma), a five fold
refutation (niggaha), a four fold application (upanayana), a four
fold conclusion (niggamana).
(The five fold affirmative presentation):
(1) Theravādin: ‘Can there be found any personality in
the real, absolute sense?’
Heretic: ‘Yes.’1
(2) Ther.: ‘Can the personality be found in the real,
absolute sense, in the same way that a real, absolute fact is
found?’
Her.: ‘No, that cannot be said.’
(3) Ther.: ‘Admit your refutation: If the personality can
be found in the real and absolute sense, then you should also
say that the personality can be found in the real, absolute
sense, in the same way that a real absolute fact is found (like
any mental or bodily phenomenon). (4) That which you here
declare is wrong, namely, that we should say the first thing,
but should not say the second thing. (5) If the second thing
cannot be said, then also the first thing should not be said.
1. Āmantā—This word is found only in Kathāvatthu and Yamaka.
87
Thus, you are wrong in affirming the first thing, whilst

denying the second thing.’
(The four-fold rebuttal):
Heretic: ‘Can the personality not be found in the real, abso-
lute sense?’
Ther.: ‘No, it cannot.’
Her.: ‘Is it then undiscoverable, just in the same sense
that a real, absolute fact is discoverable?’
Ther.: ‘No, that could not be said.’
Her.: ‘Admit the rebuttal: if the personality cannot be
found in the real, absolute sense, then you should also say
that it is undiscoverable, just in the same way that a real,
absolute fact is discoverable, etc., etc.’
In the second refutation, the heretic first puts forward a five
fold negative presentation (paccanīka): ‘Is personality not to be
found in the real, absolute sense?’ to which the Theravādin
replies that it is not. The rest is analogous to the first refutation.
In the third refutation, the matter is presented with regard to
locality: ‘Is the personality everywhere found in the sense of a
real, absolute fact?’; in the fourth refutation, with regard to
time: ‘Is personality always found, etc.?’; in the fifth refutation,
with regard to the object: ‘Is personality found in everything
(i.e. 5 groups of existence, etc.)?’ In the sixth, seventh, and
eighth refutations, the matter is presented in a negative form
with regard to locality, time, and object.
Thereafter follows an inquiry, in which personality is
compared with the realities, i.e. the 5 groups of existence, etc.
(s. Vibh I–III), first in a direct way, then by way of analogy, of
identity, then with regard to relativity and absoluteness, to
conditionality and unconditionality, eternity and temporariness,
externality and internality, then by clearing the meaning of the
terms, then by inquiring into personality with regard to rebirth:
‘Does the personality transmigrate from this to the next
world?’ etc.; then with regard to dependency: ‘Is personality
88
Kathāvatthu
dependent upon corporeality? Upon feeling? … Could five

personalities be dependent upon the five groups of existence?’
etc. Further: ‘Does personality undergo rebirth in each
moment of consciousness? … Is personality in the next
moment the same, or another?... (Her.:) Is it not the
personality who sees with the eye? … Does not the Buddha
with his divine eye perceive visible objects, and also
personalities? … (Ther.): Are the visible things the
personality? … Is the personality something seen?’ … (Her.):
‘Does there not exist the doer of wholesome and
unwholesome actions? Or the experiencer of their karmic
effects? Or the Enjoyer of Nibbāna? Or the Person possessed
of magical power? … Do there not exist father mother,
brother, sister, merchants, holy men, etc., etc.?’ … (Ther.): ‘Is
feeling one thing, and the experiencer of the feeling another?’
… (Her.). ‘Did not the Buddha say in Aṅguttara I: “There is
one person born in the world, who works for the good … of
heavenly beings and men?’” etc.
The Ther. quotes the unambiguous and conclusive passage
from MN 22: ‘If, O monks, there was to be found the Self (attā),
then there also would be found that which belongs to the Self,
etc:’ further from Puggalapaññatti III.17 that there are three
teachers to be found in the world: the one who teaches an
imperishable, eternal Self (‘eternalist’); the one who teaches a
temporaly, perishable Self (‘annihilationist’); and the one who
teaches neither (the Buddha). In conclusion, we may add the
passage from DN 9: ‘All these terms (personality, I, self, etc.)
are mere popular designations and expressions, mere
conventional terms of speech, mere popular notions ….’
2. Can an arahat fall away from arahatship?
According to the Comy., the Sammitiyas, Vajjiputtakas,
Sabbatthivādins, and some Mahāsaṅghikas believed so, by
reason of such texts, as: ‘There are, O Monks, four things which
bring ruin to a ‘temporarily emancipated’ monk.’ By this term
really not an arahat is meant, but one who from time to time
89
reaches the jhānas (see Pug I). The Ther., in reply, says that in
such a case the 3 other kinds of noble disciples would also be
liable to fall away from their attainments, and all would thus
become ‘worldlings’ again; and that there is no single instance
in the texts where such a thing is reported of any monk (Cf.
§84).
3. Can the holy life (brahmacariya) be found amongst
heavenly beings?
The Sammitiyas—not distinguishing between
brahmacariya as a name for the ‘monastic life’ and
brahmacariya as a name for the four Noble stages—rebuke the
Theravādins for holding that, while there is no monastic life
among the heavenly beings, there could nevertheless be the
living of a holy life.
4. Does one lose the mental corruptions only piece by
piece?
The Sammitiyas believed that the Sotāpanna, by insight into
the Truth of Suffering and its Origin, loses only a portion of the
1st 3 fetters and the corruptions involved; and that, by insight
into the extinction of suffering, he again loses a portion of the
2nd and 3rd fetters and the corruptions involved; and that, by
insight into the 8-fold path, he again loses a portion of the 3rd
fetter and the corruptions involved. If this be so, the Ther,
objects, one should come to the conclusion that only one portion
of that person is a Sotāpanna, another portion not, etc. The
Sammitiyas support their belief by Dhp 239, while the
Theravādin quotes Sn 231 and another text as his support.
5. Can one as a ‘worldling’ be free from sensuous greed
and ill-will?
The Sammitiyas believed that by entering (through jhāna)
the fine-material sphere (rūpāvacara) one becomes free from
those mental impurities. The heretic, as his last resource, quotes
AN 6:54, where it is said of 6 ancient teachers, still ‘worldlings’,
that they were free from sensuous desires (which is not to be
90
Kathāvatthu
taken there in the absolute sense), and reborn in the Brahmā-

heaven (belonging to the rūpa-sphere).
6. Does everything exist (sabbaṃ atthi)?
The adherents of Sabbatthivāda (Sanskrit: Sarvāstivāda)
(see Takakusu, JPTS 1905, 67f), believe that all the past,
present, and future bodily and mental phenomena of existence,
are to be considered as existing. According to the Theravādins,
however, only the phenomena at this present moment actually
exist; the past ones have existed but exist no more; and the
future ones will exist but do not exist as yet.
7. This discussion is supplementary to the foregoing.
8. Is it true that certain things of the past and future do
exist, others not?
The Kassapikas, an off-shoot of the Sabbatthivādins,
believed that the past partly survives in the present, and that
those future things which are inevitably determined are to be
considered as existing.
9. Are all phenomena ‘foundations of mindfulness’
(satipaṭṭhāna)?1
The Andhakas2 held this view, basing it on Satipaṭṭhāna
Saṃyutta, where it is said: “I will show you, O monks, the
arising and passing away of the foundations of mindfulness…”
(SN 47:42). Though all phenomena may form objects of
mindfulness, they cannot be said to be identical with the
meditative practice of satipaṭṭhāna or with the mental factor
‘mindfulness,’ nor are all beings possessed of mindfulness.
10. Do the past, present, and future phenomena, in a
certain way, exist; and in a certain way, not?
This view was held by the Andhakas. (Cf. §6–8).
1. i.e., Contemplation of body, feelings, mind, mind-object. See

Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, DN 22 and MN 10.
2. The Andhakas, comprising Pubba- and Apara-seliyas, Rājagirikas,
and Siddhatthikas, were still in existance at Buddhaghosa’s time, i.e.,
the 5th cent. CE.
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CHAPTER II
11. May the Arahat still have seminal discharge?
The Pubbaseliyas and Aparaseliyas believed so, and
considered it to be the result of eating and drinking, etc.
12–14. May the Arahat still possess ignorance
(aññāṇa)... possess doubt (kaṅkhā),... be excelled by others?
The Pubb. made these misleading statements, by reason of
the fact that the Arahat may still be ignorant, doubtful and
excelled by others in knowledge, with regard to names of men,
trees, etc. But the Arahat is absolutely free from delusive
ignorance (avijjā), and sceptical doubt (vicikicchā).
15. Is speech uttered during the jhānas (see Vibh XII)?
This wrong conception of the Pubb. is due to the
misunderstanding of the term vacī-saṅkhāra, or ‘verbal
functions’ (i.e. within the mind), by which the two constituents
of the 1st jhāna, vitakka and vicāra, i.e. ‘thought-conception’
and ‘discursive thinking,’ are explained in the texts. (Cf. 93).
16. May a man by merely repeating the word ‘dukkha’
(suffering, misery) induce the four Noble stages, as the
Pubbaseliyas believed?
17. May a state of consciousness last a whole day?
The Andhakas believed that in the world of the arūpa-devas
(immaterial heavenly beings) it may last even for a whole
lifetime, whilst, according to the orthodox teaching, it lasts but
for an inconceivably tiny fraction of time.
18. Are all formations (saṅkhāra) in every respect like
‘red-hot coals’ (kukku¿a)?
The Gokulikas (kukku¿ikas, according to the northern
tradition), are basing this view of theirs on such statements as:
‘All is on fire, O Monks...,’ and: ‘All formations are suffering...’
According to the orthodox teaching, there do exist also
temporary worldly, as well as supra-mundane, states of
happiness, and bliss.—About the difference between the Truth
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Kathāvatthu
of Suffering (dukkha-sacca) and suffering as a feeling (dukkha-

vedanā) see §169 and Yamaka V.
19. Is there such a thing as a gradual realisation of the
Noble stages?
This view, which is similar to view 4, was held by the
Andh., Sab., Samm., and Bhadrayānikas.
20. Is there such a thing as ‘supramundane’ (lokuttara)
communicating, or conversing (vohāra), of a Buddha?
The Andh. believed so. Cf. MN 117, where there is spoken
of ‘supramundane right speech (vācā),’ and the other
supramundane constituents of the Noble Eightfold Path.
Correctly speaking, only mind connected with the Noble stages,
and Nibbāna, are supramundane. (Cf. §106).
21. Are there two kinds of ‘cessation’ (nirodha)?
The Mahiṃs. and Andh. believed that there are, namely a
‘cessation through reflection’ (paṭisaṅkhā-nirodha) and a
‘cessation without reflection’ (apaṭisaṅkhā-nirodha). The
former is the deliberately effected final cessation, i.e. Nibbāna;
the second is the natural momentary cessation of conditioned
phenomena. Both appear as ‘uncreated elements’ (asaṅkhata-
dhammā) in the Sarvāstivādins’ list of dharmas.
CHAPTER III
22–23. Are the 10 powers of a Buddha (see Buddhist
Dictionary s.v. bala) also shared by his disciples? Is his
power of knowing things according to reality, as possible or
impossible (i.e. the 1st of the 10 powers), to be considered as
something Noble (ariya)?
Both these views were held by the Andhakas.
24. Is it the greedy mind that is being emancipated?
The Andh. believed that only after reaching Arahatship, the
mind will gradually become free from greed, etc.
25. Is liberation a gradual process of becoming free?
93
This problem is based on the fact that through the jhānas

(see Vibh XII) the mind becomes partially liberated, and is fully
liberated by the gradual process of the four Noble Paths.
26. Is in the ‘eighth man’ (i.e. one who just enters the 8th,
or lowest, Noble stage, the Path of the Sotāpanna) the fetter of
views already extinguished?
The Andh. and Samm. think so, whilst the orthodox
teaching is that, at the very moment of entering the path, this
fetter is in the process of becoming extinguished, but is not
extinguished as yet. (Cf. §27 and 102).
27. Does the ‘eighth man’ not yet possess the faculties
(indriya) of faith, etc.?
The Andh. believed that at his entering the Path, he has not
yet acquired, but is only in the process of acquiring, these
powers, whilst they do not deny him simple faith, etc. (Cf. §26,
102 and 192).
28–29. May the fleshly eye, if based on mental
phenomena, turn into the divine eve (dibba-cakkhu)?
The Andh. and Samm. believed so.
30. Is the divine eye identical with the insight into the
working of kamma?
This opinion arose, according to the Comm., from a
superficial understanding of the well-known passage (MN 119,
etc.): ‘With the divine eye, purified, superhuman, he sees beings
vanish and reappear ... sees how beings are born according to
their deeds.’ According to the orthodox teaching, there is no
need of the divine eye for understanding the working of kamma.
31. Do the heavenly beings possess moral restraint
(saṃvara)?
Some believed that all the devas above the heaven of the
‘thirty three’ possess restraint, as they no more commit the 5
immoral actions, as killing, stealing, etc. (Cf. Vibh XIV).
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Kathāvatthu
32. Do the ‘beings without perception’ (asañña-satta; the

unconscious beings) possess still perception (saññā)?
The Andh. affirm that there is no rebirth without mind, and
that therefore even those beings should have consciousness, at
least at the moment of rebirth and death.
33. Is it really wrong to say that there is still
consciousness in the ‘sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-
perception’ (n’eva-saññā-nāsaññāyatana)?
The Andhakas deny that there is.
CHAPTER IV
34. May a layman be an Arahat?
The Uttarāpathakas held this belief, basing it on the fact that
Yasa and others had attained Arahatship whilst still living
amidst the pleasures of household life. According to the
orthodox teaching, a layman after reaching Arahatship will not
continue to live the household life.
35. May one become an Arahat at the moment of rebirth?
The Uttar. believed so, apparently through the
misunderstanding of certain terms used in connection with the
Anāgāmin (see Pug 41) reaching Nibbāna in the rūpa-world (as
opapātika, or as upahacca-parinibbāyin, distorted into uppajja
‘having been born,’ etc.)
36. Is every thing pertaining to an Arahat ‘unaffected by
worldly influxes’ (an-āsava)?
The Uttar. are said to have held this view.
37. Is the Arahat still in possession of all the four
Fruitions (of the four Noble Paths)?
The Uttar. believed that the once attained fruitions are still
retained after reaching Arahatship.
38. Are the 6 kinds of equanimity (i.e. with regard to the 6
sense-objects), at one and the same moment possessed by the
Arahat?
95
Such a thing is impossible according to the orthodox

teaching, as little as the simultaneous arising of the
corresponding 6 kinds of consciousness.
39. Does one become a Buddha by mere bodhi?
The Uttar. said so, not distinguishing between bodhi as a
name for knowledge, or insight, into the four Noble Paths, and
bodhi as a name for the ‘omniscience’ of a Buddha.
40. Is he, who possesses the 32 Marks of a Great Man, a
Bodhisatta (i.e. a candidate for Buddhahood)?
The Uttar. believed so, through misunderstanding the
statement in DN 30 that to one, possessed of those 32 marks,
two careers lie open: that of a Universal King of Righteousness,
or that of a Buddha.
41. Had the Bodhisatta entered the right path, and
realized the noble path, already under the discipline of
Kassapa Buddha?
The Andh. believed so.
42. Similar to §37.
43. Does Arahatship really consist in the overcoming of
all the ten fetters (saññojana; cf. Dhs III)?
This was a misleading statement of the Andh., because by
entering the Arahat-Path only the remaining 5 fetters are
overcome, the first five having already been overcome.
CHAPTER V
44. Is the knowledge of emancipation identical with
emancipation?
The Andh. made this incorrect statement, not distinguishing
between the four kinds of knowledge of emancipation, namely:
1. insight-knowledge (vipassanā-ñāṇa), 2. path-knowledge, 3.
fruition-knowledge, 4. retrospective-knowledge. Only the 3rd is
identical with emancipation.
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Kathāvatthu
45. Does the sekha (the ‘learner’; i.e. one who has reached
one of the Noble stages, except the last, the fruition of
Arahatship) possess the knowledge of the asekha (the ‘one
who is not learning,’ i.e., the learned one, the arahat)?
The Uttar. affirmed that Sotāpannas, like Ānanda, could
understand the asekha-state of Buddha and others, and that,
therefore, they should have realized that knowledge themselves.
46. Does he who has induced the jhāna through earth-
kasiṇa (gazing on a portion of earth), possess (at that time)
an illusory knowledge?
The Andh. affirm so, as the mental image (nimitta) seen
during jhāna is no longer the original earth.
47. Does the ‘not yet assured one’ (a-niyato) possess the
knowledge required for the path of assurance (niyāma; a
name for the four Noble stages)?
The Uttar. affirmed so.
48. Does all knowledge constitute analytical knowledge
(Paṭisambhidā; see Vibh XV)?
The Andh. made this misleading statement, not taking into
account the conventional knowledge, which, of course, is not
analytical knowledge.
49. Is it wrong to say that conventional knowledge
(sammutiñāṇa) has only the truth, and nothing else, as its
object?
Thus was the statement of the Andh., who did not
distinguish here between the ‘conventional,’ and the ‘absolute’
(paramattha) truth. (Cf. Introd.)
50. Has insight into the mind of others nothing but
consciousness as its object?
The Andh. made this statement, not considering that also the
mental concomitants, as feeling, perception, volition, greed,
hatred, etc., belong to its objects.
51. Is knowledge of the (whole) future possible?
97
52. Is knowledge of the (entire) present (simultaneously)

possible?
The Andh. and others upheld that view, which they
supported by the statement: ‘When all phenomena are perceived
as impermanent, also the insight itself, as a phenomenon, is
perceived as impermanent.’ In reality, however, in one moment
of consciousness only one single present object can be known;
all the other objects belong to the past, or future.
53. Can the disciple (sāvaka) have knowledge of the
Path-attainment of others?
The Andh. believed so. (Cf. §45)
CHAPTER VI
54. Is ‘assurance’ attained through the four Paths, or Noble
stages, something Uncreated (asaṅkhata, i.e. without
beginning and end)?
55. Is the ‘dependent origination’ (paṭicca-samuppāda;
see App.) something uncreated, and eternal (asaṅkhata)?
The Pubb. and Mahiṃs. held this belief, basing it on SN
15:20, “whether Buddhas appear in the world, or not, it remains
a firm, immutable fact, a fixed law, that on birth depend decay
and death, etc.” (Cf. §56).
56. Are the Four Noble Truths (see Vibh IV) something
uncreated, (asaṅkhata) or eternal?
This was a belief of the Pubb., based on their version of he
Sacca-Saṃyutta: ‘Four things, O Monks, are persisting,
permanent, eternal, immutable (nicca, dhuva, sassata,
avipariṇāmadhamma): the Truth of Suffering,... its origin..., its
extinction,... the path leading to its extinction.’ Thus, they really
meant the mere abstract truth, or law, which, however, cannot
exist as something apart from the underlying phenomenal
objects. (Cf. §55, 149).
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Kathāvatthu
57–59. Are the ‘sphere of unbounded space,’

(ākāsānañcāyatana)—the attainment called ‘suspension of
consciousness’ (nirodhasamāpatti)—and ‘space,’ something
uncreated (asaṅkhata)?
The 2nd view was held by the Andh. and Uttar.; the 3rd one,
by the Uttar. and Mahiṃs.
Among later Schools, the 2nd and 3rd view were held by the
Mahayānistic Vijñānavāda; the 3rd one, by Sarvāstivāda.
60–63. Are space, the four elements, the five sense-
organs, and bodily action, something visible?
The Andh. believed so. According to the orthodox teaching,
however, only colours and light constitute the objects of visual
consciousness. (Cf. Vibh II).
CHAPTER VII
64. Is it impossible to group certain things together with
other things?
Such was the idea of the Rājagirikas and Siddhatthikas., who
considered it useless to classify material qualities under one
generic concept, as one cannot group material things together by
means of ideas.
65. Are there no mental states, which are associated
(sampayutta) with other mental states?
Such the Rāj. and Siddh. believed, who said that mental
states, e.g., feeling, perception, etc., do not penetrate
(anupaviṭṭha) each other, such as oil pervades the sesamum-
seed.
66. Is there no such thing that we may call ‘mental’
(cetasika), or ‘mental concomitant?’
This negative view was held by the Rāj. and Siddh., who said
that we could neither get ‘mentals’ from mind, nor ‘contactals’
from sense-contact, etc., which however, is denied by the Ther.
67. Is alms-giving (dāna) merely a mental state?
99
The Rāj. and Siddh. believed so.

68. Does the karmical merit (of alms-giving) grow along
with the enjoying of the gift?
Thus the Rāj., Siddh. and Samm. believed, through
carelessly interpreting such passages, as AN 4:60: “Day by day
the merit is ever growing, etc.,” and AN 4:51: “When the monk
is enjoying the robes. etc., then accrues to the giver an infinite
stream of merit, etc.”
69. Can alms, which are given here, be enjoyed by beings
elsewhere (e.g., by the ghosts of the departed, the Petas)?
This is what the Rāj. and Siddh. believed, whilst, according
to the orthodox teaching, the mind of the Petas might be
favourably influenced, but the material food cannot be enjoyed
by them.
70–71. Is the earth a kamma-result (vipāka)? Is old age
and death a kamma-result?
That is what the Andh. believed. (Cf. §118–19).
72. Do the mental states connected with the four Paths
(magga), produce no kamma-result (vipāka; see Dhs I.C)?
The Andh. believed so, whilst, according to the orthodox
teaching, there is a positive karmic effect of the four Paths,
namely, the four Fruitions (phala) of the Paths.
73. Does one kamma-result produce another kamma-
result (vipāka)?
By reason that the four mental groups of existence are
mutually dependent (aññamañña-paccaya), the Andh. came to
that conclusion. (See §167).
CHAPTER VIII
74. Are there really 6 places of existence?
According to the Andh. and Uttar., the asuras (demons)
form a 6th plane, whilst, according to the Ther., they belong
partly to the yakkhas (ghosts), partly to the devas (heavenly
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Kathāvatthu
beings), the 3 other planes being hell, the animal kingdom, and
the world of men.
75. Is there an interim stage between two rebirths?
The Pubb. and Samm. believed so.
76. Does kāma-dhātu (lit. ‘sensuous element’) merely
mean the 5 kāma-guṇas, or sensuous objects?
The Pubb. believed so, whereas the orthodox teaching is
that the word kāma-dhātu signifies the entire sensuous world,
and thus includes all the elements of sensuous existence
whatever.
77. Does kāma signify the ‘bases’ of sense-consciousness
(āyatana; see Vibh II)?
The Pubb. held this view. But, according to the orthodox
teaching, kāma, in the strict sense, signifies the sensual desire.
(Cf. AN 6:63).
78–79. Does the term rūpa-dhātu (lit. ‘form-element,’ or
‘material element’) merely signify the material things (rūpino
dhammā = corporeality group; see Dhs II) and arūpa-dhātu,
the immaterial things?
Thus the Andh. believed, whereas in reality rūpa- and
arūpa-dhātu are names for the rūpa- and arūpa-bhava, i.e.
existence in the sphere of pure form, and the formless existence.
80. Does a being in the rūpa-world possess all the 6
senses?
The Andh. and Samm. believed so, whilst the Ther. teaches
that it possesses only the organs of seeing, hearing, and of mind.
(Cf., however, §183).
81. Is there still matter in the immaterial-sphere (arūpa)?
The Andh. believed that there still exists refined matter in
that sphere.
82. Is the mere physical action, which accompanies a
karmically wholesome consciousness, also karmically
wholesome (kusala)?
101
This was a belief of the Mahiṃs. and Samm. According to

the orthodox teaching, however, it is volition (cetanā)—
expressed through body, voice, or mind—which constitutes
wholesome, or unwholesome kamma, but mere physical action
does not. (Cf. §98, 103, 106, 197).
83. Is there no such thing as physical vitality (rūpa-jīvit’
indriya)?
The Pubb. and Samm. believed so, whereas the Ther.
teaches that there exist both, a ‘physical’ and a ‘psychical’
vitality.
84. May an Arahat through former bad kamma fall away
from Arahatship?
The Pubb. and Samm. believed that this will happen, if he in
a former birth has calumniated another Arahat. (Cf. §2).
CHAPTER IX
85. Do the 10 fetters of existence (see Pug 41, 50, and Dhs III)
vanish through merely perceiving the blessing (of being
liberated from them)?
Thus the Andh. believed, whilst, according to the orthodox
teaching, the contemplation of all phenomena as impermanent,
miserable, and without self, is absolutely necessary for the
overcoming of the fetters.
86. Is the thinking on Nibbāna a mental fetter?
Thus the Pubb. believed.
87. Should corporeality be termed sārammaṇa?
Sārammaṇa really means ‘having objects,’ and,
therefore, refers to the mind, whilst the Uttar. thought that
this term meant ‘conditioned,’ confounding it with
sappaccaya.
88. Are the 7 evil inclinations, or biases (anusaya),
without corresponding mental objects?
102
Kathāvatthu
The Andh. and certain of the Uttar. thought that they are
latent faculties and, therefore, not connected with mind. (Cf.
§108, 139). (About the 7 anusaya see Yamaka VII.)
89. May insight-knowledge be without the corresponding
mental object?
The Andh. thought that the Arahat’s insight may be
sometimes without object, e.g., at the time when his visual
consciousness is active. Thus, they did not distinguish between
potential, and actual existence.
90–91. Is consciousness of a past, or future object, really
without object?
The Uttar. believed so, as past and future objects have no
actual knowledge.
92. Is every state of consciousness accompanied by
thought-conception (vitakka)?
Thus the Uttar. believed. However, in all the jhānas, except
the first, consciousness is without vitakka.
93. Is sound only the manifestation (vipphāra) of thought
conception (vitakka), at the time of thought-conception and
discursive thinking (vicāra)?
This erroneous belief of the Pubb. is based on the statement in
MN 44 that vitakka and vicāra result in speech, and that they are
verbal functions (vacī-saṅkhāra), i.e. within the mind. (Cf. §15).
94. Does speech not always coincide with consciousness?
The Pubb. say that such is the case, e.g., whilst making a
mistake in speaking, and thus saying things which one did not
intend to say. According to the Ther., however, such unintentional
happening does not constitute verbal kamma. (Cf. §82).
95. Does bodily action (kāya-kamma) not always coincide
with mind?
The Pubb. think so. (Cf. §82).
96. Does one really possess past and future attainments?
103
The Andh. say so, not making a distinction between actual

(present), and potential possession.
CHAPTER X
97. Is it true that 5 operative groups of existence (khandha)
arise, before those groups which are seeking rebirth, have
come to an end?
This was a view of the Andh.
98. Is, whilst following the 8 fold path, one’s corporeality
included in that path?
The Mahiṃs., Samm. and Mahās., think that right speech,
action, and livelihood, are merely physical.
99. Can there exist Path-development (magga-bhāvanā)
whilst enjoying the 5 fold sense-consciousness?
Thus the Mahās believed. Path-consciousness, however, has
Nibbāna as its object, and is mind-consciousness, hence has
nothing to do with sense-consciousness.
100–101. May the 5 kinds of sense-consciousness (seeing,
hearing, etc.) be karmically wholesome (kusala), or
unwholesome (akusala)? Are they accompanied by ideation?
Thus the Mahās. believed. However, only mind-
consciousness may be karmically wholesome, or unwholesome,
and accompanied by ideation, whilst sense-consciousness is
karmically neutral (avyākata; see Dhs, and Table).
102. Is one who develops the 8-fold path, (in the very
moment where he realizes a Noble stage) practising two kinds
of morality (mundane and supramundane)?
Thus the Mahās. believed. (Cf. §26).
103. Is morality (right speech, bodily action, and
livelihood) sometimes not mental (a-cetasika)?
Thus the Mahās. believed.
104. Is morality not in conformity with mind?
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Kathāvatthu
Cf. §103, 106.

105. Does morality grow by merely undertaking it?
The Mahās. believed that it grows independently of mind.
106. Does mere physical intimation (viññatti) by body or
voice constitute morality (sīla)?
The Mahiṃs. and Samm. believed that mere physical
Intimation constituted productive kamma, or action, which
latter, however, according to the Ther., is an expression of
volition (cetanā) and mind, and not merely physical. (Cf. §82,
103, 104, 197).
107. May non-intimation (of a moral purpose) be
immoral? (This apparently means: May there exist immorality
without being manifested by body, or voice)?
This was a view of the Mahās., who thought that immorality
could grow independently of mind, and that evil acts could be
dictated by others.
CHAPTER XI
108. Are the seven inclinations, or biases (anusaya),
karmically neutral (avyākata; see Dhs I.C.)?
The Mahās. believed wrongly that the evil inclinations were
karmically neutral, without root-conditions (greed, hatred,
delusion), and independent of mind, hence mere latent, and not
actual, conditions. (Cf. §88).
109. Is it wrong to characterise somebody as ‘freed from
ignorance’ (i.e. through becoming Arahant), or as ‘possessed
of knowledge,’ even during a state of consciousness
unaccompanied by knowledge (e.g., during sense-
consciousness)?
The Mahās. believed so, not distinguishing between latent
(potential), and actual knowledge. (Cf. §110).
110. May insight-knowledge be unaccompanied by
consciousness?
105
The Pubb. say, since sense-consciousness of an Arahat is

unaccompanied by his insight-knowledge, that therefore
knowledge is independent of sense-consciousness. (Cf. §16).
111. Does insight into the Truth of Suffering result from
the words: ‘ This is Suffering!’?
Thus the Andh. believed. (Cf. §16).
112. May one endowed with magical power, live on for a
world-period (kappa)?
This erroneous view of the Mahās. is based on the wrong
understanding of the word kappa (Skr. kalpa = Greek aion, i.e.
time, period, life-period, world-period) in the famous passage of
the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, where it has not the usual meaning
of ‘world-period,’ but of ‘life-time’! Magical power, says the
Com., may only prevent an untimely death.
113. Is the continuity of consciousness (citta-santati) that
which constitutes concentration (samādhi)?
The Sabb. and Uttar. had been misled to this statement by the
misunderstood passage in Aṅguttara Nikāya: “to spend 7 days
and nights in the enjoyment of absolute happiness.” According to
the Ther., concentration consists in ‘one-pointedness of mind,’
i.e. in having the mind directed to one single object, which is a
necessary (element in every moment of consciousness.
114–15. Is the lawfulness of the phenomena (dhamma-
ṭṭhitatā) itself conditioned (nipphanna)? Is impermanency
itself conditioned (just as the impermanent phenomena are)?
These views were held by the Andh. (Cf., however, §55, 56).
CHAPTER XII
116. Do mere restraint and non-restraint constitute
productive, i.e. wholesome and unwholesome, action (kamma)?
Thus the Mahās. believed. (Cf. §82).
117. Does all kamma (action) produce kamma-results
(vipāka)?
106
Kathāvatthu
Thus the Mahās. believed. The Ther., however, quotes AN

6:63: “It is volition (cetanā) which I call kamma,” and says that
only wholesome and unwholesome volitions produce kamma-
results, but not neutral volition (avyākata-cetanā).
It may, however, be suggested here that the text quoted
means only to say that, basically, all kamma is volition, but not
that all volition is kamma.
118–119. Are the voice and the physical sense-organs the
results of former kamma?
Thus the Mahās. believed, whereas the term ‘kamma-result’
(vipāka) really applies to mental states only.(Cf. §70–71).
120. Will those Sotāpannas called ‘returners for seven
times at most’ (sattakkhattu-parama), become assured of
Nibbāna only at the end of that period?
Thus the Uttar. believed. Cf. Puggalapaññatti 37.
121. This problem is analogous to the previous one, but
refers here to those Sotāpannas called kolaṅkola (‘passers from
clan to clan’), and eka-bījī (‘budding up only once more).
122. May a ‘possessor of insight’ (diṭṭhi-sampanna; i.e. a
Sotāpanna) be still liable to commit deliberate murder?
Thus the Pubb. inferred from the fact that such a person is
not yet free from anger.
123. Is a ‘possessor of insight’ excluded from ‘bad ways’
(duggati)?
This was a misleading statement of the Uttar., who did not
distinguish between the ‘bad ways of rebirth’ (animal kingdom,
hell, etc.), and the ‘bad ways of desire, etc.’ The above person is
excluded only from the former.
124. Is it wrong to say that a Sotāpanna in his seventh
rebirth is excluded from ‘bad ways’?
Cf. §123.
107
CHAPTER XIII
125. Must one who is destined for ‘age-long’ punishment,
endure it for one complete world-age (kappa)?
In holding this view, the Rāj. did not take into account that
he should have to die and be reborn just at the start of a new
world-period. According to the Com., ‘kappa’ in the text quoted
by the Rāj. is to be understood in the sense of ‘normal lifetime’
of an inhabitant of hell. (Cf. §112).
126. May a being, who is enduring ‘age-long’ suffering in
hell, not conceive any karmically wholesome consciousness
(kusala-citta)?
Thus the Uttar. believed, whilst the Ther. thinks that he still
could perform certain kinds of wholesome kamma.
127. May an abettor of a cardinal crime (matricide,
parricide, etc.) enter the certainty of rightness (sammatta-
niyāma; cf. §205)?
He may have abetted in one of two ways: by a definite plan,
or by instigation in a general way. According to the Ther., only
in the latter case may he enter the certainty of rightness, whilst
the Uttar. think that he may do so in either case.
128. Has one who is ‘assured’ (of an attainment; niyata)
actually entered the state of certainty (niyāma).?
This was maintained by the Pubb. and Apar. But, in fact,
only he who has actually gained one of the four Paths (Stream-
entry, etc.) or has committed one of the cardinal crimes, can be
said to have entered the certainty in results of rightness
(sammatta-niyāma) or of wrongness (micchatta-niyāma)
respectively. The statement found in the texts that the
Bodhisatta is ‘assured’ of his destiny to become a Buddha,
should be understood as a conventional way of expression
(vohāra-vasena), and not in the strict sense of the term.
129–30. Is during the overcoming of the 5 mental
hindrances (nīvaraṇa), or of the 10 fetters (saññojana; see
Dhs III), one still possessed of these?
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Kathāvatthu
Thus the Uttar. maintained, since for one, already freed

from these things, there would no longer exist the task of
overcoming them.
131. Is it true that during the jhānas (s. Vibh XII) one is
enjoying (assādeti) them, and that the desire (nikanti) for
jhāna has jhāna as its object?
Thus the Andh. believed. The often recurring expression
‘tad-assādeti,’ ‘he enjoys it’ (i.e. by way of wrong attachment),
as well as the expression: ‘nikanti,’ ‘desire,’ refer both to the
time after rising from the jhāna.
132. Can there be greed for something unpleasant?
The Uttar. believed so, relying on MN 38: “Whatever
feeling he experiences, agreeable, disagreeable, or neutral, he
delights in it, etc.”
133–34. Is craving for mind-objects (dhamma-taṇhā)
karmically neutral (avyākata; see Dhs I.C.)?
And is it no cause of suffering? The Pubb. believed so,
taking possibly dhamma in the sense of the Buddha’s Teaching.
CHAPTER XIV
135. Can an unwholesome root-condition (akusala-mūla;
greed, hate, delusion) arise immediately after a wholesome
root-condition (kusala-mūla: non-greed, non-hate, non-
delusion), and vice versa?
The Mahās. had such erroneous belief. Karmically wholesome
or unwholesome root-conditions, however, appear, within a
cognitive process, only at the stage of impulsion (javana) which
is preceded and followed by other thought-moments. Therefore,
thought-moments with wholesome and unwholesome root-
conditions cannot follow each other immediately, but appear in
different serial processes of cognition (citta-vīthi), each of
which has to start anew with the phase of advertence (āvajjana).
109
136. Do all the 6 sense-organs arise simultaneously to

the embryo, at the moment of conception, in the mother’s
womb?
Thus the Pubb. believed.
137. Can one sense-consciousness (e.g., eye-
consciousness) be immediately followed by another sense-
consciousness (e.g., ear-consciousness)?
The Uttar. believed so, by reason of the apparently
immediate succession of various sense-impressions, e.g., at
theatrical performances. Here too it holds good that a different
type of sense-consciousness requires a different cognitive series,
starting with advertence.
138. Is the corporeality of Noble Ones (ariya-rūpa)
derived from the four primary elements (mahābhūtānaṃ
upādāya), and is it wholesome?
Thus the Uttar. believed, wrongly identifying that unusual
term of theirs (ariya-rūpa) with the Noble One’s Right Speech
and Right Action, and these, again wrongly, with bodily and
verbal expression. (Cf. §106).
139. Are the evil bias (anusaya) of sensual greed, and its
manifestation, two different things?
Such was the belief of the Andh., who held that the term
‘anusaya’ designated merely a latent quality. (Cf. §88, 108,
140).
140. Is the manifestation (of evil biases) uncombined
with mind, or consciousness (citta-vippayutta)?
Thus the Andh. believed. (Cf. §139 etc.)
141. Is craving for form (rūpa-rāga) something inherent,
and included in, the form-world (rūpa-dhātu)?
Thus the Andh. and Samm. concluded from the fact that
sensual craving exists in the sensuous world. (Cf. §164).
142. Are wrong views called avyākata (lit. ‘undeclared’)?
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Kathāvatthu
The Andh. and Samm. made this ambiguous statement, not

distinguishing between the 2 meanings of avyākata: 1. as
‘unexplained’ by the Buddha (i.e. speculations whether the
world is eternal, or not, etc.), 2. as ‘karmically neutral’ (s. Dhs
I.C, and III). Wrong views are always karmically unwholesome
(akusala; see Dhs I.B).
143. May wrong views be found in the ‘unincluded
sphere’ (apariyāpanna)?
This is a view of the Pubb., who seem to take the term
‘unincluded’ in the sense of ‘supra-sensual’ (rūpa- and arūpa-
sphere), whilst, according to the Abhidhamma, it means the
supramundane consciousness of the noble disciples, being
unrelated to mundane thought. The Ther. says that during the
jhānas, the ‘worldling’ is free from sensual desires, but that he is
not free from wrong views.
CHAPTER XV
144. Does each factor in the formula of ‘dependent
origination’ (see Appendix) represent only one kind of
condition (paccaya)?
The Mahās. believed that, if one phenomenon is, e.g., the
condition of another by way of being its root-condition (hetu-
paccaya: greed, hate, etc.), it could not also be its condition by
way of object (ārammaṇa-paccaya), or of contiguity (anantara-
paccaya), etc. (Cf. §145).
145. Is it wrong to say: ‘On the kamma-formations
(saṅkhāra) depends ignorance (avijjā),’ just as one says: ‘On
ignorance depend the kamma-formations?’
The Mahās. think so, whilst according to the Ther., not only
on ignorance depend the kamma-formations; but also on the
kamma-formations depends ignorance, namely, by way of co-
existence (saha-jāta-paccaya), mutuality (aññam-añña-
paccaya), association (sampayutta-paccaya), etc. (Cf. §144).
111
146. Is time (addhan) something produced

(parinipphanna)?
Those who held that erroneous view (no ascription is given
in the Com.), obviously did not consider that time is a mere
concept. Only the five khandhas, i.e. the corporeal and mental
phenomena, occurring in the three periods of time, can be said
to he ‘produced.’
147. Are all the moments of time conditioned?
Similar to the foregoing.
148. Are the biases (āsava) themselves free from biases
(anāsava)?
That seemingly contradictory view was held by the Het.,
who misinterpreted the term anāsava as signifying
‘unaccompanied by (other) biases’, while the correct meaning of
the term is ‘free from biases’, and ‘not forming an object for
biases.’ It refers only to the 8 supramundane types of
consciousness and to Nibbāna. All other phenomena are sāsava,
i.e. subject to biases and objects of them.
149. Are decay and death of the supramundane
phenomena (of the noble disciples) themselves also
supramundane (lokuttara)?
This was a view of the Mahās., who did not understand that
decay and death are not actually existing physical, or mental
phenomena, but mere qualities of things, and therefore neither
mundane, nor supramundane. (Cf. §56).
150–51. Is the attainment of ‘suspension of
consciousness’ (nirodha-samāpatti) supramundane
(lokuttara), or mundane (lokiya)?
The Het. believed the former, whereas the Ther. teaches that
it is neither.
152. May one die during the ‘suspension of consciousness’?
That is what the Rāj. believed, contrarily to the Ther.
teaching.
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Kathāvatthu
153. Does the ‘suspension of consciousness’ lead to

rebirth among unconscious beings (asañña-satta)?
This was an erroneous statement of the Het. According to the
Ther., however, only the attainment of the 4th absorption may,
under certain conditions, lead to such rebirth. Those, however,
who have reached ‘suspension of consciousness’, are either
Anāgāmins or Arahats. The former are reborn only once, in the
Pure Abodes (suddhāvāsā), and the latter are not reborn at all.
154. Are kamma and kamma-accumulation
(kammūpacaya) two different things?
This was an erroneous view of the Andh. and Samm., who
believed that kamma-accumulation is working independently of
mind, and that it is ‘karmically neutral’ (avyākata; see Dhs I.C.).
CHAPTER XVI
155–56. May one be able to master—or to assist (morally)—
another man’s mind?
The Mahās. held this belief. (Cf. §157).
157. May one be able to cause in another man’s mind
happiness to arise?
So the Het. believed, but, correctly speaking, the arising of
happiness is, in the last instance, dependent on various
conditions in the other man himself.
158. May we pay attention to several things
simultaneously?
The Pubb. and Apar. made such statement, not
distinguishing between (1) attention directed to one single
object of consciousness (ārammaṇa) at a time, and (2) attention
directed to inferential statements (naya), e.g. ‘all things are
impermanent.’ Thus, only to one single object of consciousness,
belonging to the past, or future, can we pay attention at a time.
159–60. Is corporeality (rūpa) called one of the hetus? Is
it accompanied by hetus?
113
The former was a misleading statement of the Uttar., using

hetu—which generally designates only one kind of the 24
conditions (paccaya), namely root-condition: greed, hate. etc.—
here in the sense of the general term paccaya, i.e. condition. On
the 24 conditions see Paṭṭhāna.
161. May corporeality be karmically wholesome, or
unwholesome (see Dhs I)?
The Mahiṃs. and Samm. believed that the mere physical
intimation by body and voice (which, of course, belong both to
the corporeality-group), may constitute karmically wholesome, or
unwholesome, action by body and speech. (Cf. §82, 118, 119).
162. Is corporeality a kamma-result (vipāka)?
Thus the Andh. and Samm. believed. (Cf. §70, 71, 118, 119).
163. Does corporeality belong also to the form-sphere
(rūpāvacara) and formless-sphere (arūpāvacara)?
Thus the Andh. believed.
164. Is greed for forms (rūpa-rāga), and for the formless
(arūpa-rāga), also included in the form-world, and the
formless-world (rūpa- and arūpa-dhātu)?
Thus the Andh. believed. (Cf. §141).
CHAPTER XVII
165. Does an Arahat accumulate karmical merit (puñña)?
The Andh believed so, since the Arahat may be seen performing
such acts as distributing gifts to the Order, worshipping, etc.
According to the Ther., however, all actions done by an Arahat
are karmically neutral (see Dhs I. C and Table in Appendix II.)
166. May the Arahat meet no untimely death?
Thus the Rāj. and Siddh. wrongly believed, saying that the
Arahat must, before he dies, first reap the fruits of all his former
deeds.
167. Is everything caused by kamma (former actions)?
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Kathāvatthu
Thus the Rāj. and Siddh. believed—If this be so, then also
our present wholesome and unwholesome actions should be the
result (vipāka) of former actions, which again should be the
effects of still former actions, and thus ad infinitum, so that really
one effect always causes another effect (see Dhs I.C.) (Cf. §73).
168. Is the term ‘dukkha’ confined to the six fold sense-
experience only?
So the Het. believed, not distinguishing between dukkha as
actual ‘painful feeling,’ and dukkha as the ‘liability, or
exposedness, of everything whatever (even pleasant feeling) to
pain, or to the creating of pain,’ through the law of
impermanency. (Cf. Vibh IV, Summary; further §169).
169. Are, excepting the Path, really all the other things,
or ‘formations’ (saṅkhāra), dukkha?
This was an indiscriminating statement of the Het., who
took dukkha merely in the sense of actual (instead of potential)
painful feeling (cf. §168). If this be so, then the Origin of
Suffering i.e. craving), should itself be Suffering, so that in that
case there would he only 3 Truths of Suffering, (Cf. §18, 168;
further Vibh IV, Summary.)
170. Is it wrong to say that the Sangha accepts gifts?
This was a view (still held at Buddhaghosa’s time) by those
‘Vetulyakas (=Vaitulyas) known as Mahā-suññatāvādins
(teachers of the Great Emptiness),’ who took the term ‘Saṅgha,’
in the highest sense, to mean the four Noble Paths (magga), and
their respective fruitions (phala).
In my opinion, Vaitulya is a distortion of Vaipulya, and the
Vaipulya Sūtras of the Mahāyāna refer to the above-mentioned
heretics, whose ideas, too, appear to be perfectly Mahāyānistic.
(Cf. also §189).
171–74. Is it wrong to say that the Sangha (by its pure
life) sanctifies an alms-gift? That it eats, drinks, etc.? That a
gift to it, brings great reward?
115
That a gift to the Buddha, brings great reward? The

advocates of these beliefs are the same as in 170, (Cf. §176–77).
175. May a gift be sanctified only by the giver, not by the
receiver?
Thus the Uttar. believed, saying that if a gift were sanctified
by the receiver, then the one, i.e. the giver, would sow, and
another, the receiver, would reap the fruits thereof.
CHAPTER XVIII
176–77. Is it wrong to say that the Buddha lived in the world
of men? That he himself preached the Law?
According to the Com., the Vetulyakas (see §170–74)
believed that the Buddha really lived in the Tusita Heaven, the
‘Heaven of Bliss,’ whilst at the same time sending forth a
specially created human form to preach the Law to the world.
The parallelism with Christ’s incarnation is striking.
178. Did the Buddha feel no compassion?
The Uttar. believed so, taking compassion as a form of
attachment, from which latter, indeed, the Buddha was free.
179. Is it true that (even) the excreta of the Buddha
excelled all other things in fragrance?
So the Andh. and Uttar. believed, out of blind affection for
the Buddha.
180. May really the four Noble Fruitions (i.e. of Sotāpatti,
etc.; see Dhs & Table in App. II) be realized by one single
Noble Path?
The Andh. and Uttar. believed that the Buddha had realized
all the Fruitions by one single Path, the Path of Arahatship.
181. Does one pass from one jhāna immediately over to
the next jhāna?
The Mahiṃs. believed so, not admitting an intermediary
stage of ‘neighbourhood-concentration’ (upacāra-samādhi)
between one jhāna, and the next.
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Kathāvatthu
182. Is that which in the five-jhāna-division is called the

2nd jhāna, merely an intervening stage between the 1st and
2nd jhāna (s. Vibh XII)?
The Samm. and certain Andh. held that view.
183. Can one hear sounds in the jhāna?
Thus the Pubb. believed through misinterpreting the
passage in the Aṅguttara Nikāya (AN 10:82): ‘sound is a thorn
to the 1st jhāna.’ According to the Ther., there is no five fold
sense-activity during jhāna.
184. Are the visible objects really seen with the eye?.
The Mahās. believed that the eye-sensitivity (pasāda-
cakkhu)—a mere physical organ—is that which sees. According
to the Ther., however, the latter is only the instrument, or base
(āyatana), for seeing (see Vibh II), and that which sees is,
correctly speaking, visual consciousness (cakkhu-viññāṇa).
CHAPTER XIX
185. Can we really overcome mental corruptions (kilesa),
past, present, and future?
Certain Uttar. made such statement. In the strict sense of the
word, however, there is no possibility of overcoming
corruptions—as they are passing mental phenomena, and the so-
called past and future ones are without actual existence—but,
through realizing the Noble Paths, the arising of corruptions in
the future will be prevented.
186. Is the ‘Void’ (suññatā) included in the group of
mental formations (saṅkhāra-kkhandha; see Vibh 1)?
The Andh. made such indiscriminating statement, as by the
Buddha the ‘saṅkhāras’ are called void (i.e. of an ego). They did
not consider that saṅkhāra here was used for all formations
whatever, and moreover, that ‘Void’ was also a name for
Nibbāna.
117
187. Are the Fruitions of the Holy Life (brahmacariyā)

uncreated (asaṅkhata)?
The Pubb. made this misleading statement, using the term
asaṅkhata wrongly in the sense of not produced by the four
conditions: kamma, mind, nutriment, temperature. Asaṅkhata,
or the ‘Uncreated’ applies exclusively to Nibbāna, whilst all
other things, even the four Noble Paths and their fruitions, are
created, conditioned (saṅkhata).
188. Is the ‘acquisition’ (patti) of anything, itself
‘uncreated’ (asaṅkhata)?
The Pubb. held that the act of acquiring any material or
immaterial thing is in itself uncreated, i.e. unconditioned. (Cf.
§187).
It may be mentioned here that ‘acquisition’ (Pāli: patti =
Skr.: prapti) appears in the Dharma-lists of the Sarvāstivādins
and the Vijñānavādins under the heading of citta-viprayukta-
dharma, but not among the asaṃskṛta-dharma.
189. Is ‘suchness’ (tathatā), i.e. the fixed nature of all
things, something ‘uncreated’?
Some of the Uttar. held the belief: ‘For all things, such as
corporeality, etc., there exists what is called ‘suchness’, i.e. their
fixed nature (bhāva). Since this is not included in the created (or
conditioned) things (saṅkhata), such as corporeality, etc., it is
uncreated.’ (Comy.). Tathatā appears, in fact, as an asaṃskṛta-
dharma in the Dharma-list of the Vijñānavādins (Yogacāra).
190. Is the element of Nibbāna ‘kusala’?
Thus the Andh. maintained, using the term kusala (=
karmically wholesome) wrongly in the general sense of
‘faultless’ or ‘pure.’ (Cf. §208).
191. May the worldling (puthujjana) possess an
absolutely fixed destiny (accanta-niyāmatā)?
Some of the Uttar. made that assertion, relying on AN 4:5
(explained in Puggalapaññatti 291): ‘Once immersed, he
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Kathāvatthu
remains immersed.’ According to Ther., even committers of the

five grave crimes (ānantarika) or those who hold ‘wrong views
of fixed destiny’ (niyata-micchādiṭṭhika) are ‘fixed in their
destiny’ (e.g. as to their incapacity of Path attainment) only for
the limited efficacy of that evil kamma, but not beyond it.
One is reminded here of the Mahāyānist term icchāntika,
referring to a type of people who, in Mahāyāna, are often made
the subject of arguments whether they can attain Buddhahood or
are forever excluded from it; the Mahāyāna schools are divided
on that issue. Should perhaps that doctrine, and even the very
icchāntika, be traceable to the aforementioned heretical view of
the Utt. about an accanta-niyata-puggala, a person of absolutely
fixed destiny?
192. Are there no such spiritual faculties (indriya; see
Vibh V), as faith, energy, etc., which are mundane (lokiya),
i.e. possessed by the worldling?
The Mahiṃs. and Het. made such assertion, drawing
wrongly a distinction between faith (saddhā), etc. as mundane,
and the faculty of faith (saddh’indriya), etc., as supramundane.
CHAPTER XX
193. Is even unintentional killing of father, and mother,
etc., a ‘crime leading to immediate rebirth in hell’
(ānantarika)?
Thus the Uttar. believed. (Cf. §82, 106).
194. Does the worldling (puthujjana) possess no real
knowledge (ñāṇa)?
Thus the Het. assert, not distinguishing between the
mundane (lokiya) knowledge of the worldling, and the
supramundane (lokuttara) knowledge connected with the four
Noble stages.
195. Are there really no guards or executioners in hell?
119
The Andh. say so, but their opponent reasons thus: ‘If on
earth such persons are found, why not also in hell?’
196. Are there animals found amongst the Devas?
Thus the Andh. believed, mentioning as example Erāvaṇa,
who, however, according to their opponent, was a Deva having
assumed the shape of an elephant.
197. Is the noble eightfold path (s. Vibh II) only fivefold?
The Mahims. believed that right speech, bodily action and
livelihood, are merely physical, not mental states as the other 5
steps of the path. (Cf. §82, 98, 103, 106).
198. Are the twelve kinds of knowledge concerning the
four Noble Truths, supramundane (lokuttara), i.e. connected
with the four Noble stages?
The Pubb. held this erroneous view.
The 12 kinds of knowledge, or insight, are: 1. This is
Suffering, 2. This must be penetrated, 3. This is penetrated; 4.
This is the Origin of Suffering, 5. This must be overcome, 6.
This is overcome; 7. This is the Extinction, 8. This must be
realized, 9. This is realized; 10. This is the Path leading to the
extinction of suffering, 11. This must be developed 12. This is
developed. (Cf. Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta, SN 56:11).
CHAPTER XXI
199. Was the Buddha’s doctrine actually reformed? And can
it be reformed again?
That such be the case, was wrongly advocated by the Uttar.
However, there can be no reform of the Truths proclaimed by
the Buddha.
200. Has the worldling really access (in one and the same
moment) to the phenomena of the three spheres (the sense-,
form-, and formless- sphere)?
The authors of this somewhat unintelligible assertion are not
mentioned. According to the Com., everybody may, at one and
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Kathāvatthu
the same moment, experience only the mental phenomena

actually existing at that moment.
201. Can Arahatship be attained, though certain fetters
have not yet been cast off?
Thus the Mahās. maintained, by reason of the fact that the
Arahat, lacking the omniscience of a Buddha, may still possess
ignorance (aññāṇa) and doubt (kaṅkhā), in minor matters. (Cf.
§12-14).
202. Do the Buddhas or their disciples possess the
magical power of will (to transform everything)?
This view was wrongly held by the Andh.
203. Is there any difference in grade between the
Buddhas (as some Andh. maintain)?
According to the Ther., however, the Buddhas may differ
only in unessential things.
204. Are there Buddhas living in all the four quarters of
the world?
This was a theory of the Mahās., which resembles very
much the teaching in the Mahāyāna Sūtra Sukhavati-vyūha,
wherein the Buddha in the western world-system (loka-dhātu) is
called Amitābha and the one in the eastern world-system,
Amitāyus. The Mahās., however, being questioned about the
names of those Buddhas, were unable to give any information.
205–06. Are all things ‘fixed’ (niyata)? And are all actions,
or kammas (i.e. maturing in this life, the next life, or future
lives), fixed?
The Andh. and certain Uttar. made such statements, trying
to convey the idea that everything—and every action—is
determined, and immutably fixed, as to their fundamental
nature. They ignored the fact that the term ‘niyata’ applied only
to either micchatta-niyata, i.e. ‘fixed as to wrongness’ and
immediate rebirth in hell (for matricide, parricide, etc.); or to
sammatta-niyata, i.e. ‘fixed as to rightness’ and Noble
121
attainment; and that all the other things are ‘unfixed,’ or

aniyata. (Cf. §191)
CHAPTER XXII
207. Can Parinibbāna be attained, through certain fetters
have not yet been cast off?
This view was held by the Andh.
208. Is at the Arahat’s passing away, his consciousness
‘kusala’?
The Andh. made this misleading statement. (Cf. the
analogous view 190).
209. Does an Arahat or Buddha pass away, whilst being
in an immovable trance (āneñja)?
Certain Uttar. held such wrong belief, whilst according to
the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, the Buddha passed away after rising
from (not during) the 4th jhāna.
210–11. Is there during the embryonic stage—or during a
dream—such a thing possible as penetration of Truth
(dhammābhisamaya)—or attaining of Arahatship?
Certain Uttar. held such views. The fact that sometimes very
young children are reported of having attained the Path, or even
Arahatship, made them believe that this state must already have
existed in the mother’s womb. They further believed in view of
the wonderful feats sometimes performed in dream, as levitation,
etc., that even Arahatship may be attained during dream.
212. Is all consciousness while dreaming ‘karmically
neutral’ (avyākata ; see Dhs I.C.)?
Thus was the belief of certain Uttar., but, according to the
Ther., there may also arise karmically wholesome, and
unwholesome mental states.
213. Is there really no such thing as repetition of (good or
bad) mental states?
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Kathāvatthu
The Uttar. made such statement, by reason of the fact that

every mental phenomenon is only of momentary duration, and is
never repeated.
214. Do all things (dhamma) really last but one moment?
Thus the Pubb. and Apar. believed, but the Ther, teaches
that, though every mental phenomenon is of momentary
duration, such is not the case with material things, the life-time
of which is said to be 16 thought moments.
CHAPTER XXIII
215. May one with united resolve entertain sexual relations?
The Ther. objects to this indiscriminating statement of the
Andh. and Vetulyakas, for their not defining the persons
(whether monk, noble person, layman, etc.), and the object of
the resolve (whether for killing, stealing etc.). The Andh., of
course, mean by ‘united resolve’ the wish of both parties to be
united throughout all future rebirths. (Cf. AN 4:55).
216. Are there ‘evil spirits’ (lit. ‘non-human beings’), who
in the shape of noble monks (here called ‘Arahats’) commit
the sexual act?
This view was held by certain of the Uttar. The Ther.
objects to their confining themselves in their statement to one
single offence only.
217. Was it really by the Buddha’s own power and will,
that he (as Bodhisatta) entered woeful forms of existence (as
animal, etc.)? That he entered the mother’s womb? That he
practised bodily mortifications? That he did penance for another
teacher?
These opinions were held by the Andh.
218. Is there such a thing which is not lust, but
resembles it (namely: kindness, compassion, sympathetic
joy)? Which is not hate (namely: envy, avarice, worry)—not
delusion (namely: mirth)—not mental corruption, but
123
resembles it (namely: rebuking the discontented, helping the

good monks, etc)?
The above views were held by the Andh.
219. Is it true that all the five groups, twelve bases,
eighteen elements, and twenty-two faculties (see Vibh I–III,
and V), are unconditioned, and that suffering (dukkha) alone
is conditioned (parinipphanna)?
The Uttar. and Het. held such views, through misinterpreting
SN 5:10, where it is said that it is ‘only’ suffering that arises,
‘only’ suffering that passes away, etc. Suffering, however, cannot
exist apart from feeling, consciousness, and the other mental
phenomena. (Cf. §18, 168, 169).
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VI
YAMAKA
“THE BOOK OF PAIRS”
PRELIMINARY REMARKS
Mrs. Rhys Davids, in the preface to her edition of the Pali text,
not quite inappropriately calls this book with its ten chapters, the
“ten valleys of dry bones,” and remarks that its only chance is to
be used, firstly, as a work of reference, and, secondly, as a
thesaurus of terms, from which a teacher might select, but it
cannot he regarded as a work fit for either reading, or recitation.
To me it looks as if this book was composed for
examination purposes, or to get versed in answering sophistical
and ambiguous, or captious questions, on all the manifold
doctrines and technical terms of Buddhist philosophy. The
questions of identity, subordination, and co-ordination, of
concepts are playing a prominent part in our work, which tries to
give a logical clarification and delimitation of all the doctrinal
concepts, as to their range and contents.
It is a work of applied logic, just as Kathāvatthu, Netti-
ppakarana, etc. Many of its plays upon words, though uttered in
the dignified tone of logics, must, at times, appear rather
strange. Take, for instance, the question in Chapter II: “Does
‘sota’ designate the ear-base (sotāyatana, i.e. the organ of
hearing)?” to which the reply comes: “(Not always; e.g.) taṇhā-
sota (the ‘stream’ of craving, sota, here meaning ‘stream’= Skr.
srotas) is sota, but it is not the ear-base.” It is just, as if to the
question: “Is hamlet a village?”, one should answer; “Not
always; e.g., Shakespeare’s Hamlet is Hamlet, but it is not a
village.”
That the book is called “The Pairs” (Yamaka), is most

probably to be attributed to the dual grouping, of a question and
its converse formulation, strictly adhered to, from beginning to
end. The first pair of questions of the first chapter, for instance,
runs thus: “Are all karmically wholesome phenomena,
wholesome roots? And are all wholesome roots, wholesome
phenomena?”
The whole work which, in its Siamese edition, comprises
two large volumes of altogether 1,349 pages, is divided into 10
Chapters of such pairs of questions; and each chapter forms an
inquiry into phenomena, by referring them to one special
category, namely:
i. Mūla-Yamaka refers everything to the wholesome,
unwholesome, and neutral ‘roots’;
ii. Khandha-Yamaka, to the 5 ‘groups’ of existence;
iii. Āyatana-Yamaka, to the 12 ‘bases’
iv. Dhātu-Yamaka, to the 18 ‘elements’ of psycho-physical
life;
v. Sacca-Yamaka, to the four Noble ‘Truths’;
vi. Saṅkhāra-Yamaka, to the bodily, verbal, and mental
‘formations’;
vii. Anusaya-Yamaka, to the 7 evil ‘biases’;
viii. Citta-Yamaka, to ‘consciousness’;
ix. Dhamma-Yamaka, to the term dhamma or
‘phenomenon’;
x. Indriya-Yamaka, to the 22 corporeal and mental
‘faculties.’
The method applied in most of the 10 chapters, is
everywhere, more or less, the same, as far as the category in
question permits. Thus, e.g., the chapters II–VI are, as shown
here below, divided into 3 sections: A. Delimitation of terms, B.
Process, C. Penetration, with sometimes slightly differing sub-
divisions; whilst the remaining chapters are lacking some
sections, or follow somewhat different methods, as will be seen
later on.
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Yamaka
A. DELIMITATION OF TERMS (PAÑÑATTI-VĀRA)

I. Enumeration of Questions (uddesa-vāra)
In positive form
In negative form
General and particular terms in positive form
General and particular terms in negative form
etc.
II. Explanations (niddesa-vāra)
With the same divisions as (I).
B. PROCESS (PAVATTI-VĀRA)
I. Origination (uppāda-vāra)
Present: with regard to person in positive form
Present: with regard to place in positive form
Present: with regard to person and place in positive form
ditto in negative form
Past: the same treatment as for the Present
Future: ditto
Present and past: ditto
Present and future: ditto
Past and future: ditto
II. Cessation (nirodha-vāra)
Analogous treatment as (I).
III. Origination and Cessation (uppāda-nirodha-vāra)
Analogous treatment as (I).
C. PENETRATION (PARIÑÑA-VĀRA)
Analogous treatment as B (I), but only with regard to person
(not to place, etc.).
127
I. MŪLA-YAMAKA
(PAIRS OF QUESTIONS ON THE 9 ROOTS)
There are 3 karmically wholesome roots (kusala-mūla): non-
greed, non-hatred, non-delusion (alobha, adosa, amoha); 3
karmically unwholesome roots (akusala-mūla): greed, hatred,
delusion (lobha, dosa, moha); 3 karmically neutral roots
(avyākata-mūla): non-greed, non-hatred, non-delusion. (Cf.
Paṭṭhāna, Intr. §1)
A. DELIMITATION OF TERMS
(I) Enumeration of Questions:
1. (a) “Are all wholesome phenomena (kusala-dhamma).
wholesome roots (kusala-mūla)? (b) Or, are all
wholesome roots, wholesome phenomena?”
2. (a) “Have all wholesome phenomena one and the same
wholesome root? (b) Or, are those phenomena which have
one and the same wholesome root, all wholesome
phenomena?”
3. (a) “Have those phenomena which have one and the same
wholesome root, all one another as wholesome roots? (b)
Or, are those phenomena which have one another as
wholesome roots, all wholesome phenomena?”
4. (a) “Are all wholesome phenomena, wholesome root-
conditions? (b) Or, are all wholesome root-conditions,
wholesome phenomena?”
wholesome root-condition? (b) Or, are those phenomena
which have one and the same wholesome root-condition,
all wholesome phenomena?”
root-condition, all one another as wholesome root-
conditions? (b) Or, are those phenomena which have one
another as wholesome root-conditions, all wholesome
phenomena?”
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Yamaka
7. (a) “Have all wholesome phenomena, wholesome roots?

(b) Or, are those phenomena which have wholesome
roots, all wholesome phenomena?”
wholesome root? (b) Or, are those phenomena which have
one and the same wholesome root, all wholesome
phenomena?”
wholesome root, all one another as wholesome roots? (b)
Or, are those phenomena which have one another as
wholesome roots, all wholesome phenomena?”
10. (a) “Do all wholesome phenomena have wholesome root-
conditions? (b) Or, are those phenomena which have
wholesome root-conditions, all wholesome phenomena?”
11. (a) “Have all wholesome phenomena one another as
wholesome root-conditions? (b) Or, are those phenomena
which have one another as wholesome root-conditions, all
wholesome phenomena?”
wholesome root-conditions, all one another as wholesome
root-conditions? (b) Or, are those phenomena which have
one another as wholesome roots, all wholesome
phenomena?”
The above 12 questions form four groups, by their referring
to four terms, namely: (1–3) to ‘root’ (mūla), (4–6) to ‘root-
condition’ (mūla-mūla), (7–9) to ‘having a root’ (mūlaka), (10–
12) to ‘having root-conditions’ (mūla-mūlaka). Each of these
four groups, again, forms 3 pairs (yamaka) of questions, by
referring to ‘roots’ (mūla-yamaka), to ‘having one and the same
root’ (eka-mūla-yamaka) to ‘having one another as roots’
(añña-m-añña-mūla-yamaka).
The Burmese monk-scholar Dr. Ledi Sayādaw, in his able Pāli
essay on the Yamaka (Landana-Pāli-Devi-Pucchā-Vissajjanā; see
Appendix to the PTS edition of the Yamaka), says: “the
expressions (eka-mūla, mūlaka, eka-mūlaka, mūla-mūlaka, and
eka-mūla-mūlaka) have all the same meaning, only the wording is
different” (sabbam-etaṃ ekatthaṃ. vyañjanaṃ-eva ñāṇaṃ).
129
The same 12 questions are further repeated with reference to

‘unwholesome’ (akusala), then with reference to ‘neutral’
(avyākata), then with reference to mental’ (nāma), so that, if
really detailed, we should get altogether 48 pairs (yamaka) of
questions relating to the term ‘root.’ Hereafter follow 9 further
such chapters, each with 48 analogous pairs of questions on
synonyms of the term ‘root’ (but only indicated by catch-
words), namely: root-condition—cause—origin—springing
up—rising-up—nutriment—object—condition—genesis—, so
that we get 10 chapters with altogether 480 pairs of questions.
(II) Explanations:
1. (a) “Are all wholesome phenomena (kusala-dhamma),
wholesome roots (kusala-mūla)—(No,) there are only three
(which are called) wholesome roots (s. above); the remaining
wholesome phenomena (as wholesome sense-impression,
feeling, perception, etc., etc.) are not wholesome roots. (b)
But, are all wholesome roots, wholesome phenomena? Yes.”
Thus, the term ‘wholesome root’ (kusala-mūla) is
subordinate to ‘wholesome phenomena’ (kusala-dhamma)
which fact may be represented by two circles:
2. (a) “Have all wholesome phenomena (in the same state

of consciousness) one and the same wholesome root (i.e. non-
greed, non-hatred, or non-delusion)? Yes.”
“The wholesome root possessed by wholesome sense-
impression, is the same as possessed by (the associated)
130
Yamaka
wholesome feeling, and by all the other (associated) mental

phenomena.” (Com.)
(b) “But are those phenomena which have one and the
same wholesome root, all wholesome phenomena?” (No; e.g.,)
corporeality (as intimation by body or voice; see Kathāvatthu,
§82 etc.), produced by wholesome (consciousness), has one and
the same wholesome root, but is itself not ‘wholesome’ (it is
neutral); the wholesome, however has one and the same root,
and is at the same time wholesome.”
3. (a) “Do those phenomena (in the same state of

consciousness) which have the same wholesome roots, have
all one another as wholesome roots?”—(No; only) those roots
which arise together as wholesome roots (non-greed, non-
hate, non-delusion; see Dhs I. A), have the same roots, and
have each other as roots; the remaining phenomena (as
perception, feeling, etc., etc.), however, which are co-nascent
with the wholesome roots, have the same wholesome roots,
but they have not each other as (wholesome) roots.”
131
(b) “But are those phenomena which have each other as

wholesome roots, all wholesome phenomena : Yes.”
Etc., etc.
II. KHANDHA-YAMAKA
(Pairs of questions on the 5 groups of existence)
(I) The Enumeration of the questions is omitted in this and all
the following chapters, as all are again given in the following
section on Explanations.
(II) Explanations
(Positive):
1 (a) “Is (everything which is called) rūpa, of the
corporeality- group (rūpa-khandha)? (No; e.g.,) piya-rūpa and
sāta-rūpa (i.e. of pleasing and delightful ‘nature,’ or
‘appearance’) is rūpa, but it is not the corporeality-group. The
corporeality-group, however, is both, corporeality group, as
well as rūpa.”
The terms piya-rūpa and rūpa-khandha are co-ordinate with
one another, and subordinate to rūpa.
PIYA-
RŪPA
RŪPA
Rūpa-
khandha
(b) “But is the corporeality-group, rūpa? Yes.”

2. (a) “Is feeling (vedanā), the feeling group (vedanā-
khandha)? Yes. (b) And is the feeling-group, feeling: Yes.”
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Yamaka
Both terms are absolutely identical and equal in all respects.
VEDANĀ
VEDANĀ-KHANDA
3. (a) “Is (everything which is called) saññā, of the

perception-group (saññā-khandha)? (No; e.g.,) diṭṭhi-saññā
(i.e. saññā in the sense of ‘opinion’) is saññā, but it is not of
the perception-group (saññā-khandha). The perception-
group, however, is both, saññā, as well as perception-group.
(b) But is (everything which is called) the perception-group,
saññā? Yes.”
The terms ‘diṭṭhi-saññā’ and ‘saññā-khandha’ are co-
ordinate with each other, whilst subordinate to ‘saññā.’
SAÑÑĀ
DIṬṬHI SAÑÑĀ
SAÑÑĀ KHANDHA
4. (a) Are (all things which are called) formations

(saṅkhāra), of the formation-group (saṅkhāra-khandha)?
(No; e.g.,) all the formations besides the formation-group (as
feeling, perception, consciousness, etc., or corporeal
formations) are formations, but they are not of the formation-
group; the formation-group, however, is both, formation, as
133
well as formation-group. (b) But does (everything which is

called) formation-group, relate to formations? Yes.”
SAṄKHĀRA
SAṄKHĀRA
KHANDHA
5. (a) “Is (everything which is called) consciousness, of

the consciousness-group? Yes. (b) And is everything which is
called the consciousness-group, consciousness? Yes.”
Both terms are identical.
(Negative):
1. (a) “Is everything which is not rūpa, not of the
corporeality- group? No,1 it is not of the corporeality-group.
(b) And is everything which is not of the corporeality-group,
not rūpa? Piya-rūpa, etc. (s. above) is rūpa, but it is not of the
corporeality-group
In (2) to (5), the remaining four groups are treated in the
same way.
(GENERAL AND PARTICULAR TERMS IN POSITIVE FORM:)
1. (a) “Is (everything which is called) rūpa, of the
corporeality-group?”—Answer as at page 132, II. i (a).
(b) “Are (all things which are called) groups (khandha),
the feeling-group (vedanā-khandha)? (No,) the feeling-group
is a group, as well as feeling-group; the remaining groups,
1. In Pāli we find āmantā = ‘yes.’ In most Asiatic languages, the affir-

mative is used to confirm a negative question, e.g., “Are you not
ill?”— “Yes (I am not ill).”
134
Yamaka
however, are groups, but they are not the feeling-group.”
KHANDHA
VEDANĀ
KHANDHA
In (2)—(4), question and answer of 1 (a) is repeated; under

(b), perception, formations and consciousness respectively, are
substituted for feeling.
In (5)—(20), four analogous tetrads follow, starting with the
four remaining groups; e.g.:
5. (a) “Is feeling the feeling-group? Yes.” (b) “Are the
groups the corporeality-group?”—Answer analogous to 1 (b).
(GENERAL AND PARTICULAR TERMS IN NEGATIVE FORM:)
1. (a) “Is that which is not rūpa, not the corporeality-
group? No, it is not. (b) And are those things, which are not
groups, not the feeling-group? No, they are not.”
The treatment in (5)—(20) corresponds to the “positive
form,” with due alterations.
Now another two sets of twin questions follow. The first set:
(Positive:)
1. (a) “Is rūpa a group? Yes. (b) But are the groups, the
corporeality-group? (No;) the corporeality-group is a group,
as well as the corporeality-group; the remaining groups,
however, are groups, but they are not the corporeality-
group.”
In (2)—(5) the 4 remaining groups are treated accordingly.
(Negative:)
135
6. (a) “Is anything which is not rūpa, not a group? All the
remaining groups besides rūpa (i.e. the 4 mental groups) are
not rūpa, but they are groups. Leaving aside rūpa and the
groups, the remaining things (e.g. Nibbāna) are neither rūpa,
nor groups. (b) Are those things which are not groups, also
not the corporeality group? No, they are not.”
2
RŪPA NOT-RŪPA
3
GROUPS
NOT-GROUPS
1 4 NOT-GROUPS
In (7)—(10) the remaining four groups are treated

accordingly. The second set begins as follows:
(Positive:)
1. (a) “Is rūpa a group? Yes. (b) Are the groups the
feeling-group? (No,) the feeling-group is a group, as well as
feeling-group; the remaining groups, however, are groups,
but they are not the feeling-group.”
(Answer analogous to 1b)
(2)—(4): with the 2 remaining groups; (5)—(20): starting in
(a) with feeling, etc.
(Negative:)
1. (a) “Is that which is not rūpa, not a group? (Answer as
above) (b) And are those things which are not groups, also
not the feeling-group? No, they are not.” Etc., etc.
B. PROCESS
For understanding the questions and answers in this section, the
following remarks will be helpful. The questions are phrased:
1. With regard to place: The corporeality-group obtains in
all the places of existence, except in the immaterial world
136
Yamaka
(arūpa). The 4 mental groups (feeling, perception, etc.) obtain

in all spheres of existence, except in the sphere of unconscious
beings (asañña-satta). Hence, the questions, whether in the
immaterial world the corporeality-group does, did, or will arise,
or does, did, or will cease, all these are to be answered in the
negative. The same holds good with the questions concerning
the unconscious beings with regard to the four mental groups.
2. With regard to person: The questions, whether the
Corporeality-group, etc., did once (in the long run of saṃsāra)
arise, or cease, with regard to a being, are all to be answered in
the affirmative, even in the, case of those who are now
immaterial (arūpa) and unconscious beings (asañña-satta). The
questions, whether the corporeality-group ever will arise
(again), or will cease, do not apply to those Ariyas (attainers of
the Noble stages) who are living in the immaterial world. And to
those who in the immaterial world have reached their last
existence, even the feeling-group, etc., never will rise again. To
all those who are just entering final Nibbāna, none of the 5
groups will ever arise, or cease again. To the immaterial beings
at the moment of rebirth-consciousness, there arises the feeling-
group, etc., but it does not cease (at that very moment of
arising); or, at the very moment of dissolution of death-
consciousness, the feeling-group, etc. ceases, but it does not
arise (at that very moment). To the unconscious beings, at the
moment of birth, there arises the corporeality-group, and does
not cease (at that very moment); at the moment of dissolution of
their corporeality at death, the corporeality-group ceases, and
does not arise (at that very moment). At the rebirth-moment of
the five-group-beings (as men, etc.), corporeality and the other
groups arise, but they do not cease (at that moment, but will
cease afterwards); at the moment of their death-consciousness,
the five groups do cease, and do not arise at that moment.
3. In the section on ‘person and place,’ the questions
whether the corporeality-and feeling-group, etc., once did arise,
or will arise to a being at its birth within the respective world,
137
will not find application within the Pure Abodes (suddhāvāsā),

the place where only the Anāgāmin will be reborn, since no
being will be reborn there twice in one and the same plane (of
the 5 planes existing there).
I am giving here an outline of all the pairs of questions.
(I) ORIGINATION
1. To whom...............
2. Where..............
3. To whom and where, the corp-group does arise, does
there the feeling-group also arise? (& conversely)?
4–6. .... “ ....... did... “ ....did.... “ .......... “ ........... “ ........?
7–9. .... “ .......will...... “ ....will... “ .......... “ ........ “ ........?
10–12. .... “ ........does..... “ ....did.... “ ......... “ ......... “ .......?
13–15 ...Feel grp does... “ ....did.... “ ......Perc grp....... “ .....?
16–21. .... “ ..... does... “ ....will... “ ............ “ ......... “ ........?
22–27. .... “ ....... did... “ ....will.... “ .......... “ .......... “ ........?
Each of the above (threefold, or sixfold) groups of
twin-questions is followed by the same questions in
the negative, e.g.
“To whom the corporeality-group does not arise, does
there the feeling-group also not arise?” Etc., etc.
Thus, we get altogether 54 pairs of questions.
(II) CESSATION
For ‘arise’ etc. read ‘cease’ etc.
(III) ORIGINATION AND CESSATION
For the second ‘arise’ read ‘cease’ etc., and a further triad of
twin-questions (as 13–15) is inserted after each triad. Here I am
giving a few answers as illustration:
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Yamaka
(Positive:)
1. (a) “To (every one to) whom the corporeality-group does
arise, does there also arise the feeling-group? (No; e.g.,) to
one reborn as unconscious being (asañña-satta), there arises
the corporeality-group, but not the feeling-group; to those,
however, born with the 5 groups there arises the
corporeality-group as well as the feeling-group.
(b) But does the corporeality-group arise (to everyone) to
whom the feeling-group arises? (No; e.g.,) to those who are
reborn in the immaterial sphere (arūpāvacara), there arises
the feeling group, but not the corporeality-group; to those,
however, who are born with 5 groups, both do arise, the
feeling-group, as well as the corporeality-group.”
(Negative:)
1. (a) “To (every) one to whom the corporeality-group does
not arise, does there also not arise the feeling-group? (No; e.g.,)
to those reborn in the immaterial sphere, the corporeality-
group does not arise, but not does the feeling-group not arise
(i.e. it surely does arise); to all those, however, who pass away
from there, neither the corporeality-group, nor the feeling-
group does arise (at the moment of death).”
(Positive:)
“Does to (every) one to whom the corporeality-group
ceases, the feeling-group also cease? (No; e.g.,) at the passing
away of an unconscious being (asañña-satta), the
corporeality-group does cease, but not does any feeling-group
cease (as there is none in such a state of existence); at the
passing-away of five-group-beings however, both do cease,
the corporeality-group, as well as the feeling-group.” Etc.,
etc.
C. PENETRATION
By ‘penetration’ (pariññā) is meant the penetrating insight, at the
moment of entering into one of the 4 Noble stages. The questions
are analogous to B (1); for ‘arise’ etc., however, read ‘penetrate,’
etc., and leave out the questions 13–15, 19–21, 25–27.
139
1. (a) “Does (every) one who penetrates the corporeality-

group, (also) penetrate the feeling-group? Yes. (b) And does
(every) one who penetrates the feeling-group, (also) penetrate
the corporeality-group? Yes.”
The rest follows exactly the same method as in B (1)
III. ĀYATANA-YAMAKA
(Pairs of questions on the 12 Bases)
ON THESE 12 BASES SEE VIBH II.
(I) Enumeration of Questions
(II) Explanations
(Positive): (a) “Does (everything which is called) ‘eye’ refer to
the eye-base (organ of sight)? (No; e.g., ) the divine eye and
the eye of wisdom are called eyes, but they are not the eye-
base; the eye-base, however, is both, eye, as well as eye-
base.—(b) But is the eye-base (always considered as) ‘eye’?
Yes.”
The terms ‘eye-base,’ ‘eye of wisdom,’ and ‘divine eye,’ are
co-ordinate with each other, but subordinate to the term ‘eye.
DIVINE EYE OF
EYE WISDOM
RŪPA
EYE
BASE
Hereafter, similar explanations follow with regard to the

other 11 bases.
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Yamaka
(Negative:) (a) “Is that which is not ‘eye,’ also not the ‘eye-
base’? (No, it is not the eye-base.)—(b) Is that which is not
the eye-base, also not an ‘eye’? (No, that is not the case,
because) the divine eye and the eye of wisdom are called
eyes, but they are not the eye-base; the eye-base, however, is
both, eye, as well as eye-base; excepting eye and eye-base,
what remains, is neither eye, nor eye-base.” Etc.
(General and particular terms; Positive:) “Is (everything
which is called) ‘eye,’ the eye-base? (No; e.g.,) the divine eye
and the wisdom- eye are eyes, but they are not the eye-base;
the eye-base is both, eye, as well as eye-base.—Are the bases
the ear-base?” etc., etc.
B. PROCESS
PRELIMINARY REMARKS
With regard to person: To all beings—in the long run of
saṃsāra—all the 12 bases once did arise. To beings in their last
existence (before entering final Nibbāna), no base will arise in the
future, but all bases will cease. To the Noble Ones (ariya, see
above) in the immaterial world (arūpa), 10 bases (i.e. the 5 sense-
organs and their objects) will no more arise, and will no more
cease again in the future. To the ariyas (anāgāmins) of the fine-
material world, nose, tongue, body, and their corresponding
objects, will no more arise, and no more cease again in the future.
In this Yamaka, ‘arises’ and ‘ceases’ refer to birth and death
in the present existence; ‘arose’ and ‘ceased,’ to a past
existence; ‘will arise’ and ‘will cease,’ to a future existence.
With regard to place: In the immaterial world (arūpa), only
two bases are found: the mind-base and the mind-object-base
(manāyatana and dhammāyatana). In the world of unconscious
beings (asañña-satta), only the rūpa-base (visual object) and the
corporeal mind-object-base are found. In the fine-material world,
6 bases are found: eye, ear, mind, and the corresponding objects.
In the sense-world all the 12 bases are found. (Cf. Vibh II).
141
I am quoting here a few questions and answers, all picked

out here and there:
(Person)—(a) “Does to (every) one to whom the eye-base
arises, also the eye-object-base arise? Yes.—(b) But, does to
(every) one to whom the eye-object-base arises, also the eye-
base arise? (No; e.g.,) to those, who are reborn with rūpa, but
without eye (i.e. to the blind as well as to the unconscious
beings), there arises the eye-object-base (rūpāyatana), but
not the eye-base.” Etc.
(a) “ Does to (every) one to whom the nose-base arises,
also the eye-object-base arise? Yes.—(b) But does to (every)
one to whom the eye-object-base arises, also the nose-base
arise? (No; e.g.,) to those who are reborn with rūpa, but
without nose, there arises the eye-object-base, but not the
nose-base.” Etc.
“Does to (every) one to whom the mind-object-base arises,
also the mind-base arise? (No; e.g.,) to those who are reborn
as unconscious (acittaka) beings, there does arise the
(corporeal) mind-object-base (dhammāyatana), but not the
mind-base (manāyatana).”
The mind-object (dhamma), may be a mere corporeal
phenomenon (s. Vibh II).
(Place)—(a) “Wherever the eye-base arises, does there
also arise the ear-base? Yes.—(b)— And wherever the ear-
base arises, does there also arise the eye-base ? Yes.”
“Wherever the eye-base arises, does there also arise the
nose-base? (No; e.g.,) in the fine-material sphere there arises
the eye-base, but the nose-base does not arise.”
“To whomsoever the eye-base did arise, did there also
arise the ear-base (and conversely)? Yes.”
(Person & place)—“To whomsoever, and wheresoever, the
mind-base did not arise, did there to him and in that place,
also arise the eye-object-base not? (It is not so in every case,
e.g.,) to the unconscious beings (asañña-satta), the mind-base
did not arise in that place, but the eye-object-base (s. above)
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Yamaka
did arise; to the beings of the Pure Abodes (suddhāvāsā),

however, neither the mind-base nor the eye-object-base did
arise (in the past) in that world.”
Anāgāmins are reborn only once in the Pure Abodes, before
attaining Nibbāna. They had therefore no previous rebirth at that
place.
(Person)—“To whomsoever the eye-base will arise, will
also the nose- base arise to him? (No; e.g.,) to those who, after
being reborn in the fine-material sphere (rūpāvacara), will
attain Nibbāna, to those the eye-base will arise, but not the
nose-base; to the others, however, both will arise, eye-base,
as well as nose-base.”
C. PENETRATION
Exactly the analogous method as in Khandha-Yamaka (C), but
here with regard to eye-base and ear-base, namely:
“Does (every) one who penetrates the eye-base, also
penetrate the ear-base (and conversely)? Yes.” Etc., etc.
The answers to the questions are exactly the same, as given
in the Indriya-Yamaka (X).
IV. DHĀTU-YAMAKA
(Pairs of questions on the 18 Elements)
In all the 3 sections (A, B, C), the 12 elements—eye, ear, nose,

tongue, body, mind, and the 6 corresponding objects—are
explained in exactly the same words as in Āyatana-Yamaka
(III), and Indriya-Yamaka (X), eye-consciousness (cakkhu-
viññāṇa) etc., and “eye-consciousness-element” (cakkhu-
viññāṇa-dhātu) etc., are said to be absolutely identical terms.
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V. SACCA-YAMAKA
(Pairs of questions on the four noble Truths)
(a) “Does (everything which is called) dukkha (here, painful
feeling), refer to the Dukkha-Truth (Truth of Suffering)? Yes.
(b) “But does Dukkha-truth always refer to dukkha
(painful feeling)? (No; e.g.,) excepting bodily and mental
dukkha (-feeling), the remaining Dukkha-truth is Dukkha-
truth, but it is not dukkha (painful feeling).”
DUKKHA-TRUTH
DUKKHA
FEELING
“Bodily and mental dukkha (painful feeling), however, is

both, dukkha (painful feeling), as well as Dukkha-truth.”
Dukkha-Truth, commonly called the Truth of Suffering,
does not merely refer to actual painful feeling (called likewise
dukkha), but teaches that, on account of the law of
impermanency and change, all the phenomena of existence,
even the states of highest bliss and happiness, are unsatisfactory,
and bear in themselves the seed of suffering and misery.
With regard to the 3 remaining Truths, it is said that the
terms ‘origin,’ ‘cessation,’ and ‘path,’ used in the texts, do not
necessarily always refer to the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Truth. The
‘Origination-Truth’ namely, refers according to the
Abhidhamma, only to craving (taṇhā), the ‘Cessation-Truth’ to
the cessation of craving, the ‘Path-Truth’ to the noble (ariya)
Path leading to final deliverance.
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Yamaka
The method here followed, is everywhere the same as in the

Khandha-Yamaka.
B. PROCESS
(a) “Does to (every) one to whom the Dukkha-truth arises,
also the Origination-truth arise? (No; e.g.,) to all those, who
are being reborn, arises, in the course of existence, at the
moment of arising of consciousness disconnected with
‘craving’ (Origination-truth), the Dukkha-truth, but not the
Origination-truth; at the appearance of craving, however,
both do arise, the Dukkha-truth, as well as the Origination-
truth.
(b) “But does to (every) one to whom the Origination-
truth arises, also the Dukkha-truth arise? Yes.”
This is so for the reason that also craving together with all
the other mental phenomena, is subject to the Dukkha-truth. The
remaining contents of this section may be summed up as
follows:
In the immaterial (arūpa) world, at the arising of one of the
(supramundane) Paths, the Path-truth obtains, but not the
Dukkha-truth. Amongst the unconscious beings (asañña-satta),
the Dukkha-truth is found, not the Origination- and Path-truth.
In the worlds of the four- and five-group-beings, the Dukkha-,
Origination-, and Path-truths do obtain. In the 4 lower worlds
(apāya), the Dukkha- and Origination-truth do obtain but not the
Path- truth.
The Cessation-truth (Nibbāna) is not mentioned in this
chapter, as no arising or ceasing of the same is possible.
C. PENETRATION
(Present)—1. “Does he who penetrates the Dukkka-truth, (at
that moment) overcome the Origination-truth (and
conversely)? Yes.
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2. “Does he who does not penetrate the Dukkha-truth,

also not overcome the Origination-truth (and conversely)?
No, he does not.
(Past)—3. “Did he who penetrated the Dukkha-truth, (at
that moment) overcome the Dukkha-truth (and conversely)?
Yes.
4. “Did he who did not penetrate the Dukkha-truth, also
not overcome the Origination-truth (and conversely)? No, he
did not.”
(Future)—5–6. Here follow the positive and the negative
pair of questions with regard to future. Then follow:
(Present and Past)—7–8. “Did he who penetrates (now)
the Dukkha-truth, (already) overcome the Dukkha-truth?
No.” Etc., etc.
Then, the same pair of questions—in the positive, as well as
negative form—is repeated with regard to present and future;
and then, with regard to past and future.
VI. SAṄKHĀRA-YAMAKA
(Pairs of questions on the 3 Formations)
“There are three kinds of formations: kāya-saṅkhāra (here,
‘body-formation’), vacī-saṅkhāra (here, ‘speech-formation’),
citta-saṅkhāra (‘mind-formation,’ mental concomitant). In-
and out-breathing constitutes the kāya-saṅkhāra; thought
conception (vitakka) and discursive thinking (vicāra), the
vacī-saṅkhāra (speech-formation within the mind); percep-
tion and feeling, the citta-saṅkhāra. Excepting thought-
conception and discursive thinking, being vacī-saṅkhāra , all
the phenomena combined with mind (but not mind itself),
constitute the citta-saṅkhāra.”
“Is ‘body’ (kāya) the kāya-saṅkhāra? No.—Or, is kāya-
saṅkhāra the body? No.—Is ‘speech’ (vacī) the vacī-saṅkhā
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Yamaka
(and conversely)? No.—Is ‘mind’ (consciousness) the citta-

saṅkhāra (and conversely)? No.”
“Is that which is not body, also not kāya-saṅkhāra? Kāya-
saṅkhāra is not body, but it is kāya-saṅkhāra (in-and out-
breathing). Excepting body and kāya-saṅkhāra, that which
remains is neither body, nor kāya-saṅkhāra.”
The analogous answers apply also to the converse, as well
as to vacī-, and citta-saṅkhāra. Then follow positive and
negative questions, with regard to general and particular terms
etc etc., just as in Khandha-Yamaka.
B. PROCESS
The contents of this chapter may be summed up as follows:
Kāya-saṅkhāra (= in- and out-breathing) is found in the
sense-world, not in the fine-material or immaterial world. It is
found in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd jhāna, not in the 4th jhāna.
Vacī-saṅkhāra (= thought conception and discursive
thinking) is found in the sense-, fine-material and immaterial
world, not amongst the unconscious beings. It obtains also in the
1st jhāna (of the fourfold division), not in the other jhānas.
Citta-saṅkhāra (= mental concomitants) are found in all the
worlds, except that of the unconscious beings, and also in all the
jhānas.
Kāya-saṅkhāra (= breathing) does not obtain at the death-
moment and rebirth-moment (conception). The two other
saṅkhāras obtain at all times.
The method employed in this chapter is the usual one. The
text begins thus:
“Does to (every) one to whom the kāya-saṅkhāra arises, (at
that time) also the vacī-saṅkhāra arise? (No; e.g.,) when to
those to whom, in the absence of thought-conception and
discursive thinking (i.e. in the 2nd and 3rd jhāna), in- and out-
breathing arises, then there arises to them kāya-saṅkhāra, not
vacī-saṅkhāra; when, however, to those who are abiding in the
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1st jhāna, or who are dwelling in the sensuous sphere, in- and
out-breathing arises, then both do arise, kāya-saṅkhāra, as
well as vacī-saṅkhāra.” Etc., etc.
C. PENETRATION
This chapter is throughout analogous with the corresponding
chapter of the Khandha-Yamaka.
VII. ANUSAYA-YAMAKA
(Pairs of questions on the 7 Biases)
There are 7 biases: (1) the bias of sensual craving

(kāmarāgānusaya), (2) of anger (paṭighānusaya), (3) of conceit
(mānānusaya), (4) of erroneous opinion (diṭṭhānusaya), (5) of
scepticism (vicikicchānusaya), (6) of craving for existence
(bhavarāgānusaya), (7) of ignorance (avijjānusaya).
This Yamaka follows a different method of treatment. It is
divided into 7 chapters (vāra), each consisting of a positive, and
a negative section namely:
i. The ‘biases’ (anusaya-vāra)
ii. ‘Possessed of biases’ (sānusaya-vāra)
iii. ‘Abandoning’ the biases (pajahana-vāra)
iv. ‘Penetration’ (pariññā-vāra)
v. Biases ‘abandoned’ (pahīna-vāra)
vi. ‘Arising’ of biases (uppajjana-vāra)
vii. The biases in the various ‘spheres of existence’ (dhātu-vāra)
(1) The Biases

This chapter is preceded by the following explanatory notes on
the objects, or places of origin, of the 7 biases:
(1) “Where does the bias of sensuous craving adhere? To the
2 feelings (pleasant and neutral) of the sensuous sphere.”
(2) “Where anger? To painful (bodily or mental) feeling.”
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Yamaka
(3) “Where conceit? To the 2 feelings of the sensuous sphere

and of the fine-material and immaterial sphere.”
(4) “Where erroneous opinion? To all phenomena included in
the existence-group (sakkāya).”
(5) “Where scepticism?” (Answer as in 4).
(6) “Where craving for existence? To the fine-material and
immaterial sphere.”
(7) “Where ignorance?” (Answer as in 4).
(Positive:)
(Person) Here the following facts should be remembered—
The Sotāpannas and Sakadāgāmins have still 5 biases (i.e. 1, 2,
3, 6, 7), the Anāgāmins 3 (i.e. 3, 6, 7), the Arahats none. The
questions begin thus:
(1 with 2) (a) “Does to (every) one to whom the bias of
sensuous craving adheres, also the bias of anger adhere? Yes.
(b) And does to (every) one to whom the bias of anger adheres,
also the bias of sensuous craving adhere?—Yes.”
sensuous craving adheres, also the bias of conceit adhere?—
Yes. (b) But, does to (every) one to whom the bias of conceit
adheres, also the bias of sensuous craving adhere? (No; e.g.,) to
the Anāgāmin, conceit does adhere, but not sensuous craving;
to three individuals (worldling, Sotāpanna, Sakadāgāmin)
both do adhere, sensuous craving, as well as Conceit.”
sensuous craving adheres, also the bias of erroneous opinion
adhere—(No; e.g.,) to 2 individuals (Sotāpanna,
Sakadāgāmin) sensuous craving does adhere, but not
erroneous opinion; to the worldling, however, both do adhere,
sensuous craving, as well as erroneous opinion.” (b) (This
converse question is answered in the affirmative).
Now are following pairs of questions regarding: 1 with 5; 1
with 6; 1 with 7; thereafter, 2 with 3; 2 with 4 and 5; 2 with 6
and 7; then, 3 with 4 and 5; 3 with 6 and 7; then, 4 with 5; 4 with
6 and 7; 5 with 6 and 7; 6 with 7; then 1 and 2 with 3; 1 and 2,
with 4 and 5; 1 and 2, with 4 and 5; 1 and 2, with 6 and 7; 1–3,
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with 4 and 5; 1–3, with 6 and 7; 1–4, with 5; 1–4, with 6 and 7;
1–5, with 6 and 7; 1–6, with 7. Example:
(1–5, with 6 and 7) “To whomsoever sensuous craving,
anger, conceit, erroneous opinion, and scepticism adhere, do
there also craving for existence, and ignorance, adhere? Yes.”
(Place)—All the 7 biases obtain in the sense-, fine-material,
and immaterial sphere, except in the Pure Abodes (suddhāvāsa).
Consciousness connected with anger, does not obtain in the
fine-material and immaterial world, though, according to Ledi
Sayādaw, anger still exists there (in a dormant state?). In the
world of unconscious beings (asañña-satta), the biases do not
actually exist, as there is no mental life.
The method is exactly the same as above (for person), e.g.:
“Where (in which place) the bias of sensuous craving
adheres, does there also the bias of anger adhere? No.” (See
beginning of this chapter). Etc., etc.
(Person and place)—(1, with 4 and 5) “To whomsoever,
and wheresoever, the bias of sensuous craving adheres, does
there adhere to him, and there, also the bias of erroneous
opinion, and scepticism? (No; e.g.,) in 2 individuals
(Sotāpanna and Sakadāgāmin), the sensuous craving adheres
to the two feelings in the sensuous-sphere, but not so the bias
of erroneous opinion (as it is already overcome in both); in the
worldling, however, both do adhere to the 2 feelings in the
sensuous-sphere, sensuous craving, as well as erroneous
opinion.” Etc., etc.
(Negative:) The negative questions follow the same method
as above. They begin thus:
“To whomsoever the bias of sensuous craving does not
adhere, does there to him also not the bias of anger adhere?”
Etc., etc.
(II) Possessed of Biases

This chapter is analogous to the preceding one. It begins thus:
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Yamaka
“Is (every) one who is possessed of the bias of sensuous

craving, also possessed of the bias of anger?” Etc., etc.
The negative questions begin thus:
“Is (every) one who is free from the bias of sensuous
craving, also free from the bias of anger?” Etc., etc.
(III) Abandoning the Biases

(1 with 2) “Does (every) one who abandons the bias of
sensuous craving, also (at that moment) abandon the bias of
anger (and conversely)? Yes.”
(1 with 3) “Does (every) one who abandons the bias of
Consistency? sensuous craving, also abandon the bias of
conceit? (No,) he abandons only that conceit, which is
connected therewith (but not the conceit connected with the
fine-material or immaterial sphere).”
(IV) Penetration
“Does he who penetrates the bias of sensuous craving, also
penetrate the bias of anger (and conversely)? Yes.” Etc., etc.
(V) Biases Abandoned

“Is in one in whom the bias of sensuous craving is aban-
doned, also the bias of anger abandoned (and conversely)?
Yes.” Etc., etc.
(VI) Arising of Biases

“Does in one in whom the bias of sensuous craving arises,
also the bias of anger arise (and conversely)? Yes.” Etc., etc.
(VII) The Biases in the various Spheres of Existence

“To one who, after passing away from the sensuous sphere, is
reborn in the sensuous-sphere (or, fine-material-sphere—or,
immaterial sphere—or, not in the sensuous sphere—or, not in
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the fine-material sphere, etc.), how many biases do there

arise, how many do not, how many are cut off?”
The answers to these questions are all absolutely identical
e.g.:
“One who, after passing away from the sensuous-sphere
(or, fine-material sphere, etc.), is reborn in the sensuous-
sphere (etc.), may have 7 biases (i.e. the worldling), or 5
biases (i.e. the Sotāpanna and Sakadāgāmin), or 3 biases (the
Anāgāmin); but he may (at that moment) not be free from all
of them.” Cf. (I).
VIII. CITTA-YAMAKA
(Pairs of questions on Consciousness)
This Yamaka has no sections A and C, and thus consists only of

B, i.e. the process of consciousness, which here somewhat
deviates from the usual method. It is the only Yamaka, in which
B begins with an enumeration of questions (uddesa-vāra).
To understand the answers to the questions, the following
facts should be kept in mind:
To those who have reached the cessation of consciousness
(nirodhasamāpatti), as well as to the unconscious beings
(asañña-satta), consciousness does not arise, and is not arisen,
and does not cease (as it does not exist in such a state); it arose
at the moment before its breaking off (before reaching the
unconscious state), and it will arise (again in the future), etc.
With regard to time, we should keep in mind these facts:
past consciousness does not arise (now), is not arising, is not
arisen, will not arise, but it did once arise; it does not cease
(now), is not ceasing (now), will not cease (in the future), but it
did cease, is ceased.
Future consciousness did not arise, is not arisen, does not
arise, is not arising, but it will arise; it does not cease (now)...
but it will cease.
Present consciousness did not arise ... but it arises (now), is
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Yamaka
arising, is arisen; it does not cease (now) ... but it will cease.
(a) “To whomsoever consciousness arises, and not ceases
(at that very moment), will there to him consciousness cease
(afterwards), and will no more arise? (No, only) at the arising
of final consciousness (before the death of the Arahat),
consciousness to such a person arises, does not cease (at that
very moment of arising), but will cease (the next moment),
and will no more arise; at the arising of consciousness in
other persons, however, consciousness does arise, does not
cease (at that moment), but will cease, and will arise again—
(b) But to whom consciousness will cease, no more arise, does
there to him (at that very moment) consciousness arise, and
does it not cease? It does arise, does not cease.”
With this last sentence I had to paraphrase the single Pāli
word āmantā, ‘yes,’ which affirms here both the preceding
negative and positive question, and thus could not be rendered
in another way.
In the 2nd pair of questions, the positive and negative forms
of the verbs are reversed.
Thereafter follow pairs of questions with regard to past,
future, present, etc., with all the possible permutations, namely:
“To one to whom consciousness arises (—or, arose—is
arising—is arisen—ceases—ceased—is ceasing—is ceased), is
there to him consciousness arisen (—or, did it arise—will it
arise—does it cease—did it cease—will it cease, etc.)?” Etc., etc.
Thereafter, the foregoing method is applied—but only
indicated by catch-words—to consciousness with and without
lust ... freed and not freed (enumeration according to Satipaṭṭhāna
Sutta) and to the terms of the entire Abhidhamma Mātika.
IX. DHAMMA-YAMAKA
(Pairs of questions on the term dhamma, ‘phenomenon’)
This Yamaka consists of the 2 great sections A & B, but there is

no section C.
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Here we have to remember that, in the absolute sense, there

does not exist any living entity, such as we call man, woman,
animal, celestial being, etc., but that there are only processes of
mental and bodily ‘phenomena’ (dhamma), ever arising and
passing away. Hence, it is equally wrong to speak, in the
absolute sense, of good or bad ‘men’ etc., since all qualities
refer only to phenomena, not to abiding entities.
All those phenomena, a full explanation of which is given in
the Dhammasaṅgaṇi, are, according to their karmical value,
divided into wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral phenomena.
The treatment here is exactly the same as in Khandha-Yamaka.
(a) “Does (everything which is called) ‘wholesome’ refer to
wholesome phenomena? Yes. (b) And are (all) wholesome
phenomena termed ‘wholesome’? Yes.”
The analogous questions are repeated for ‘unwholesome’
and ‘neutral.’
(a) “Is (everything which is) not wholesome, also not a
wholesome phenomenon? No, it is not a wholesome
phenomenon. (b) And are all not wholesome phenomena, not
wholesome? No, they are not wholesome.”
Similar with unwholesome and neutral.
Etc., etc.
B. PROCESS
This section consists of the 3 usual chapters on: Origination,
Cessation, Origination and Cessation. Here we may mention:
Nowhere do wholesome phenomena, in one and the same
moment arise together with unwholesome phenomena. In the
fine-material world, wholesome, or unwholesome phenomena,
never arise together with neutral phenomena. In the 5 group-
existence, wholesome, or unwholesome phenomena, may arise
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Yamaka
together with neutral phenomena, i.e. with bodily or vocal

intimation (viññatti).
To those who have entered ‘suspension of consciousness’
(nirodha-samāpatti), and to the unconscious beings (asañña-
satta), only neutral (corporeal) phenomena do exist. In all the
other worlds, wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral
phenomena, may arise.
The answers to the questions are mostly quite obvious, or
can be inferred from the above remarks. They begin thus:
(Person)—
1. “To whom wholesome phenomena arise, do there also
unwholesome phenomena arise (& conversely)?
2. “To whom wholesome phenomena arise, do there also
neutral phenomena arise (& conversely)?
3. “To whom unwholesome phenomena arise, do there
also neutral phenomena arise (& conversely)?
(Place:)
1. “Where wholesome phenomena arise, do there also
unwholesome phenomena arise (& conversely)?
2. “Where wholesome phenomena arise, do there also
3. “Where unwholesome phenomena arise, do there also
(Person & Place:)
1. “To whom, and where, wholesome phenomena arise, do
there also unwholesome phenomena arise (& conversely)?
2. “To whom, and where, wholesome phenomena arise, do
there also neutral phenomena arise (& conversely)?
3. “To whom, and where, unwholesome phenomena arise,
do there also neutral phenomena arise (& conversely)?
Hereafter, the above questions are repeated in the negative:
“To whom wholesome phenomena do not arise, do there
also no unwholesome phenomena arise?”—Etc., etc.
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Then follow the questions—first in the positive, then in

the negative—with regard to past, future, etc.; then the
corresponding questions on cessation, and origination and
cessation.
X. INDRIYA - YAMAKA
(Pairs of questions on the 22 Faculties)
This last Yamaka is by far the longest of all. It consists of the 3

great sections (A, B, C), and their sub-divisions, with exactly
the same logical treatment as in Khandha-Yamaka. It begins
with the enumeration of the 22 Faculties (see Vibh V).
(1–6) “Is (everything which is called) ‘eye,’ the eye-faculty?”
Etc.
The six sense-organs are dealt with in exactly the same
words as in Āyatana-Yamaka.
(7) “Is (that which is called) ‘female,’ the femininity-
faculty (& conversely)? No.”
(8) “Or ‘male,’ the virility-faculty (& conversely)? No.”
(9) “Is (that which is called) ‘life,’ the life-faculty (&
conversely)? Yes.”
The last two terms are identical. Also ‘bodily pleasure,’
‘bodily pain,’ ‘happiness,’ and ‘sadness,’ are identical with the
faculties (10–13) of the same name.
(14) “Does (everything which is called) upekkhā,
designate the (type of feeling called) equanimity-faculty
(upekkhindriya)? (No; e.g.,) excepting the equanimity-
faculty, all those other forms of upekkhā, are upekkhā, but
they do not designate the equanimity-faculty; the
equanimity-faculty, however, is both, upekkhā, as well as
equanimity-faculty.”
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Yamaka
The term ‘upekkhā,’ besides being a name for mere neutral

feeling (upekkhā-vedanā = adukkhaṃ-asukhā vedanā, included
in the vedanākkhandha), may also designate ‘equanimity’ of
mind, which is a high ethical quality and under the name of
tatramajjhattatā, included in the saṅkhāra-kkhandha.
(15–22) The two terms in each of these questions are said to
be identical.
With regard to the term ‘aññātavī’ (‘one who has
understood’, or ‘having understood’), however, Ledi Sayādaw is
of the opinion that, being a mere ‘vohāra’-term, it is not
identical with the term aññātāv-indriya. The other paragraphs
follow the usual method.
B. PROCESS
The 3 supramundane faculties (20–22) do not find a place in this
chapter. About the others, one has to keep the following facts in
mind:
The femininity- and virility-faculties are found only in the
sensuous plane, not in the fine-material and immaterial sphere.
The life-faculty is either physical, or mental. The physical
life- faculty (rūpa-jīvitindriya) does not obtain in the immaterial
sphere. whilst in the sphere of the unconscious beings (asañña-
satta) only the physical life-faculty is found. In the sphere of the
five-group beings, both kinds are found.
The happiness-faculty is found in the happy spheres of
sensuous existence (i.e. men, and heavenly beings of the
sensuous sphere) and also at the moment of rebirth, and death,
in the 9 lower Brahmā-planes.
The equanimity-faculty is found in all the spheres, except
that of the unconscious beings (asañña-satta).
Of the 5 ethical faculties (15–19), the wisdom-faculty
obtains in death- and rebirth-consciousness accompanied by
knowledge; the faculties: faith, mindfulness, energy, and
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concentration, in death- and rebirth-consciousness accompanied

by lofty root-conditions.
(Person:) The questions and answers relating to the process
of the 6 sense-organs, are exactly the same as in Āyatana-
Yamaka.
“To one to whom the femininity-faculty arises, does there
also the virility-faculty arise (& conversely)? No.
“To one to whom the femininity-faculty arises, does there
also the life-faculty arise? The happiness-faculty?” Etc., etc.
Hereafter follow identical paragraphs on the virility-faculty,
on the life - faculty, etc., etc., up to the wisdom-faculty.
(Place:)
“Wherever the eye-faculty arises, does there also arise
the ear-faculty (& conversely)? the nose faculty?” (etc., up to
wisdom-faculty).
The same procedure is then repeated with regard to all the
remaining faculties, one after the other. Then, the whole
questions are asked again—first in the positive, then in the
negative—with regard to past, future, etc. Thereafter follows a
similar chapter on origination and cessation.
C. PENETRATION
In order to get a fair idea of the kind of answers to the numerous
and often rather captious and sophistically sounding, questions
of this chapter, the following hints may be of some help:
All individuals are divided into the following classes:
i. Attainer of Sotāpanna-Path; develops ‘anaññātañ-
ñassāmi’-faculty.
ii. Attainer of Sotāpanna-Fruition; develops aññā-faculty.
iii. Attainer of Sakadāgāmi-Path; develops aññā-faculty
iv. Attainer of Sakadāgāmi-Fruition; develops aññā-
faculty
v. Attainer of Anāgāmi-Path; develops aññā-faculty
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Yamaka
vi. Attainer of Anāgāmi-Fruition; develops aññā-faculty

vii. Attainer of Arahat-Path; develops aññā-faculty
viii. Attainer of Arahat-Fruition; develops the ‘aññātāvī’-
faculty.
ix. The Arahat (after realizing the fruit of Arahatship).
x. The worldling.
On aññindriya cf. Vibh V.
Now, the Arahat (9) does not, and will not, penetrate the
eye-faculty, does and will not overcome the sadness-faculty, not
develop the 3 supra-mundane faculties (20–22), but he did
accomplish all these things already.
The attainer of Arahat-Fruition (8) does, at that moment (of
attaining), realize the aññātāvī-faculty, but did not do so before,
nor will he do so afterwards. He does not at that moment, and
will not in the future, overcome the sadness-faculty, but did so
already before (at the Anāgāmi-Path).
The attainer of the Arahat-Path (7) does, at that moment (of
attaining), develop the ‘aññā’-faculty, and penetrate the eye-
faculty, but he did not do so before, nor will he do so in future.
He did not, and does not yet (at that moment), realize the
‘aññātāvī’-faculty; but he will do so (immediately afterwards!
i.e. at attaining the Arahat-Fruition).
The worldling (10) who will attain the Paths, did not, and
does not, yet accomplish all the above things, but he will do so
in future.
Of the 5 sense-faculties to be penetrated, only the eye-
faculty is here mentioned, apparently by way of example. Of the
5 feeling-faculties, only the sadness-faculty (mental pain) is
mentioned, as it is the only kind of feeling, which can, and
should be overcome.
‘Penetrating’ as used in the following, refers to the 1st Truth,
i.e. that everything is subject to suffering; ‘overcoming,’ to the
2nd Truth, the origin of suffering; ‘realizing,’ to the 3rd Truth,
159
Nibbāna, the cessation of suffering; ‘developing,’ to the 4th

Truth, the noble (ariya) path leading to the cessation of suffering.
“He (= 7) who penetrates the eye-faculty, does he
penetrate the ear-faculty (and conversely)? Yes.
He (= 7) who penetrates the eye-faculty, does he
overcome the sadness-faculty? No (because he did already
overcome it on attaining the Anāgāmi-Path). But he (= 5) who
overcomes the sadness-faculty, does he penetrate the eye-
faculty? No (he will penetrate it only when attaining the
Arahat-Path).
He (= 7) who penetrates the eye-faculty, does he develop
the anaññātañ-ñassāmi faculty? No (he has already done it
on attaining Sotāpatti).”
The converse is likewise answered by No, because the
penetration of the eye-faculty takes place only at the Arahat-
Path.
He who penetrates the eye-faculty, does he develop the
aññā-faculty? Yes.—He who develops the aññā-faculty, does
he penetrate the eye-faculty? (Not everyone, because) two
individuals (the Sakadāgāmin and the Anāgāmin) develop
the aññā-faculty, but do not penetrate the eye-faculty; the
attainer of the highest path (= 7), however, does both.
He (= 7) who penetrates the eye-faculty, does he realise
the aññatāvi faculty? No (because it is realized only on
attaining to Arahat-Fruition = 8). Etc., etc.
He (= 5) who overcomes the sadness-faculty,
does he develop the anaññātañ-ñassāmi faculty? No.
does he develop the aññā-faculty? Yes.
does he realise the aññatāvī-faculty? No.
He who develops the anaññātañ-ñassāmi faculty,
does he develop the aññā-faculty? No.
does he realise the aññatāvī-faculty? No.
He who develops the aññā-faculty, does he realise the
aññatāvi-faculty? No. Etc., etc.”
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Yamaka
Hereafter, exactly the same questions as above are repeated

in the negative, followed by the identical positive and negative
questions with regard to past, to future, to present and past
(“He who does penetrate the eye-faculty, did he overcome
the sadness-faculty?” etc.), to present and future (“He
who does penetrate the eye-faculty, will he overcome the
sadness-faculty?” etc.), to past and future (“He who did
penetrate the eye-faculty, will he overcome the sadness-
faculty?” etc.)
161
VII
PAṬ Ṭ HĀNA
“THE BOOK OF ORIGINATION”
PRELIMINARY REMARKS
This gigantic and most important work of the Abhidhamma-
Piṭaka deals with the conditionality and dependent nature of all
the manifold corporeal and mental phenomena of existence,
which in their combinations are known by the conventional
names of ‘I,’ ‘person,’ ‘world,’ etc., but which in the ultimate
sense are only just these passing phenomena, nothing more.
Hence, this work provides a most complete and detailed
elucidation of the paṭicca-samuppāda, or dependent origination,
though here the phenomena are not arranged according to the 12
links of the paṭicca-samuppāda, but with reference to the 24
paccayas, i.e., conditions, or modes of conditionality, as will he
seen later on.
The complete text of the work in the Siamese Tipiṭaka edition
comprises 6 volumes. of altogether 3,120 pages whilst the extract
in the Pali Text Society’s edition contains only 549 pp.
The work begins with an introduction which contains an
enumeration and explanation of the 24 modes of conditionality
(paccaya) governing all the manifold phenomena of existence.
The main body of the work has 4 great divisions, namely:
A. Anuloma-paṭṭhāna, Origination according to the Positive
Method.
B. Paccanīya-paṭṭhāna, Origination according to the Nega-
tive Method.
C. Anuloma-paccanīya-paṭṭhāna, Origination according to
the Positive-Negative Method.
Paṭṭhāna
D. Paccanīya-anuloma-paṭṭhāna
Origination according to the Negative-Positive Method.
In each of these 4 main divisions, the 24 modes of
conditionality are applied in due order to all phenomena of
existence, presented again by the triads and dyads of the
Abhidhamma Schedule. Each of these four main divisions
applies its own particular method (i.e. positive, etc.) in a sixfold
way:
i. Origination of Triads (Tika-Paṭṭhāna)
ii. Origination of Dyads (Duka-Paṭṭhāna)
iii. Origination of Dyads and Triads combined (Duka-Tika-
Paṭṭhāna)
iv. Origination of Triads and Dyads combined (Tika-Duka-
Paṭṭhāna)
v. Origination of Triads and Triads combined (Tika-Tika-
Paṭṭhāna)
vi. Origination of Dyads and Dyads combined (Duka-
Duka-Paṭṭhāna)
According to the number of triads and dyads, Section I has
22 chapters, and Section II has 100 (though in the numbering of
the PTS-edition the latter have unadvisedbly been contracted to
89). Each of these chapters, again, is divided into a number of
sub-chapters, or vāra. Each such sub-chapter, again forms 4
smaller sections, brought about by that 4-fold method to which,
as shown above, the entire work owes its 4 great divisions,
namely the positive method, the negative method, the positive-
negative method, and the negative-positive method.
Finally, each of these 4 smaller divisions, everywhere
throughout the whole work, is again divided into paragraphs
corresponding with those of the 24 conditions which obtain in
the respective case.
This is, in short, the table of contents of the whole work:
163
VOL. I
(Siamese Edition)
INTRODUCTION:
Enumeration and Explanation of the 24 Conditions
A. POSITIVE METHOD
I. Origination of Triads (Tika-Paṭṭhāna)
1. The Triad ‘wholesome etc.’ (Kusala-ttika)
(1). Chapter on being ‘dependent’ (paṭicca-vāra)
Questions:
(a) positive method
(b) negative method
(c) positive-negative method
(d) negative-positive method
Explanations:
(a) positive method
(b) negative method
(c) positive-negative method
(d) negative-positive method
(Each of the 4 methods is, in due order, applied to the 24
conditions and thus forms a corresponding number of §§. The
question-section is found only in this first chapter).
(2). Chapter on being ‘co-nascent’ (sahajāta-vāra)
(3). Chapter on being ‘conditioned’ (paccaya vāra)
(4). Chapter on being ‘supported’ (nissaya-vāra)
(5). Chapter of being ‘conjoined’ (saṃsaṭṭha-vāra)
(6). Chapter on being ‘associated’ (sampayutta-vāra)
(7). Chapter on ‘investigations’ (pañha-vāra)
(Each of these chapters has the same division as 1).
2. The Triad of feelings (Vedanā-ttika)
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Paṭṭhāna
3. The Triad ‘karmically resultant, etc.’ (Vipāka-ttika)

4. The Triad. ‘karmically acquired, etc.’ (Upādiṇṇa-ttika)
5. The Triad ‘defiled etc.’ (Saṅkiliṭṭha-ttika)
VOL. II
6. The Triad ‘thought-conception, etc.’ (Vitakka-ttika)
(etc., altogether 22 such chapters, each with the same
divisions as 1).
VOL. III & IV
II. Origination of dyads (Duka-Paṭṭhāna)
(1). The Dyad ‘root and not-root’ (Hetu-duka)
(2). The Dyad ‘accompanied by root, and unaccompanied
by root’ (Sahetuka-duka),
(etc., altogether 100 chapters).
VOL. V
III. Origination of Dyads and Triads Combined
(Duka-Tika-Paṭṭhāna)
(with 132 chapters).
IV. Origination of Triads and Dyads Combined (Tika-Duka-
Paṭṭhāna)
(with 94 chapters).
V. Origination of Triads and Triads Combined (Tika-Tika-
Paṭṭhāna)
(with 42 chapters).
VI. Origination of Dyads and Dyads Combined (Duka-Duka-
Paṭṭhāna)
(with 48 chapters).
(II–VI have each the same divisions and subdivisions, as I).
VOL. VI
B. NEGATIVE METHOD
C. POSITIVE-NEGATIVE METHOD
165
D. NEGATIVE-POSITIVE METHOD
(B, C, and D have each the same divisions and subdivisions as A.)
Thus, A comprises 5 volumes in the Siamese edition whilst B,
C, and D are, in a condensed form, contained in the 6th, and last
volume. If the subject of this second (B), third (C) and fourth
(D) Paṭṭhāna had been treated with the same copiousness as the
first one, the text in the Siamese edition would contain not less
then 14,000 pp.
Before entering into a discussion of the contents of the main
part of the work, I am giving the reader a full translation of the
very important introductory chapter, here and there interspersed,
partly with my own explanations, partly with quotations taken
from the Commentary, or other parts of the work. This
introduction, as already stated above, consists of the enumeration,
and subsequent explanation, of the 24 conditions (paccaya), upon
which all the corporeal and mental phenomena are dependent, and
which are applied to the existence, or origination, of all the
various phenomena treated in our present work.
INTRODUCTION
THE 24 CONDITIONS, OR PACCAYA
1. Root condition hetu-paccaya

2. Object condition ārammaṇa-paccaya
3. Predominance condition adhipati-paccaya
4. Proximity condition anantara-paccaya
5. Contiguity condition samanantara-paccaya
6. Co-nascence condition saha-jāta-paccaya
7. Mutuality condition aññamañña-paccaya
8. Support condition nissaya-paccaya
9. Decisive-support condition upanissaya-paccaya
10. Pre-nascence condition pure-jāta-paccaya
11. Post-nascence condition pacchā-jāta-paccaya
12. Frequency condition āsevana-paccaya
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Paṭṭhāna
13. Kamma condition kamma-paccaya

14. Kamma-result condition vipāka-paccaya
15. Nutriment condition āhāra-paccaya
16. Faculty condition indriya-paccaya
17. Jhāna condition jhāna-paccaya
18. Path condition magga-paccaya
19. Association condition sampayutta-paccaya
20. Dissociation condition vippayutta-paccaya
21. Presence condition atthi-paccaya
22. Absence condition natthi-paccaya
23. Disappearance condition vigata-paccaya
24. Non-disappearance condition avigata-paccaya
These 24 conditions do not necessarily exclude one another,
as we shall see later on. Some are even fully identical with each
other. All these 24 conditions, according to the
Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha, may be reduced to only four, namely:
object (2), decisive support (9), kamma (13), and presence (21).
§1. Root-condition: Hetu-paccaya.
In the Suttas, the term hetu is used rather vaguely, mostly in the
general sense of ‘condition,’ sometimes as ‘cause,’ whilst as
Abhidhamma term it is restricted to the so-called ‘roots,’ or
mūla, i.e. greed, hatred, delusion, non-greed, non-hatred, non-
delusion (lobha, dosa, moha, alobha, adosa, amoha), of which
the first 3 are karmically ‘unwholesome,’ (akusala), whilst the
latter 3 may be either karmically ‘wholesome’ (kusala), or
karmically ‘neutral’ (avyākata). (Cf. Yam I, Dhs III).
In the Commentary it is said that paccaya (pati + (i) ‘to go
back to,’ to depend on) has the same meaning as hetu (as used in
the Sutta), kāraṇa (reason), nidāna and sambhava (origin), and
that hetu-paccaya thus comes to mean ‘a phenomenon aiding in
the sense of a root.’ Just as a tree rests on its roots, and cannot
exist without them, so also is the existence of all wholesome and
unwholesome phenomena entirely dependent on the
simultaneity, and presence of their respective roots, and cannot
167
exist in their absence. It is said in the Paṭṭhāna:

“The roots are to those phenomena which are associated
with roots, as well as to the corporal phenomena (e.g. bodily
intimation; see Dhs II) produced thereby, a condition by way
of root.”
§2. Object-condition: Ārammaṇa-paccaya.
The 6 objects (ārammaṇa, lit. ‘props,’ or supports)—i.e. visible
object, sound, odour, sapid, tangible object, mind-object—are to
the 6 kinds of consciousness (seeing, hearing, etc.) a condition
without which the latter never could arise, and on which they are
necessarily dependent. As it is said in the Paṭṭhāna:
“The visible object base (rūpāyatana; see Vibh II) is to
the element eye-consciousness’, and to the phenomena asso-
ciated therewith (perception, feeling, mental formations; see
Paṭicca-vāra of Kusala-ttika, § 4–5.) a condition by way of
object.” (Analogously with sound. smell, etc). “These 5 are to
the ‘mind-element’ (mano-dhātu; see Vibh III), and to the
phenomena associated therewith, a condition by way of
object. All mind-objects are to the ‘mind-consciousness-ele-
ment’ (mano-viññāṇa-dhātu), and to the phenomena associ-
ated therewith, a condition by way of object. All those
phenomena (past, present, or future), dependent on which
any other phenomena, as consciousness and mental concomi-
tants, do arise, are to these latter phenomena a condition by
way of object.”
On the 6 bases see Vibh II, on the elements ib. III.
§3. Predominance-condition: Adhipati-paccaya.
There are 4 predominant factors: concentrated Intention
(chanda), concentrated energy (viriya), concentrated
consciousness (citta), concentrated investigation (vīmaṃsā)
The Commentary says:
“The predominance-condition obtains if a phenomenon aids
(other simultaneously arising phenomena) by its predominance.”
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Paṭṭhāna
“Predominance of intention is to those phenomena

associated therewith, as well as to the corporeal phenomena
produced thereby, a condition by way of predominance. Thus
it is in an analogous way with the predominance of energy,
consciousness, and investigation. Whenever such
phenomena, as consciousness and mental concomitants,
arise, by giving preponderance to one (of the 4) phenomena,
then this phenomenon is to the other phenomena a condition
by way of predominance.”
§4. Proximity-condition: Anantara-paccaya.
Commentary:
“Proximity-condition obtains if a phenomenon aids (other
immediately following phenomena) by its proximity.”
“The element ‘eye-consciousness’, and the phenomena
associated therewith, are to the (immediately following
kamma-resultant) mind-element (mano-dhātu), and to the
phenomena associated therewith, a condition by way of
proximity; and the mind-element, and the phenomena
associated therewith, are to the (immediately following)
‘mind-consciousness-element’ (mano-viññāṇā-dhātu), and to
the phenomena associated therewith, a condition by way of
proximity. (Cf. Vibh III).
“Each (immediately) preceding wholesome (kusala)
phenomenon is to each (immediately) succeeding wholesome
phenomenon a condition by way of proximity.”
With the wholesome phenomena, according to the
Commentary, are here meant the 7 wholesome ‘impulsive’
(javana) moments, of which each preceding one is the condition
to each succeeding one. (See Vibh III, note).
“Any preceding wholesome phenomenon is to any
succeeding karmically neutral (avyākata) phenomenon, a
condition by way of proximity.”
“Any preceding unwholesome (akusala) phenomenon is
to any (immediately) succeeding unwholesome (javana) ... to
169
any succeeding neutral phenomenon (registering moment) a

With the neutral phenomenon, according to the scholiasts, is
here meant the registering consciousness, or sub-consciousness
(s. Vibh III), following immediately upon the last wholesome
Impulsive moment.
“Any preceding neutral phenomenon is to any succeeding
neutral phenomenon a condition by way of proximity.”
“Any preceding neutral phenomenon (deciding or
adverting at the mind-door) is to any succeeding wholesome
... unwholesome phenomenon (javana) a condition by way of
proximity.”
These wholesome and unwholesome phenomena refer to the
first moment, of impulsion (javana). which is preceded by the
(karmically neutral) advertence to the threshold of the mind
(mano-dvārāvajjana).
It must here be borne in mind that only the moments of
Impulsion (javana) are karmically ‘wholesome’ (kusala), or
‘unwholesome’ (akusala), whilst all the other stages in the
process of one single unit of consciousness, are karmically
‘neutral,’ i.e. either kamma-results (vipāka), or mere
‘functional’ (kriyā) elements, as ‘advertence’ (āvajjana) to the
object at the sense-door (70 in Table, App. II), and at the mind-
door (71 in Table, App. II). Cf. Vibh III.
“All those phenomena, in proximity to which any other
phenomena, as consciousness and mental concomitants, are
arising, all those phenomena are to these latter phenomena a
§5. Contiguity-condition: Samanantara-paccaya.
This condition is identical with the foregoing one, and only
different in name. Hence, the text here is merely a repetition of
the former paragraph.
§6. Co-nascence-condition: Sahajāta-paccaya.
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Paṭṭhāna
This condition refers to such phenomena which arise

simultaneously with certain other phenomena, to the presence of
which latter they therefore are an indispensable condition by
way of co-nascence.
“The 4 mental groups (perception, feeling, mental
formations, consciousness) are one to another a condition by
way of co-nascence (or simultaneous arising). Thus are the
four physical elements (solid, liquid, heat, motion), further
mind and corporeality at the moment of conception (in the
mother’s womb).
“Consciousness (citta) and mental concomitants (cetasika),
are to the corporeal phenomena produced by mind (s. § 1, end),
a condition by way of co-nascence (but the reverse is not the
case). Thus are the four physical elements to the derived
corporeal phenomena (see Dhs II). The corporeal phenomena
are to the mental phenomena only at one time a condition by
way of co-nascence, at other times not.”
The last statement, according to the Commentary, is made
with regard to the physical base of mind, which only at the
moment of conception is co-nascent with the four mental
groups.
§7. Mutuality-condition: Aññamañña-paccaya.
All those inseparably associated and co-nascent mental
phenomena mentioned in § 6, as well as the 4 elements, are, as a
matter of course, at the same time also conditioned by way of
mutuality, just as three standing sticks propped up one by
another.
“The four mental groups are one to another (añña-m-
añña) a condition by way of mutuality. Thus are the four
elements, further mentality and corporeality at the moment
of conception” (see § 6).
§8. Support-condition: Nissaya-paccaya.
This condition refers to a pre-nascent or co-nascent
phenomenon that aids other phenomena in the manner of a
171
foundation, or support, just as the trees have the earth as their

foundation, or as the oil painting rests on the canvas.
“The four mental groups are mutually a condition by way
of support. Thus it is with the four physical elements, further
with mentality and corporeality at the moment of conception
(see § 6)—consciousness and mental concomitants are to the
corporeal phenomena produced by mind a condition by way of
support (but not conversely). Thus are the four physical
elements to the derived corporeality (see Dhs II), and the eye-
base (physical eye) to the element ‘eye-consciousness,’ and to
the phenomena associated therewith; in an analogous way it
is with the other four sense-organs. That corporeal
phenomenon supported by which the mind-element (mano-
dhātu), and the mind-consciousness-element (mano-viññāṇa-
dhātu) come into operation, this corporeal phenomenon
(rūpa) is to the mind-element and mind-consciousness-
element, and to the phenomena associated therewith, a
condition by way of support.”
The words “That corporeal phenomenon..,” refer to the
physical base of mind which, in commentarial literature, is
called the ‘heartbase’ (hadaya-vatthu). This latter term,
however, is not found in the Abhidhamma Piṭaka.
§9. Decisive-support-condition: Upanissaya-paccaya.
The phenomenon acting as such a condition can never be co-
nascent with the phenomenon that is conditioned in that way; it
will belong either to the past or the future, or it may also be an
imaginary object.
The Commentary says that, just as strong āyāsa
(depression) is called upāyāsa (despair), so a strong nissaya
(support) is called upanissaya (decisive support). Upanissaya
designates a powerful means, or inducement. Hence, the
decisive-support-condition is to be considered as a phenomenon
aiding as a powerful inducement.
“Any preceding wholesome phenomena may be to any
succeeding wholesome phenomena ... to some (not
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Paṭṭhāna
immediately) succeeding unwholesome phenomena ... to any

succeeding neutral phenomena, a condition by way of
decisive support. Any preceding unwholesome phenomena
may be to any succeeding unwholesome phenomena ... some
(not immediately) succeeding wholesome phenomena ... to
any succeeding neutral phenomena, a condition by way of
decisive support. Any preceding neutral phenomena may be
to any succeeding neutral ... wholesome ... unwholesome
phenomena, a condition by way of decisive support. Even
weather and food may be a condition by way of decisive
support. Also a person may be a condition by way of decisive
support. Also a dwelling place may be a condition by way of
decisive support.”
Decisive support is of 3 kinds: by way of object, by way of
proximity, by way of natural condition.
(1) ‘Decisive-support by way of object’
(ārammaṇūpanīssaya) has been explained in Kusala-ttika
(pañha-vāra) of this work in the following words, not
differentiating it from ‘predominance by way of object’
(ārammaṇādhipati):
“After having given alms, or taken upon oneself the
moral rules of conduct, one is reflecting thereon whilst giving
these objects preponderance; or one is reflecting on one’s
former deeds whilst giving them preponderance, etc. Or,
after rising from the jhāna, one is reflecting thereon whilst
giving it preponderance, etc.”
“Now, if, by giving preponderance to an object,
consciousness and mental concomitants arise, that object is
to those phenomena certainly a powerful object. Thus, in the
sense of being given preponderance, or of being worthy of
being given preponderance, it is ‘predominant’ by way of
object; and in the sense of thus being a powerful inducement,
it is called a ‘decisive support by way of object.’
In other words, anything past or future, material or mental,
real or imaginary, wholesome or unwholesome may, if taken as
an object of reflection, become a decisive support, or an
173
inducement, for the arising of various thoughts and activities

which, on their part, may be wholesome or unwholesome
according to the nature of the reflection which is the
conditioning factor.
(2) ‘Decisive support by way of proximity’
(anantarūpanissaya) is explained in the same words as
proximity condition (see § 4).
(3)‘Decisive support by way of natural condition’ (pakat-
upanissaya), is explained (ib.) as follows:
“By the decisive support of such things as faith, one gives
alms, observes the moral rules, performs the Uposatha
functions, develops jhāna or insight, etc.... Or, by the decisive
support of morality, learning, liberality, or wisdom, one gives
alms, etc., etc.......Thus, these things are to (the increase or
development of) faith, morality, learning, liberality and
wisdom, a condition by way of decisive support.”
Or, desire may be a natural (or direct) condition to theft;
hate, to slander or murder; climate, food, etc., to good or bad
health; friends, to spiritual progress or deterioration.
§10. Pre-nascence-condition: Pure-jāta-paccaya.
“The eye-base (physical eye) is to the element ‘eye-conscious-
ness’, and to the phenomena associated therewith, a
condition by way of pre-nascence.” Similarly it is with the
other 4 sense-organs.
That means, there cannot be eye-consciousness without the
pre-arising of the visual organ, except at its first appearance at
birth, when eye-sensitivity and eye-consciousness are co-nascent.
“That corporeal phenomenon, dependent on which the
‘mind-element’ and the ‘mind-consciousness-element’ arise,
that corporeal phenomenon (physical base of mind) is to the
mind-element, and to the phenomena associated therewith, a
condition by way of pre-nascence; to the element ‘mind-
consciousness,’ however, and to the phenomena associated
therewith, it is so at one time (i.e. during life), at another
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Paṭṭhāna
time not (i.e. at conception, when the physical base of mind,

and mind-consciousness are co-nascent).
§11. Post-nascence-condition: Pacchā-jāta-paccaya.
“The post-nascent consciousness and mental concomitants
are to this pre-nascent body a condition by way of post-
nascence.”
According to the words of the Commentary, that mental
phenomenon which is helping the pre-nascent corporeal
phenomena in the sense of a prop, or support, is a condition by
way of post-nascence, just as the desire and wish of young
vultures for food, is a condition for (the upkeep of) their bodies.
§12. Frequency-condition: Āsevana-paccaya.
“Any preceding wholesome phenomena are to any
succeeding wholesome phenomena a condition by way of
frequency. The same is the case with unwholesome, and with
functional-neutral phenomena.”
The frequency-condition, according to the words of the
Commentary, refers to a phenomenon which is helping towards
the competency and strength of the succeeding phenomena by
way of frequency, or repetition, just as all the preceding
applications to books, etc., do. According to the above text, it is
threefold, by way of karmically wholesome, unwholesome, or
mere functional impulsions (javana; see Vibh III, note).
§13. Kamma-condition: Kamma-paccaya.
The kamma-condition consists in worldly wholesome or
unwholesome volition (cetanā, appearing as wholesome or
unwholesome bodily, verbal or mental action (kamma= Skr.
karma).
This condition is of 2 kinds:
1. As wholesome or unwholesome kamma, it is a condition
to kamma-result (vipāka) arising afterwards, i.e. in this, or some
future life.
175
2. As associated phenomenon, it is a co-nascent condition to

the other associated phenomena.
As the text has:
(1) “Wholesome and unwholesome kamma is to the (later
arising) kamma-resultant (mental) groups, and to the
corporeal phenomena due to residual kamma (kaṭattā), a
condition by way of kamma.
(2) (Karmic) volition is to the associated (co-nascent)
phenomena, and to the corporeal phenomena produced
thereby, a condition by way of kamma.”
Kaṭattā = katassa bhāvena, lit. ‘through having been done,’
refers to accumulated wholesome, or unwholesome kamma,
which had not yet produced kamma-results before.
§14. Kamma-result condition: Vipāka-paccaya.
Kamma-result (vipāka) is a condition which, by its passive
nature, supports the other associated kamma-resultant
phenomena in their passivity (‘effortless calmness’). As it is
said in the text:
“The 4 mental groups, in so far as they are kamma-
results, are one to another a condition by way of kamma-
result.”
According to the Commentary, the 4 kamma-resultant
mental groups are a kamma-result condition also to the
corporeal phenomena produced by consciousness, and to the
physical base of mind.
§15. Nutriment-condition: Āhāra-paccaya.
This condition refers to the 4 nutriments—material food,
(sensory or mental) impression (phassa), (karmic) volition
(mano-sañcetanā), consciousness (viññāṇa)—which in the
sense of a prop, or support, are helping the corporeal and mental
phenomena. As it is said:
176
Paṭṭhāna
“Material food is to this body a condition by way of

nutriment. The mental nutriments (impression, volition,
consciousness) are to the associated phenomena, and to the
corporeal phenomena produced thereby, a condition by way
of nutriment.”
In Kusala-ttika (pañha-vāra) it is said:
“At the moment of conception the kamma-resultant
neutral nutriments (impression and consciousness) are to the
associated groups, and to the kamma-born corporeal
phenomena, a condition by way of nutriment.”
§16. Faculty-condition: Indriya-paccaya.
This condition refers to 20 of the faculties (leaving out No. 7
and 8) explained in Vibh V. They are an aid in the sense of
predominance (adhipati; see § 3). Amongst them, the 5 physical
sense-faculties (eye, ear, etc.) are a condition only to mental
phenomena (eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, etc.), whilst
the remaining faculties may be sometimes a condition to
physical phenomena as well.
“The faculty of sight is to the element ‘eye-consciousness’,
and to the phenomena associated therewith, a condition by
way of faculty.” The same is the case with the other 4 sense-
faculties. “The physical life-faculty is to the corporeal
phenomena due to residual kamma, a condition by way of
faculty. The mental faculties (Vibh V, 10–22, and mental
vitality) are to the associated phenomena, and to the
corporeal phenomena produced thereby, a condition by way
of faculty.”
§17. Jhāna-condition: Jhāna-paccaya.
Jhāna is here to be understood in its widest sense as a name for 7
mental factors making for mental absorption, the predominating
amongst which is concentration (samādhi), namely, 1. thought-
conception (vitakka), 2. discursive thinking (vicāra), 3. joy
(pīti), 4. happiness (sukha), 5. sadness (domanassa) 6.
equanimity (upekkhā), 7. concentration (citt’ekaggatā =
177
samādhi). These jhāna-factors, which are either wholesome,

unwholesome, kamma-resultant, or mere functional, and which
are supporting the phenomena associated therewith in their state
of ‘being absorbed in,’ or ‘brooding over, these are to be
considered as the jhāna-condition.
“The jhāna-factors are to the phenomena associated
therewith, and to the corporeal phenomena produced
thereby, a condition by way of jhāna.”
1, 2, 3, 4, 7, are found in greedy consciousness (Tab. 22–
25), wholesome consciousness (1–4) and its corresponding
resultant (42–45) and functional states (73–76) in the sensuous
sphere; further in the 1st jhāna of the fine-material sphere, and
its corresponding resultant, and functional states; 1, 2, 5, 7, in
hateful consciousness (30–31); 1, 2, 6, 7, in deluded
consciousness (32–33), etc. (Cf. Dhs 1, and Table in App. II).
§18. Path-condition: Magga-paccaya.
As Path-condition are considered the 12 path-factors,
distinguished as karmically wholesome, unwholesome, or
neutral, which are aiding the associated phenomena in the sense
of ‘leading away from this, or that,’ namely, 1. wisdom (paññā),
2. thought-conception (vitakka), 3. right speech (sammā-vācā),
4. right bodily action (sammā-kammanta), 5. right livelihood
(sammā-ājīva), 6. energy (viriya), 7. mindfulness (sati), 8.
concentration (samādhi), 9. wrong views (micchā-diṭṭhi, 10.
wrong speech (micchā-vācā), 11. wrong bodily action (micchā-
kammanta), 12. wrong livelihood (micchā-ājīva). Of these, 1, 3,
4, 5, belong to the right path (as wholesome, resultant, or
functional); 9–12, to the wrong path; whilst 2, 6, 7, 8, may
belong to either.
“The path-factors are to the phenomena associated with
the path, as well as to the corporeal phenomena produced
thereby, a condition by way of path.”
In the Kusala-ttika (pañha-vāra) we read:
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Paṭṭhāna
“The kamma-resultant neutral path-factors are to the

associated (mental) groups, as well as to the corporeal
phenomena due to residual kamma, a condition by way of
path.”
§19. Association-condition: Sampayutta-paccaya.
This condition refers to all mental (and only mental)
phenomena, as they aid one another by their being inseparably
associated having the same physical, or mental base, the same
object, the same time of arising, the same time of disappearing.
“The 4 mental groups are one to another a condition by
way of association.”
§20. Dissociation-condition: Vippayutta-paccaya.
This condition refers to a phenomenon which aids other
phenomena by not having the same base (eye, ear, etc.) and
object, hence:
“The corporeal phenomena are to the mental phenomena,
just as the mental phenomena to the corporeal phenomena, a
condition by way of dissociation.”
This condition is threefold: co-nascent, post-nascent, or pre-
nascent, as it is said in Kusala-ttika:
“The co-nascent wholesome groups are to the corporeal
phenomena produced by mind, a condition by way of dissocia-
tion. Thus are the post-nascent wholesome groups to this
pre-nascent body. The pre-nascent physical eye-base is to
eye-consciousness... a condition by way of dissociation.”
In the Sahajāta-vāra of Kusala-ttika, it is further said:
“The kamma-resultant mental groups at the moment of
conception, are to the corporeal phenomena due to residual
kamma, a condition by way of dissociation. And the mental
groups are to the physical base (of mind), just as the latter is
to the mental groups, a condition by way of dissociation.”
§21. Presence-condition: Atthi-paccaya.
179
This condition refers to any phenomenon—pre-nascent or co-

nascent—on whose presence the existence of other phenomena
depends. For example:
“The 4 (co-nascent, and inseparably associated) mental
groups are ‘one to another’ a condition by way of presence; so
are the 4 physical elements, as well as mentality and
corporeality at the moment of conception. Consciousness and
mental concomitants, however, are to the corporeal phenomena
produced by mind, a condition by way of presence. So are the 4
physical elements to the derived corporeal phenomena (see Dhs
II), the (pre-nascent) sense-organs and sense-objects to the 5
kinds of sense-consciousness. That corporeal phenomenon
(physical base of mind), dependent on which the mind-element
and mind-consciousness-element arise is to mind-element, and
to the phenomena associated therewith, a condition by way of
presence.”
§22. Absence-condition: Natthi-paccaya.
This condition refers to phenomena that have just passed, which
through their absence are aiding the mental phenomena
immediately following after them, by giving them an
opportunity to arise.
“Consciousness and mental concomitants which have just
passed, are to the presently arisen consciousness and mental
concomitants, a condition by way of absence (cf. § 4).”
§23. Disappearance-condition: Vigata-paccaya.
Inasmuch as those last mentioned phenomena (§ 22), by their
disappearance, are giving certain other phenomena an
opportunity to arise, they are called a disappearance-condition.
The explanation is as in § 22.
§24. Non-disappearance-condition: Avigata-paccaya.
This condition is identical with the presence-condition, hence
the text is as in § 21.
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Paṭṭhāna
A. POSITIVE METHOD
I. ORIGINATION OF TRIADS
(Tika-Paṭṭhāna)
1.THE TRIAD ‘KARMICALLY WHOLESOME, ETC.’

(KUSALA-TTIKA)
(1) Chapter on being ‘Dependent’ (paṭicca-vāra)
QUESTIONS
(a) Positive Method

§1 (ROOT)
“May, dependent on a wholesome phenomenon, arise
(1) a wholesome phenomenon, conditioned by way of root?
(2) an unwholesome phenomenon, conditioned by way of
root?
(3) a neutral phenomenon, conditioned by way of root?
(4) a wholesome, and a neutral phenomenon, conditioned
by way of root?
(5) an unwholesome, and a neutral phenomenon,
conditioned by way of root?
(6) a wholesome, and an unwholesome phenomenon,
conditioned by way of root?
(7) a wholesome, and an unwholesome and a neutral
phenomenon, conditioned by way of root?”
Now follow again 6 sets of 7 questions each. As
conditioning factors of each set serve the afore-mentioned
conditioned phenomena (2)–(7) consecutively, e.g.:
“May, dependent on an unwholesome phenomena, arise
(7) an unwholesome..., (8) a wholesome..., (9) a neutral
phenomenon..., conditioned by way of root?”
181
The rule and sequence of permutations pertaining to these

altogether 49 questions will be made clearer by using symbols
which can be applied also to all the other 21 Triads. The first 7
questions, given above explicitly, are repeated, under (I), by
way of symbols. Explanation of symbols:
(a), (b), (c) = the 3 members of each triad; here: a =
wholesome, b = unwholesome, c = neutral; the division mark
(:) stands for the relation of dependence of the latter term on the
former; + = and.
I (i) a:a, (2) a:b, (3) a:c, (4) a:a+c, (5) a:b+c, (6) a:a+b, (7)
a:a+b+c;
II (8) b:b, (9) b:a, (10) b:c, (11) b:b+c, (12) b:a+c, (13) b:a+b,
(14) b: a+b+c;
III (15) c:c, (16) c:a, (17) c:b, (18) c:a+c, (19) c:b+c; (20)
c:a+b, (21)c:a+b+c
IV (22) a+c:a, (23) a+c:b, (24) a+c:c, (25) a+c:a+c, (26)
a+c:b+c. (27) a+c:a+b, (28) a+c: a+b+c;
V (29) b+c:a, (30) b+c:b, (31) b+c:c, (32) b+c:a+c, (33)
b+c:b+c. (34) b+c:a+b, (3s) b+c:a+b+c;
VI (36) a+b:a, (37) a+b:b, (38) a+b:c, (39) a+b:a+c. (40)
a+b:b+c, (41) a+b:a+b, (42) a+b:a+b+c;
VII (43) a+b+c:a, (44) a+b+c:b, (45) a+b+c:c, (46) a+b+c:a+c,
(47) a+b+c:b+c, (48) a+b+c:a+b, (49) a+b+c:a+b+c.
Thus, in a complete text, there would be 49 questions to
each of the 24 §§, i.e., altogether 1,176 questions.
Thereafter all these 1,176 questions are to be repeated with
regard to 2 conditions i.e., ‘conditioned by way of root and
object’; then by way of root and predominance, root and
proximity, ... etc. ..., root and non-disappearance, then by way of
object and predominance, object and proximity, ... etc. ... object
and non-disappearance; then by way of predominance and
proximity, predominance and contiguity, ... etc. ...,
predominance and non-disappearance ... etc., etc. Thereafter
with regard to 3 conditions, i.e. by way of root, and object, and
predominance; then by way of root and object and proximity ...
182
Paṭṭhāna
etc. ... root, and object, and non-disappearance. In that way, we

should get by the permutation method at the end millions and
millions of questions.
(b) Negative Method
§1. (NOT-ROOT)
“May, dependent on a wholesome phenomenon, arise a
wholesome phenomenon not conditioned by way of root?”
(etc., etc., analogous to the positive method).
(c) Positive-Negative Method
§1. (ROOT, NOT-OBJECT)
wholesome phenomenon conditioned by way, of root, but not
conditioned by way of object?” (Etc., etc.)
(d) Negative-Positive Method
§1. (NOT-ROOT, OBJECT)
wholesome phenomenon not conditioned by way of root, but
conditioned by way of object? (Etc., etc.)
EXPLANATIONS
(a) Positive Method
§1. (ROOT)
(1) “Dependent on a wholesome (kusala) phenomenon, there
arises a wholesome phenomenon, conditioned by way of root,
e.g., dependent on (any) one wholesome group (e.g., percep-
tion), there arise three other wholesome groups (feeling,
mental formations, consciousness), conditioned by way of
root; or dependent on 3, the other 1; or on 2, the other 2.”
It should be remembered that a mental phenomenon is
called ‘wholesome,’ if actually associated with a wholesome
183
root; ‘unwholesome, if associated with an unwholesome root.

Cf. Introd. § 1.
Most explanations, as will be seen, are here given in the
terms of the groups (corporeality, feeling, perception, mental
formations, consciousness), and not by way of those single
phenomena of which the groups are composed.
Though each of the 24 paragraphs refers only to that
condition indicated by its heading, each phenomenon is
nevertheless dependent on various other conditions besides, just
as one and the same conditioning phenomenon may (a) appear
in the form of various conditions, and (b) be combined with
other conditions, as I shall show in each of the 24 paragraphs.
For instance:
(a) Among the root-conditions, ‘non-delusion’ (amoha)
may be a condition in 20 ways (i.e. of the 24 conditions being
inapplicable pre-nascence, kamma, nutriment, jhāna); ‘non-
greed’ (alobha) and ‘non-hatred’ (adosa), in 18 ways
(inapplicable being further, faculty and path); greed and
delusion (lobha, moha), in 17 ways (inapplicable being further,
kamma-result); ‘hatred’ (dosa), in 16 ways (inapplicable being
further, predominance).
(b) Non-delusion (amoha), if at that moment acting in its
capacity as a root, combines in various ways with 11 conditions,
to wit: predominance, co-nascence, mutuality, support, kamma-
result, faculty, path, association, dissociation, presence, non-
disappearance. non-greed, and non-hatred (alobha, adosa), in
their capacity as roots, combine with the same conditions,
excepting only predominance, faculty and path, i.e. with 8
conditions. This, however, is only the case in kamma-resultant
states (root-accompanied results of wholesome kamma; see Dhs
I.C.), whilst in wholesome and functional states their character
as kamma-result is absent. Greed, hatred and delusion (lobha,
dosa, moha), in their capacity as roots, combine with 7
conditions: co-nascence, mutuality, support, association,
dissociation, presence, non-disappearance.
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Paṭṭhāna
(2) The question, whether, dependent on a wholesome

phenomenon, an unwholesome phenomenon may arise,
conditioned by way of root, is left unanswered, as all the mental
phenomena associated with a wholesome root, must be of
necessity also wholesome. Thus, any of the 49 questions in each
§. which does not admit of an affirmative answer, is left
unanswered. For this reason only 9 questions are answered in
this.
(3) “Dependent on a wholesome phenomenon, there
arises a neutral phenomenon, conditioned by way of root;
e.g., dependent on wholesome groups, there arises
corporeality (e.g., bodily intimation) produced by mind
(which is a karmically neutral phenomenon).”
arises a wholesome, and a neutral phenomenon, conditioned
by way of root; e.g., dependent on 1 (or 3, or 2) wholesome
group, there arise the other 3 (or 1, or 2) wholesome groups,
and corporeality produced by mind.”
(8) “Dependent on an unwholesome phenomenon, there
arises an unwholesome...(10) a neutral...(11) an
unwholesome, and a neutral phenomenon, conditioned by
way of root.” Etc.
(15) ‘Dependent on a neutral phenomenon, there arises a
neutral phenomenon, conditioned by way of root.” Etc.
(24) “Dependent on a wholesome, and a neutral
phenomenon, there arises a neutral phenomenon,
conditioned by way of root; e.g., dependent on wholesome
groups, and the 4 physical elements (neutral) there arises
corporeality produced by mind, conditioned by way of root.”
(31) “Dependent on an unwholesome, and a neutral
phenomenon (e.g., the 4 elements), there arises a neutral
phenomenon (e.g., corporeality produced by mind),
conditioned by way of root.”
185
§2. (OBJECT)
Three questions are answered, namely:
arises a wholesome phenomenon, conditioned by way of
object; e.g., dependent on 1 wholesome group, there arise the
other 3 wholesome groups, conditioned by way of object, etc.”
arises an unwholesome phenomenon ... (15) Dependent on a
neutral phenomenon, there arises a neutral phenomenon,
conditioned by way of object, etc.”
Visible object, sound, odour, taste, and tangible object are to
the corresponding kinds of sense-consciousness (seeing,
hearing, etc.), as well as to the mind-element (mano-dhātu), and
the mind-consciousness element (mano-viññāṇa-dhātu)
unaccompanied by roots, not only a condition by way of object,
but a condition in four ways: by way of object, pre-nascence,
presence, and non-disappearance. To root-accompanied mind-
consciousness-element, they are besides a condition by way of
decisive object-support (ārammaṇūpanissaya).
In their capacity as object-conditions, they combine with 7
other conditions: object-predominance, support, decisive
support, pre-nascence, dissociation, presence, non-
disappearance. If the objects are mental phenomena, or past or
future phenomena, only object-predominance and decisive-
object-support are found in addition.
§3. (PREDOMINANCE)
Nine answers (quoted), corresponding to those of § 1 (root).
arises a wholesome phenomenon, conditioned by way of
predominance, etc., etc.
In the following paragraphs, the text will now be left out
entirely, as it corresponds in every respect to § 1; but it will be
pointed out how each phenomenon that represents the condition
186
Paṭṭhāna
indicated by the heading, may be a condition in many ways

besides.
Object-predominance (ārammaṇādhipati) may be a
condition in the ways given in § 2.
Amongst the co-nascent (saha-jāta) predominance
conditions, reflection (vīmaṃsā) may be a condition in 20 ways,
exactly as non-delusion, see § 1 (1). Resolve (chanda) may be a
condition in 17 ways (of the 24 conditions being inapplicable:
root, pre-nascence, kamma, nutriment, faculty, jhāna, path).
Consciousness, (citta) may be a condition in 19 ways (of the 24
conditions being inapplicable: root, pre-nascence, kamma,
jhāna, path). Energy (viriya) may be a condition in 19 ways
(inapplicable: root, pre-nascence, kamma, nutriment, jhāna).
In its capacity as predominant factor, reflection (vīmaṃsā))
combines just like non-delusion (see § 1). Resolve (chanda)
combines with 8 conditions: co-nascence, mutuality, support,
kamma-result, association, dissociation, presence, non-
disappearance. Energy (viriya) combines, in addition, with
faculty and path, i.e. with 10 conditions. Consciousness (citta)
combines with 10 conditions: co-nascence, mutuality, support,
kamma-result, association, dissociation, presence, non-
disappearance, faculty, nutriment.
§§ 4, 5 (PROXIMITY AND CONTIGUITY)
Three answers (unquoted), corresponding to those of § 2
(object).
Of the 4 mental groups, regarded as proximity-conditions,
feeling (vedanā) may be a condition in 19 ways (inapplicable
being: root, pre-nascence, kamma, nutriment, path). Perception
(saññā) may be a condition in 17 ways (inapplicable being
further: faculty, jhāna). In the group of mental formations, the
roots, greed, etc., act as conditions as in § 1. Resolve (chanda)
and energy (viriya), as in § 3. (Sense-, or mind-) impression
(phassa) may be a condition in 18 ways (inapplicable being:
root, pre-nascence, kamma, faculty, jhāna, path). Volition
187
(cetanā), in 19 ways (inapplicable being: root, pre-nascence,

faculty, jhāna, path). Thought-conception (vitakka), in 19 ways
(inapplicable: root, pre-nascence, kamma, nutriment, faculty).
Discursive thinking (vicāra), in 18 ways (further inapplicable:
path). Rapture (pīti), the same. One-pointedness of mind
(concentration, samādhi), in 20 ways (inapplicable: root, pre-
nascence, kamma, nutriment). Faith (saddhā), in 18 ways
(inapplicable: root, pre-nascence. kamma, nutriment, jhāna,
path). Mindfulness (sati), in 19 ways (inapplicable: root, pre-
nascence, kamma, nutriment, jhāna). (Mental) vitality
(jīvitindriya), in 18 ways, just as faith. Moral shame and dread
(hiri, ottappa), in 17 ways, (inapplicable: root, pre-nascence,
kamma, nutriment, jhāna, path, faculty). The same with the twin
qualities, as composure of mental faculties, and composure of
consciousness, etc. Determination (adhimokkha), mental
application (manasikāra), equanimity (tatra-majjhattatā),
compassion (karuṇā), sympathetic joy (muditā), and the 3
abstinences (from wrong speech, bodily action, and livelihood),
in 18 ways (inapplicable: root, pre-nascence, kamma, nutriment,
jhāna, faculty). Wrong views (micchā-diṭṭhi), in 17 ways
(inapplicable: root, pre-nascence, kamma, kamma-result,
nutriment, jhāna, faculty). Wrong bodily action, wrong speech,
and wrong livelihood, in 19 ways (inapplicable: root, pre-
nascence, kamma-result, jhāna, faculty). Want of moral shame
(ahirika), Want of moral dread (anottappa), conceit (māna).
torpor (thīna), languor (middha), and restlessness (uddhacca), in
16 ways (inapplicable: root, pre-nascence, kamma, kamma-
result, nutriment, faculty, jhāna, path). Scepticism (vicikicchā),
envy (issā), avarice (macchariya), and worry (kukkucca), in 15
ways (inapplicable: root, predominance, pre-nascence, kamma,
kamma-result, nutriment, faculty, jhāna, path). Consciousness
(viññāṇa), in 19 ways, as shown in § 3.
The above phenomena, in their capacity as proximity
condition, combine with only 5 conditions: decisive support,
kamma, frequency, absence, disappearance. Volition of the
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Paṭṭhāna
Noble Path (ariya-magga-cetanā), however, also acts as

kamma-condition. Cf. § 9.
§6 (CO-NASCENCE)
Three answers (quoted), corresponding to those of § 2 (root).
Each of the co-nascent mental groups may be a condition in
many ways, as shown in § 4. The 4 physical elements may be a
condition in 9 ways: by way of object, object-predominance, co-
nascence, mutuality, support, decisive support, pre-nascence,
presence, non-disappearance; the physical base of mind, in
addition, by way of dissociation.
The co-nascent phenomena, in their capacity as co-nascent
conditions, combine with 14 conditions: root, predominance,
mutuality, support, kamma, kamma-result, nutriment, faculty,
jhāna, path, association, dissociation, presence, non-
disappearance.
§7 (MUTUALITY)
Three answers (quoted), corresponding to those of § 2 (object).
The phenomena acting as mutuality-condition are, in every
respect, identical with those in § 6.
§8 (SUPPORT)
Nine answers (unquoted), corresponding to those of § 6 (co-
nascence).
The 5 sense-organs and their objects, regarded as support-
condition may be a condition in 9 ways: by way of object,
object-predominance, support, decisive support, pre-nascence,
faculty, dissociation, presence, non-disappearance.
Phenomena acting as support-conditions, combine with 17
conditions (inapplicable: proximity, contiguity, post-nascence,
frequency, absence, disappearance).
§9 (DECISIVE SUPPORT)
Nine answers (unquoted), corresponding to those of § 2 (object).
189
Decisive support by way of object (ārammaṇūpanissaya) is

identical with predominance by way of object
(ārammaṇādhipati). Decisive support by way of proximity
(anantarūpanissaya), if at that time acting in such capacity,
combines with 6 further conditions: proximity, contiguity,
kamma, frequency, absence, disappearance. But it is only
volition (cetanā) accompanying the entrance into the Noble
Paths, that becomes here a condition by way of kamma; as only
in that case, volition is immediately followed by its kamma-
result, the fruition of the path.
§10 (PRE-NASCENCE)
Nine answers (quoted), corresponding to those of § 2 (object).
Of the pre-nascent phenomena, visible object, sound, odour,
taste, are a condition in 6 ways: by way of object, object-
predominance, decisive support, pre-nascence, presence, non-
disappearance. The other pre-nascent phenomena, including the
tangible object (= solid, heat, motion), have been treated above.
Decisive support by way of natural condition
(pakatūpanissaya), if acting as pre-nascent condition, is
combined with 8 conditions: object, object-predominance,
support, decisive support, faculty, dissociation, presence, non-
disappearance. In the case of object, pre-nascence, support,
faculty, and dissociation are not found.
§§11–14 (post-nascence, frequency, kamma, kamma-result).
The phenomena representing the above conditions have
been already treated in the previous paragraphs.
§11. No answer, and no text.
The post-nascent phenomena, in their capacity as post-
nascent condition, combine with 3 conditions: dissociation,
presence, non- disappearance.
§12. Three answers (quoted), corresponding to those of § 2
(object).
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Paṭṭhāna
The frequency condition, in this quality, combines with 5

conditions: proximity, contiguity, decisive support, absence,
disappearance.
§13. Nine answers (according to summary), of which only 5
(No. 1, 9, 17, 24, 31) are quoted.
The kamma-condition, whilst acting in that capacity,
combines with regard to the associated states, with 9 further
conditions: co-nascence, mutuality, support, kamma-result,
nutriment, association, dissociation, presence, non-
disappearance. With regard to the later arising kamma-result, it
combines with 5 conditions: decisive support, proximity,1
contiguity, absence, disappearance.
§14. The phenomena acting in the capacity as kamma-result
conditions, may combine with 14 conditions: root,
predominance, co-nascence, mutuality, support, kamma,
nutriment, faculty, jhāna, path, association, dissociation,
presence, non-disappearance.
§15 (NUTRIMENT)
Nine answers (according to summary), of which only 5 are
quoted, as in § 13 (kamma).
Of the 4 nutriments, material food may be a condition in 6
ways: by way of object, object-predominance, decisive support,
nutriment, presence, non-disappearance. About the 3 other
nutriments (impression, volition, consciousness) see § 4–5.
Material food, in its capacity as nutriment condition,
combines with 2 further conditions: presence, non-disappearance.
The other 3 phenomena, in their capacity as nutriment
condition, combine, according to circumstances, with 11 further
conditions: predominance, co-nascence, mutuality, support,
kamma, kamma- result, faculty, association, dissociation,
1. Only in the case of one of the Supramundane Paths.
191
§16 (FACULTY)
Nine answers (unquoted) corresponding to those of § 13 (kamma).
All the phenomena from here to § 24, have been treated in
the preceding paragraphs.
The 5 sense-organs, in their capacity as faculty-condition,
combine with 5 further conditions: support, pre-nascence,
dissociation, presence, non-disappearance. Also physical
vitality as faculty-condition, combines with 2 further conditions:
presence, non-disappearance. Also the mental faculties,1 in their
capacity as faculty-condition, combine with 13 conditions: root,
predominance, co-nascence, mutuality, support, kamma-result,
nutriment, jhāna, path, association, dissociation, presence, non-
disappearance.
§17 (JHĀNA)
Nine answers (unquoted), corresponding to those of § 1 (root).
The jhāna, in its capacity as jhāna-condition, combines,
according to circumstances, with 10 further conditions: co-
nascence, mutuality, support, kamma-result, faculty, path,
association, dissociation, presence, non-disappearance.
§18 (PATH)
Nine answers (unquoted), corresponding to those of § 1 (root).
The statements in § 17 apply also here, but with 2 additional
conditions: root and predominance.
§19 (ASSOCIATION)
Three answers (unquoted), corresponding to those of 2 (object).
The associated phenomena, in their capacity as association-
condition, combine, according to circumstances, with 13
conditions: root, predominance, co-nascence, mutuality,
support, kamma, kamma-result, nutriment, faculty, jhāna, path,
1. Vibh V. 6, 9-22.
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Paṭṭhāna
§20 (DISSOCIATION)
Nine answers (quoted), corresponding to those of 1 (root).
The dissociated phenomena, in their capacity as
dissociation-condition, combine, according to circumstances,
with 17 further conditions (inapplicable are: proximity,
contiguity, frequency, association, absence, disappearance).
§21 (PRESENCE)
Nine answers (unquoted), corresponding to those of § 6
(sahajāta).
The presence-condition, in its capacity as such, combines,
according to circumstances, with 18 further conditions
(inapplicable are: proximity, contiguity, frequency, absence,
disappearance).
§§22, 23 (ABSENCE, DISAPPEARANCE)
Three answers (unquoted), corresponding to those of § 2 (object).
§24 (NON-DISAPPEARANCE)
Nine answers (unquoted), corresponding to those of § 21
(presence).
Hereafter, all the affirmative answers to the 49 questions (p.
109) of each of the 24 §§, are numerically summed up, in this
manner: “with regard to root, 9 (answers); with regard to
object, 3; with regard to predominance, 9; etc., etc.” In a
similar way, the numbering of the answers to the innumerable
questions is continued with regard to pairs of conditions,
threefold groups of conditions, up to the 24-fold group of
conditions. Cf. the beginning of this paṭicca-vāra.
(b) Negative Method
§1 (NOT-ROOT)
Two questions are affirmed: No. 8 and 15.
may arise an unwholesome phenomenon, not conditioned by
193
way of root; e.g., dependent on groups accompanied by

scepticism and restlessness (being ‘unwholesome,’ and ‘not
roots’), there arises delusion (unwholesome) accompanied by
scepticism and restlessness.”
The deluded classes of consciousness referred to here (Tab.
32, 33) have only one co-nascent root, i.e. delusion. Since
delusion itself is a root, its existence cannot be said to be
conditioned by a root, which in its character as root, must be
always co-nascent. Thus, the arising of delusion must be
conditioned in another way than by that of root.
Questions 1–8 are said by the Commentary to be
unaffirmable for the reason that a wholesome phenomenon
could never arise without a root, as any wholesome state is
under all circumstances associated with at least the 2 roots, non-
greed and non-hatred.
(15) “Dependent on a neutral phenomenon, there arises a
neutral Phenomenon, not conditioned by way of root; e.g.,
dependent on 1 (or 3, or 2) neutral group—being either
kamma-resultant or functional—unaccompanied by a root,
there arise 3 (or 1, or 2) groups, and corporeality (neutral)
produced by mind. Or, at the moment of conception, not
accompanied by roots, there arise, dependent on 1 (or 3, or 2)
kamma-resultant neutral group, 3 (or 1, or 2) groups, and
corporeality due to residual kamma. Or, dependent on the
physical base (of mind; neutral), there arise the (neutral)
groups. Or, dependent on 1 (or 3, or 2) physical element
(solid, liquid, heat, motion; neutral), there arise the other 3
(or 1, or 2) physical elements. Or, dependent on the physical
elements, there arises corporeality produced by mind, as well
as dependent corporeality, external corporeality, corporeality
produced by nutriment, produced by physical influence, etc.
§2 (NOT-OBJECT)
Five questions are affirmed, namely: 3, 10, 15, 24, 31.
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Paṭṭhāna
arises a neutral phenomenon (corporeality produced by

mind), not conditioned by way of object.” Etc., etc.
§3 (NOT-PREDOMINANCE)
Nine questions are affirmed, namely: No. 1, 3, 4, 8, 10, 11, 15,
24, 31. Etc., etc.
(c) Positive-Negative Method
Here, the answers to each paragraph are not detailed, but only
numerically summed up, as follows:
“With regard to (§ 1) root-condition, not-object: 5
(answers); (§ 2) root-condition, not-predominance: 9; (§ 3)
root-condition, not-proximity: 5; etc.” Then: “With regard to
root- and object-condition, not-predominance: 3;—not-
prenascence: 3; not-postnascence: 3, etc.” Then: ”... With
regard to root- and object-and predominance-condition, not-
prenascence: 3; not-postnascence: 3, etc.”
(d) Negative-Positive Method
This method proceeds in an analogous manner as the preceding
one:
“With regard to not-root-condition, but object: 2; but
proximity:, 2; but contiguity : 2; etc., etc.”
(2) Chapter on being ‘co-nascent’
(3) Chapter on being ‘conditioned’
(4) Chapter on being ‘supported’
These chapters are the same as (1), except that instead of the
expression ‘dependent on’ (paṭicca), we have here: (2) ‘co-
nascent’ (saha-jāta), (3) ‘conditioned by’ (paccaya). (4)
‘supported by’ (nissāya).
(5) Chapter on being ‘conjoined’ (saṃsaṭṭha-vāra)
§1 (ROOT)
“Conjoined with a wholesome phenomenon, there arises a
wholesome phenomenon, conditioned by way of root.” Etc., etc.
195
This chapter differs in its explanations slightly from the

foregoing, as, e.g., a wholesome or unwholesome phenomenon
cannot be ‘conjoined’ or ‘associated’ with a corporeal
phenomenon.
(6) Chapter on being ‘associated’ (sampayutta-vāra)
This is identical with the last chapter.
(7) Chapter on Investigation (pañhavāra)
This chapter is really the first one of the main part of our
work that furnishes more exhaustive, and more concrete,
illustrations to those terse and abstract statements, and thus
enlivens somewhat our text.
There is neither in this, nor in the preceding 5 chapters, a
question section, as we find in Chapter 1; but the order of the
answers, or rather statements, corresponds nevertheless, more or
less, to the order of the 49 questions as given in Chapter 1. The
numbers given by me, refer to the above question section at p.
191.
(a) Positive Method
§1 (ROOT)
Seven answers (quoted): 1, 3, 4, 8, 10, 11, 15.
(1) “A wholesome phenomenon (e.g., the root non-greed,
non-hatred, or non-delusion) may be to another wholesome
phenomenon (the associated groups, or another root), a
condition by way of root.” Etc., etc.
Whilst a wholesome phenomenon arises by way of 22
conditions (inapplicable are: post-nascence and kamma-result),
it is at the same time to another wholesome phenomenon a
condition in 20 ways (inapplicable are: pre-nascence, post-
nascence, kamma-result, dissociation). In a similar way it is
with all the other phenomena. Therefore, to show in due order
those conditions, by which a phenomenon is a condition to
another phenomenon, the text begins with the root-condition.
196
Paṭṭhāna
§2 (OBJECT)
Nine answers (quoted, and fully illustrated): 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 15,
16, 17.
(i) “A wholesome phenomenon may be to a wholesome
phenomenon, a condition by way of object. For example, if,
after having given alms, or taken upon oneself the moral
vows, or fulfilled the Uposatha duties, one is reviewing these
(wholesome) acts (with a wholesome mind). Or, if one is
reviewing (with a wholesome mind) wholesome actions
formerly done. Or, if after rising from the jhāna one reviews
the same ... Or, if one practises insight (vipassati) ... ”
That means, any wholesome phenomenon, through taking it
as object of our thinking, may become a condition of the arising
of other wholesome states of mind.
(2) “A wholesome phenomenon may be to an
unwholesome phenomenon, a condition by way of object. For
example, if, after having given alms, etc., one indulges and
delights in this act, and thereby arises greed, evil views,
doubt, restlessness, or sadness (“either to oneself or to others,”
says the Com.). Or, if one indulges and delights in good deeds
done formerly, and thereby arises greed, etc. Or, if, after
having risen from trance, one indulges and delights in this
attainment, and thereby arises greed, etc. Or, if, whilst
regretting that the jhāna (which one had attained) has
vanished, sadness springs up.”
Thus, any wholesome act, or attainment, may, through
being made the object of wrong thinking, become a condition to
the arising of unwholesome states of mind.
(3) “A wholesome phenomenon may be to a neutral
phenomenon, a condition by way of object. For example,
when after rising from (that wholesome state called) the
Arahat-Path, the Arahat with a karmically neutral mind
reviews this path ...”
(8) “An unwholesome phenomenon may be to an
unwholesome phenomenon, a condition by way of object. For
example, if one indulges and delights in greed (an
197
unwholesome phenomenon), and thereby arises greed, evil

opinions, doubt, restlessness, or sadness: Or, if one indulges
and delights in evil views, and thereby arises greed, etc.; Or,
on account of doubt there arises (new) doubt, or evil view,
restlessness, or sadness ...”
(9) “An unwholesome phenomenon may be to a
wholesome phenomenon, a condition by way of object. For
example, if those ‘in higher training’ (sekha) are reviewing
(with wholesome mind) the mental defilements
(unwholesome) overcome by them Or, if one attains insight
(wholesome) into the impermanence, etc., of the
unwholesome phenomena ...”
(10) “An unwholesome phenomenon may be to a neutral
when the Arahat (with a karmically neutral mind) reviews
the mental defilements (unwholesome) overcome by him ...”
(11) “A neutral phenomenon may be to a neutral
when the Arahat (with neutral mind) reviews the fruit of
Arahatship (neutral), or reflects on Nibbāna ... Or, the visible
form (neutral) is to eye-consciousness (neutral), sound to ear-
consciousness, etc., a condition by way of object.”
(16) “A neutral phenomenon may be to a wholesome
phenomenon, a condition by way of object. For example, if
those ‘in higher training’ are reviewing (with wholesome
mind) the fruition of the path (neutral), or reflecting on
Nibbāna. Or, Nibbāna (neutral) is to the stage of maturity
(gotrabhū), to purification (vodāna), and to the Path, a
condition by way of object. Or, if anyone in higher training or
any worldling, practises insight (wholesome) into the
impermanence, etc., of the 5 sense-objects (neutral) ...”
(17) “A neutral phenomenon may be to an unwholesome
phenomenon, a condition by way of object. For example, if
one indulges and delights in the 5 sense-organs, or 5 sense-
objects (neutral), and thereby arises greed, etc.,
(unwholesome).”
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Paṭṭhāna
§3 (PREDOMINANCE)
Ten answers (quoted): 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 10, 11, 15, 16, 17.
(1) “A wholesome phenomenon may be to a wholesome
phenomenon, a condition by way of predominance, i.e. either
as object, or as co-nascent. As object: if, after having given
alms, etc., one (with wholesome mind) reviews this act, by
giving it preponderance. Or, if one is reviewing one’s former
good deeds, by giving them preponderance. Or, if after rising
from the jhāna, one is reviewing it, by giving it
preponderance ... As co-nascent: a predominant wholesome
phenomenon is to the associated groups, a condition by way
of predominance.”
(2) “A wholesome phenomenon may be to an
unwholesome phenomenon, a condition by way of
predominance, i.e. as object. For example, if after having
given alms, etc., one indulges and delights in this act, by
giving it preponderance, and thereby arises greed. etc ...”
phenomenon a condition by way of predominance, i.e. either
as object, or as co-nascent. As object: for example, if after
rising from the Arahat-Path, the Arahat reviews this path,
by giving it preponderance [s. § 2 (3)]. As co-nascent: the
predominant wholesome phenomenon is to corporeality
(neutral) produced by mind, a condition by way of
predominance.” Etc., etc.
§4 (PROXIMITY)
Seven answers (quoted): 1, 3, 8, 10, 15, 16, 17.
(1) “A wholesome phenomenon may be to a wholesome
phenomenon, a condition by way of proximity, namely each
preceding wholesome group is to each succeeding wholesome
group, a condition by way of proximity. Thus is the moment
of ‘adaptation’ (anuloma) to that of ‘maturity’ (gotrabhū),
that of ‘adaptation’ to that of ‘purification’ (vodāna), that of
‘maturity’ to that of the ‘Path’, that of ‘purification’ to that of
the ‘Path.”
199

phenomenon, a condition by way of proximity; namely a
wholesome phenomenon to the rising from it (registering
moment), the Path to its fruition, adaptation to the
attainment of the fruition of training (sekhāya
phalasamāpatti), ‘suspension of consciousness’ (nirodha) to
the rising from it, that wholesome state called ‘sphere of
neither-perception-nor-non-perception’ to the attainment of
the fruition (of Anāgāmi).” Etc., etc.
§5 (CONTIGUITY)
The text is here throughout the same as that of § 4, except that
instead of proximity,’ we have to read ‘contiguity.’
§§6–24
In these paragraphs there is scarcely found anything that has not
already been explained in the Introduction and first chapter of
the work.
§6 (co-nascence) has 9 answers 1, 3, 4, 8, 10, 11, 15, 24, 31;
§§7, 12, 19 (mutuality, frequency, association), 3 answers:
1, 8, 15;
§8, 21, 24 (support, pre-nascence, non-disappearance), 13
answers: 1, 3, 4, 8, 10, 11, 15, 16, 17, 22, 24, 30, 31;
§9 (decisive support), 9 answers: 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17;
§10 (pre-nascence), 3 answers: 15, 16, 17;
§11 (post-nascence), 3 answers: 3, 10, 15;
§§13, 15, 16, 17, 18 (kamma, nutriment, faculty, jhāna,
path), 7 answers: 1, 3, 4, 8, 10, 11, 15;
§14 (kamma-result), 1 answer: 15;
§20 (dissociation), 5 answers: 3, 10, 15, 16, 17;
§§22, 23 (absence, disappearance), 7 answers as § 4
(proximity).
At the end of this positive method of the present chapter, all
the answers are numerically summed up, as in chapter 1.
200
Paṭṭhāna
Thereupon follows immediately the summing up of the answers

belonging to the negative, the positive-negative, and the
negative-positive method.
2. THE TRIAD OF FEELINGS

(VEDANĀ-TTIKA)
(1) CHAPTER ON BEING ‘DEPENDENT’ (PAṬ ICCA-VĀRA)

(a) Positive Method
The 49 questions pertaining to the three kinds of feeling,
correspond to those of the Triad “Karmically wholesome”; they
are not found in the text. For identifying the numbers given here
for the answers, reference should be made to the list of
permutations at page 182. For the symbols (a), (b), (c), in that
list, pleasant, painful, and neutral feeling respectively, should be
substituted.
§1 (ROOT)
Three answers: 1, 8, 15
(1) “Dependent on a phenomenon associated with
pleasant feeling, there arises a phenomenon associated with
pleasant feeling, conditioned by way of root. For example,
dependent on 1 group (e.g. perception) associated with
pleasant feeling, there arise the other 2 groups (mental
formations and consciousness); so also at the rebirth-
moment.
The feeling-group is excluded here, because it is not
associated with feeling, but constitutes feeling itself.
In the answers (8) and (15), pleasant feeling is substituted
by painful and neutral feeling respectively.
Each of the following 23 §§ has the corresponding three
answers, referred to the remaining 23 modes of conditionality;
illustrations vary according to the context.
201
(b) Negative Method

§1 (NOT-ROOT)
(1) “Dependent on a phenomenon associated with pleasant
feeling, there arises a phenomenon associated with pleasant
feeling, not conditioned by way of root, For example, depen-
dent on one (non-root) group associated with pleasant feeling
(e.g., Tab. 38: body-consciousness, or Tab. 40, 72: mind-
consciousness element), there arise two groups (perception
and formations), not conditioned by way of root; or dependent
on 2 groups, one.”
(8) “Dependent on a phenomenon associated with painful
feeling (e.g., Tab. 54 body-consciousness) there arises a
phenomenon (the remaining two groups) associated with
painful feeling, not conditioned by way of root.”
(15) “Dependent on a phenomenon associated with
neutral feeling (e.g. Tab. 34–37, 39, 41, etc.), there arises a
phenomenon associated with neutral feeling (the remaining
two groups), not conditioned by way of root.”
(c) Positive-negative Method; (d) Negative-positive Method.
The statements referring to these two methods are summarized
numerically, as at the end of the 1st Triad.
Chapters (2)–(6)
These chapters are only briefly indicated in the text.
(7) Chapter on Investigations (pañha-vāra)

§1 (ROOT)
Three answers: 1, 8, 15
(1) “A phenomenon (e.g. either greed, or any wholesome
root) associated with pleasant feeling, is to a phenomenon (the
remaining two groups, perception and consciousness)
associated with pleasant feeling, a condition by way of root;
at the moment of rebirth, the root associated with pleasant
feeling (non-greed, etc.) is to the associated groups a
202
Paṭṭhāna
condition by way of root.

(8) “A phenomenon (the root hatred) associated with
painful feeling, is to a phenomenon (the remaining groups)
associated with painful feeling, a condition by way of root.
(15) “A phenomenon (either a wholesome root, or greed, or
delusion) associated with neutral feeling, is to a phenomenon
(the remaining 2 groups) associated with neutral feeling, a
condition by way of root.”
§2 (OBJECT)
Nine answers No. 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17.
(1-2) “A phenomenon associated with pleasant feeling
may be to a phenomenon associated with pleasant (or,
painful) feeling, a condition by way of object. For example, if
after having given alms... etc. with a mind associated with
pleasant feeling, one is reviewing that act with a mind
associated with pleasant feeling. Or, there may, by regretting
such a thing, arise grief (painful feeling).
(3) “A phenomenon associated with pleasant feeling, may
be to a phenomenon associated with neutral feeling, a
condition by way of object. For example, if after having given
alms ... etc. ... with a mind associated with pleasant feeling,
one is reviewing this act with a mind associated with neutral
feeling ...
(9–10) “A phenomenon associated with painful feeling,
may be to a phenomenon associated with pleasant (or,
indifferent) feeling, a condition by way of object. For example,
if the Noble Ones, with a mind associated with pleasant (or,
neutral) feeling, review their abandoned impurities (e.g.,
hatred) which were associated with painful feeling ...
(16) “A phenomenon associated with neutral feeling, may
be to a phenomenon associated with pleasant feeling, a
condition by way of object. For example, if after having given
alms ... etc. .... with a mind associated with neutral feeling,
one is reviewing this act with a mind associated with
pleasant feeling ...” Etc., etc.
203
Thus, any mental phenomenon, whether associated with

pleasant, or painful or neutral feeling, may, by taking it as object
of our thinking, become a condition to a phenomenon associated
with either pleasant, or painful, or neutral feeling.
§3 (PREDOMINANCE)
Five answers : No. 1, 3, 8, 15, 16
(1) “A phenomenon associated with pleasant feeling may
be to a phenomenon associated with pleasant feeling, a
condition by way of predominance, i.e. as object or as co-
nascent. As object: if after having given alms ... etc. ... with a
mind associated with pleasant feeling, one is reviewing that
act with a mind associated with pleasant feeling, by giving it
preponderance. As co-nascent: a predominant factor
associated with pleasant feeling, is to the associated groups,
a condition by way of predominance.” Etc., etc.
§4 (PROXIMITY)
7 answers: No. 1, 3, 8, 10, 15, 16, 17
be to a phenomenon associated with pleasant feeling a
condition by way of proximity. For example, any preceding
groups associated with pleasant feeling, are to any succeeding
groups associated with pleasant feeling, a condition by way of
proximity. The moment of adaptation (anuloma) associated
with pleasant feeling, is to the moment of maturity (gotrabhū)
associated with pleasant feeling, a condition by way of
proximity. Thus is adaptation to purification, maturity to the
Path, purification to the Path, the Path (moment) to its
Fruition, the Fruition to (new) Fruition, etc.
be to a phenomenon associated with neutral feeling, a
condition by way of proximity. For example, death-
consciousness (i.e. consciousness at the very last moment of
death) associated with pleasant feeling, is to rebirth-
consciousness (at the very moment of conception, being
associated with neutral feeling), a condition by way of
proximity. Sub-consciousness (bhavaṅga) associated with
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Paṭṭhāna
pleasant feeling (Tab. 42—45), is to the adverting (of the

mind to its object, being associated with neutral feeling,) a
condition by way of proximity. Body-consciousness associated
with pleasant feeling, (Tab. 38) is to the resultant mind-
element (associated with neutral feeling = Receiving), a
condition by way of proximity ... etc. ...
(8), (10) “A phenomenon associated with painful (or,
neutral) feeling, may be to a phenomenon associated with
painful (or, neutral) feeling, a condition by way of proximity.
For example, any preceding group associated with painful
(or, neutral) feeling, is to any succeeding group associated
with painful (or, neutral) feeling, a condition by way of
proximity.” Etc., etc.
The next paragraphs are rather short, with exception of the
paragraph on decisive support, which is full of illustrations.
The remaining 3 methods (Negative, etc.) are treated in a
similar way as in the 1st Triad.
3–22. THE TRIADS ‘KAMMA-RESULTANT
UP TO ‘VISIBLE AND REACTING’
These remaining 20 Triads (see Abhidhamma Schedule, page 8)

follow the same method as exemplified for the first and second
Triad.
II. ORIGINATION OF DYADS
(Duka-Paṭṭhāna)
1. THE DYAD ‘ROOT AND NO-ROOT’
(HETU-DUKA)
(a) Positive Method
§I (ROOT)
Nine answers (quoted).
(1) “Dependent on a root phenomenon, there may arise a
root phenomenon, conditioned by way of root; e.g., dependent
205
on non-greed: non-hatred and non-delusion; dependent on

non-hatred: non-greed and non-delusion; dependent on non-
delusion: non-greed and non-hatred; dependent on greed:
delusion; on delusion: greed; on hatred: delusion; on delusion:
hatred.”
Greed is always associated, and co-nascent, with delusion.
So is hatred, whilst delusion may exist alone. But greed and
hatred can never be associated with each other. Therefore, greed
can never depend on hatred, and vice versa, by way of root, i.e.
as associated phenomenon.
Of the 3 wholesome roots, none ever exists alone. Either all
the 3 are present, or otherwise only non-greed and non-hatred,
which latter 2 are always inseparably associated.
not-root phenomenon (associated groups and corporeality,
etc), conditioned by way of root.
root phenomenon, and a not-root phenomenon, conditioned
by way of root; e.g., dependent on non-greed, there arise non-
hatred, non-delusion and the associated groups, and
corporeality (not-root) produced by mind.
(4) “Dependent on a not-root phenomenon, there may
arise a not-root phenomenon, conditioned by way of root—(5)
a root phenomenon—(6) a root phenomenon, and a not-root
phenomenon, conditioned by way of root.
(7) “Dependent on a root phenomenon, and a not-root
phenomenon, there may arise a root phenomenon,
conditioned by way of root—(8) a not-root phenomenon—(9) a
root phenomenon, and a not-root phenomenon, conditioned
by way of root.”
The remaining 23 conditions are only briefly indicated.
206
Paṭṭhāna
(b) Negative Method

§1 (NOT-ROOT)
Two answers.
arise a not- root phenomenon, not conditioned by way of
root...
arise a root phenomenon, not conditioned by way of root; e.g.,
dependent on groups accompanied by scepticism and
restlessness (‘not-root’), there arises delusion (root)
accompanied by scepticism and restlessness.” Etc., etc.
Chapters (2)–(6)
These chapters are only briefly indicated in the text.
(a) Positive Method
§1 (ROOT)
Three answers (quoted).
(1) “A root-phenomenon may be to a root-phenomenon, a
condition by way of root; e.g., non-greed to non-hatred and
non-delusion ... cf. chapter 1. ... greed to delusion, hatred to
delusion, etc.”
(2) “A root phenomenon may be to a not-root
phenomenon—(3) to a root phenomenon and a not-root
phenomenon, a condition by way of root, ... .
§2 (OBJECT)
Nine answers, e.g.:
(3) “A root phenomenon may be to a root phenomenon and
a not-root phenomenon, a condition by way of object: through
a root (e.g. greed, taken as object of reflection) arise a root
(e.g. increased greed) and the groups associated with it
(which are not-roots).” Etc., etc.
207
§21 (PRESENCE)
Nine answers (quoted), e.g.:
(1) “A root phenomenon is to a root phenomenon, a
condition by way of presence; e.g., non-greed to non-hatred
and Non-delusion; greed to delusion, etc.
(2) A root phenomenon may be to a not-root phenomenon,
a condition by way of presence, i.e. either as co-nascent, or
post-nascent; e.g., the co-nascent roots (e.g., greed and
delusion), to the associated groups, and to the corporeal
phenomenon (not-root) produced by mind; ... the post-nascent
roots, to this pre-nascent body.” Etc., etc.
(b) Negative Method
§2 (NOT-OBJECT) ETC.
“A root phenomenon may be to a root phenomenon, a
condition by way of not-object ... not-conascence not-decisive
support.”
‘By way of not-root’ is, of course, impossible for a root,
which, as root condition, must be co-nascent with the
conditioned phenomenon.
“A root phenomenon may be to a not-root phenomenon, a
condition by way of not-object ... not-conascence ... not-
decisive support ... not-prenascence ... not-postnascence.”
Etc., etc.
2. THE DYAD ‘ROOT-ACCOMPANIED’ AND ‘ROOT-

UNACCOMPANIED’ (SAHETU-DUKA).
(a) Positive Method
§1 (ROOT)
Nine answers (quoted), e.g.:
208
Paṭṭhāna
“Dependent an a root-accompanied phenomenon, there

may arise a root-accompanied phenomenon ... a root-
unaccompanied phenomenon (corporeality) ...” Etc.. etc.
(b) Negative Method
§1 (NOT-ROOT)
2 answers: No. 2. 4.
(2) “Dependent on a root-accompanied phenomenon (e.g.,
groups accompanied by scepticism, etc.), there may arise a
root-unaccompanied phenomenon (delusion), not conditioned
by way of root.” Etc., etc.
Chapters (2)–(6)
Chapters (3) and (5) are detailed; whilst (2) and (4) are said
to be identical with (1); and (6), with (5).
(a) Positive Method
§1 (ROOT)
Six answers (quoted): No. 1–6.
“A root-accompanied phenomenon may be to a root-
accompanied phenomenon, a condition by way of root; e.g.,
the root-accompanied roots (greed or hatred, accompanied by
delusion; non-greed accompanied by non-hatred, etc.) are to
the associated groups, a condition by way of root. ...”
§2 (OBJECT)
“A root-accompanied phenomenon may be to a root-
accompanied phenomenon, a condition by way of object; e.g. ...
if, whilst reflecting on the root-accompanied groups of existence
as impermanent, miserable, and non-self, there arises sadness
(accompanied by the root hatred)... ” Etc., etc.
The remaining Dyads 3–100 follow the same method.
209
III. ORIGINATION OF DYADS & TRIADS COMBINED

(DUKA-TIKA-PAṬ Ṭ HAṆA)
The permutations of the questions applying here, in the following
sections III-VI and in the large divisions B, C, D, can be easily
worked out by the students by comparing the text and using the
symbols (a)-(c) for the Triads, and (A) and (B) for the Dyads.
1. The Dyad ‘Root, Etc.,’ and the Triad ‘Wholesome, Etc.’
(Hetu-duka-kusala-ttika)
“Dependent on a phenomenon which is a root and is
wholesome, there may arise, conditioned by way of root
(object, etc.), a phenomenon which is a root and is wholesome
... a phenomenon which is not a root, but is wholesome ... a
phenomenon which is a root and is wholesome; and a
phenomenon which is not a root, but is wholesome.”
Besides these 3, there are 6 further permutations, after
which follow the usual chapters, of which only chapter (7) is
detailed. Then, again, a new series of 7 chapters is started with
‘unwholesome’ phenomena. Thereafter follows:
2.The Dyad ‘Root, Etc.,’ and the Triad of Feeling, Etc.
(Hetu-duka-vedanā-ttika)
In this way, this first Dyad ‘root, etc. is combined with all
the 22 Triads. Then, the second Dyad is combined with the 22
Triads, then the 3rd Dyad, then the 4th etc; and so are finally all
100 Dyads, so that, if really detailed, we should get 2200 such
chapters.
IV. ORIGINATION OF TRIADS & DYADS COMBINED

(TIKA-DUKA-PAṬ Ṭ HĀNA)
This division resembles III, only that the Triads are here placed
before the. Dyads, e.g.:
“Dependent on a phenomenon which is wholesome and is
a root, etc.”
210
Paṭṭhāna
Only chapters (1) and (7) are given in detail. Thereafter

follow all the other chapters on Triads and Dyads,
corresponding exactly to those in III.
V. ORIGINATION OF TRIADS & TRIADS COMBINED

(TIKA-TIKA-PAṬ Ṭ HĀNA)
If here really each Triad would have been combined with each of
the remaining 21 Triads, we should have got 21 groups with each
21 combinations, i.e. 441 chapters. Actually, however, only the
first Triad has been combined in full with the remaining Triads,
and then these combinations have been given in reverse order, so
that we only get 42 chapters, I am giving here only the beginning
of § 1 of the paṭicca-vāra of the 1st Triad combination:
1. The Triad ‘Wholesome, Etc.’, and the Triad of
Feelings
(Kusalattika-vedanāttika)
§1 (ROOT)
“Dependent on a wholesome (unwholesome, or neutral)
phenomenon associated with pleasant feeling, there may
arise a wholesome, unwholesome, or neutral phenomenon
associated with pleasant feeling, conditioned by way of root.”
Etc., etc.
Chapters (2)-(6) are not detailed.
§1 (ROOT)
“A wholesome phenomenon associated with pleasant feeling,
may be to a wholesome phenomenon associated with pleasant
feeling, a condition by way of root (object, etc., etc.)” Etc., etc.
After this chapter, again, a chapter on being ‘dependent’
follows, with regard to an unwholesome, then a neutral
phenomenon, associated with painful feeling.
211
VI. ORIGINATION OF DYADS & DYADS COMBINED

(Duka-Duka-Paṭṭhāna)
Here, each of the 100 Dyads would really have to be combined
with each of the remaining 99 Dyads, so that we should get
9900 chapters but we actually find the whole contracted to 48
chapters.
1. The Dyad ‘Root, Etc.’, and the Dyad ‘Root-
Accompanied, Etc.’
(Hetu-duka-sahetu-duka).
“Dependent on a phenomenon which is a root, and is
accompanied by a root, there may arise a phenomenon which
is a root, and is accompanied by a root, conditioned by way of
root.” Etc., etc.
B. Negative method
All the themes of A. are here put into a negative form.
(TIKA-PAṬṬ HĀNA)
1. The Triad ‘Not Wholesome, Not-Unwholesome, and Not-
Neutral’ (Na-kusala-ttika)
Not-wholesome is either unwholesome or neutral; not-
unwholesome, either wholesome or neutral; not-neutral, either
wholesome or unwholesome.
(a) Positive Method
§1 (ROOT)
“Dependent on a not-wholesome phenomenon, there may
arise a not-wholesome phenomenon, conditioned by way of
root.” Etc., etc.
212
Paṭṭhāna

(DUKA-PAṬṬ HĀNA)
1. The Dyad ‘Not Root, and Not Not-Root’ (Na-hetu-duka)
“Dependent on a not-root phenomenon (1 group), there
may arise a not-root phenomenon (3 groups), conditioned by
way of root, etc.” Etc., etc.
C. Positive-negative Method
1. The Triad ‘Wholesome, Etc.,’ and the Triad, Not-
Unwholesome, Etc.’ (Kusalattike na-kusalattika)
The first Triad is: wholesome, unwholesome, neutral, the
second one is: not-wholesome, not-unwholesome, not-neutral.
The chapter begins thus:
“Dependent on a wholesome phenomenon, there may arise
a not-wholesome phenomenon, conditioned by way of root; e.g.,
dependent on wholesome groups (being accompanied by roots),
there arises corporeality (being neutral, hence not wholesome)
produced by mind etc.” Etc., etc.
2. The Triad of Feelings, and the Triad of Not-Feelings
(Vedanāttike na-vedanāttika)
The first Triad is: pleasant, painful, neutral feeling; the
second one: not-pleasant (i.e. painful, or neutral), not-painful
(i.e. pleasant, or neutral), not-neutral (i.e. pleasant, or painful).
Etc., etc.

(DUKA-PAṬṬ HĀNA)
1. The Dyad ‘Root, Etc.’, and the Dyad ‘Not-Root, Etc.,’
213
(Hetuduke na-hetuduka)
“Dependent on a root-phenomenon, there arises a not-
root phenomenon (corporeality produced by mind),
conditioned by way of root.
“Dependent on a root phenomenon, there arises a not-
root phenomenon, and a phenomenon which is not a not-root
(i.e., a root), conditioned by way of root.” Etc., etc.
III. ORIGINATION OF DYADS & TRIADS COMBINED

(DUKA-TIKA-PAṬ Ṭ HĀNA)
1. The Dyad ‘Root, Etc.,’, Combined with The Triad
‘Wholesome, Etc.;’ and the Dyad ‘Not-Root, Etc.,’
Combined With The Triad ‘Not-Wholesome, Etc.’(Hetu-
duka-kusalattike nahetuduka-kusalattika)
“Dependent on a phenomenon which is a root and which is
wholesome, there may arise a phenomenon which is a not-root
and not-wholesome, conditioned by way of root.” Etc., etc.
IV. ORIGINATION OF TRIADS & DYADS COMBINED

(TIKA-DUKA-PAṬ Ṭ HĀNA)
1. The Triad ‘Wholesome, Etc.’ Combined With the
Dyad ‘Root, Etc.’; and the Triad ‘Not-Wholesome, Etc.’
Combined With the Dyad ‘Not-Root, Etc.’
(Kusalattika-hetuduke nakusalattika-nahetuduka)
“Dependent on a phenomenon which is wholesome and
which is a root (non-greed, etc.), there may arise a
phenomenon which is not-wholesome and is not a root
(corporeality), conditioned by way of root.” Etc., etc.
V. ORIGINATION OF TRIADS & TRIADS COMBINED

(TIKA-TIKA-PAṬ Ṭ HĀNA)
1. The Triad ‘Wholesome, Etc.,’ Combined with the
Triad of Feelings; and the Triad ‘Not-Wholesome, Etc.,’
214
Paṭṭhāna
Combined with the Triad of ‘not-feeling, Etc.’

(Kusalattika-vedanāttike nakusalattika-navedanāttika)
“Dependent on a wholesome phenomenon associated with
pleasant feeling, there may arise a not-wholesome
phenomenon not associated with pleasant feeling,
conditioned by way of root.” Etc., etc.
VI. ORIGINATION OF DYADS & DYADS COMBINED

(DUKA-DUKA-PAṬ Ṭ HĀNA)
1. The Dyad ‘Root, Etc.,’ Combined with the Dyad
‘Root-Accompanied, etc.;’ and the Dyad ‘Not-Root’ Etc.,’
Combined With The Dyad ‘Not-Accompanied by a Root
Etc.’
(Hetuduka-sahetuduke nahetuduka-nasahetuka)
“Dependent on a phenomenon which is a root and which
is accompanied by a root, there may arise a phenomenon
(corporeality produced by mind) which is not a root and is
accompanied by a root, conditioned by way of root.” Etc., etc.
D. NEGATIVE-POSITIVE METHOD
The whole of this method is a reversion of C, e.g.:
1. The Triad ‘Not Wholesome, Etc.,’ and the Triad
‘Wholesome, Etc.’ (Na-kusalattike kusalattika)
“Dependent on a not-wholesome phenomenon, there may
arise an unwholesome phenomenon, conditioned by way of
root.” Etc., etc.
215
APPENDIX I
PAṬ ICCA-SAMUPPĀDA
THE DOCTRINE
OF
DEPENDENT ORIGINATION
OF
ALL PHENOMENA OF EXISTENCE
INTRODUCTION
None of all the teachings of Buddhism has given rise to greater

misunderstandings, to more contradictory and more absurd
speculations and interpretations than the paṭicca-samuppāda,
the teaching of the ‘dependent origination’ of all phenomena of
existence. This is especially true with regard to Western
scholars and writers on Buddhism, who too often do not even
possess the very rudiments of that knowledge required for such
a difficult problem. No sooner have they acquired a mere
smattering of the Pāli language or the Buddhist scriptures, than
they think themselves competent of producing essays and
discourses on this profoundest and most intricate of all
doctrines, of which the Buddha himself has said: “Profound,
indeed, Ānanda, is this dependent origination, and profound
does it appear, etc.” (Mahānidāna-Sutta of Dīgha-Nikāya).
Often without understanding the correct meaning of the mere 12
terms of the paṭicca-samuppāda, they base their explanations on
their own fancy and imagination. Thus, without hesitation we
may say that hitherto the paṭicca-samuppāda had never been
really understood by anyone in the West.1
In the majority of cases an attempt was made to present the
paṭicca-samuppāda as an explanation of the primeval beginning
of all things; and one saw in ‘ignorance’ (avijjā, Sanskrit
avidyā) the causeless, first principle, out of which in the course
1. I, however, must admit with regret that was not able to peruse of the
following essays: Oltramare, La formule bouddhique des Douze
Causes, son sens original et son interpretation théologique (1909); De
la Vallée Poussin, Theorie des Douze Causes (1913); Franke, Die
Kausalitätsreihe oder Nidāna-Kette, Zeitschrift der deutschen Mor-
genland. Gesellschaft, 69. p. 470 seq. (1915).
of time all conscious and physical life has evolved. That all in
spite of the Buddha’s repeated express declaration that an
absolute first beginning of existence is something unthinkable
(Anamatagga-Saṃyutta; SN 15), and that all such-like
speculations may lead to insanity (AN 4:77); and that one never
could imagine a time when there was no ignorance, and no
craving for existence (AN 10:61; quoted in Visuddhimagga Ch.
XVII, and similarly in Milinda-Pañha, 2nd chapter).
In the Prajñāpāramitā, according to Burnouf, Introduction
ā L’histoire du Bouddhisme Indien, p. 473, we find for example,
the following words: “Et comme elles (les conditions) n’existent
pas (sic!), a cause de cel on les appelle Avidyā, c’est a dire ce
qui n’existe pas (!), ou l’ignorance.” And in Kern, Indian
Buddhism, we read: “Avijjā, ignorance, is the state of not
knowing, of sleep. Man at first awaking enters into a state of
half-consciousness; his mind is affected by vague impressions
(saṅkhāra) before he has reached the state of clear
consciousness. Then the phenomena appear to him, and the
activity of his organs of sense commences, etc.” And, again, in
Burnouf, Le Lotus de la Bonne Loi: “De l’ignorance procéda la
faculté de la réflexion (saṅkhāra!); de la faculté de la réflexion
procéda la connaissance (viññāṇa); de la connaissance procéda
l’union de l’esprit et de la matiére (nāma-rūpa) etc.”
In more recent times, again, quite a number of authors,
chiefly Germans, led by Dr. Dahlke, call the paṭicca-samuppāda
a “simultaneous” dependent origination and even go so far as to
assert that “the whole chain of the (12) conditions of origination
represents one single karmical (?)1 moment of personal
experience (karmisches erlebnismoment)”!! Now does this not
really amount to the senseless assertion that cause and effect, i.e.
the karmic process of becoming (X = 11)2 and rebirth (XI = III),
1. The wrong use of the terms ‘kamma’ and ‘karmical’ originated with
the Theosophists. What these terms signify, can be learnt from I–III,
and IX-XI.
2. The Roman numerals refer to p. 236 f.
218
Appendix
birth (XI) and death (XII), wholesome and unwholesome

kamma-formations (II), the physical sense-organs (V) and the
(conscious) impression (VI) based thereon—that all these things
arise together at the very same moment, and that thus the
kamma (i.e. action) of the preceding birth takes place
simultaneously with its effect (vipāka) in the succeeding birth?
Now, let me state that simultaneity, indeed, plays an important
part in the paṭicca-samuppāda, as we shall see later on, but that
simultaneity is only one of those 24 conditions (s. Introd. to
Paṭṭhāna) that come into operation here.
Truly, not one of all these authors ever seem to have put
himself the question, for what earthly reason the Buddha should
have thought it necessary to teach such a doctrine. It was surely
not for the sake of mere mental gymnastics! It was to show,
through which causes and conditions suffering comes into
being, now and hereafter. For the Buddha shows in the paṭicca-
samuppāda that it is through our life-affirming wholesome and
unwholesome volitions i.e. kamma-formations (II), performed
through ignorance (I), craving (VIII) and clinging (IX) in the
past birth, that this present conscious existence (III, etc.), with
all its woe and suffering, has been caused; and that our present
karmic process of becoming (X) is the cause for future rebirth
(XI) and suffering; and that after the extinction of all Ignorance
(I), craving (VIII) and clinging (IX), no further life-affirming
kamma (II = X) is produced, and therefore no future birth and
suffering will arise again. In order to demonstrate this, it is
indeed necessary—in spite of the aforementioned interpreters—
to speak of 3 successive lives, of past, present, and future life.
And this is not merely “a commentarial interpretation,” but it is
also clearly, and in a most unambiguous manner, supported by
canonical Sutta-texts, e.g., the Mahānidāna-Sutta of Dīgha-
Nikāya, where it is said:
“Once all ignorance (I) and clinging (IX) are
extinguished, neither karmically meritorious, nor
demeritorious, nor imperturbable kamma-formations (II = X)
219
are produced, and thus no consciousness (III = XI) will spring

up again in a new mother’s womb.” And: “For, if
consciousness were not to appear in the mother’s womb,
would in that case mentality and corporeality (IV) arise?”—
Now, let it here be said, once and for all, that the paṭicca-
samuppāda is nothing but the teaching of conditionality and
interdependence of all the manifold phenomena of existence,
and of everything that happens, be it in the realm of the
physical, or the psychical. It shows, how that sum of phenomena
known by the ‘conventional name’ of ‘I,’ ‘person,’ etc., is not
all the mere play of blind chance; but how each phenomenon in
this process of existence is entirely dependent upon other
phenomena as conditions, so that with the removal of those
phenomena that form the conditions of rebirth and suffering,
rebirth, and therewith also all suffering, will perforce cease and
come to an end. And this is the vital point and goal of the
Buddha’s teaching: deliverance from the cycle of rebirths with
all its woe and suffering. Thus, the paṭicca-samuppāda serves to
elucidate the second and third noble truth regarding the origin
and extinction of suffering (see AN 3:61), by explaining them
from their very foundations upwards, and giving them a fixed
philosophical form.
Of the Sutta-Piṭaka, it is the Nidāna-Saṃyutta of Saṃyutta-
Nikāya (SN 12), and the Mahā-Nidāna Sutta of Dīgha-Nikāya
(DN 15), which provide most details of all the explanations of
the paṭicca-samuppāda.
Of the Abhidhamma-Piṭaka, the Paccayākāra-Vibhaṅga (p.
47 f.), and above all the Paṭṭhāna (VII), come into consideration.
In the latter work, however, there is no express reference to the
12 constituent links of the paṭicca-samuppāda formula, but
there all the phenomena are arranged from quite a different
point of view, namely, with reference to the 24 conditions (see
Chapter VII, Introd.).
The most detailed, and coherent systematic exposition of
the paṭicca-samuppāda is given in Vism XVII, on which, to a
220
Appendix
great deal, I have built up my present essay, whilst at the same

time utilizing all the above and still other canonical sources. I,
moreover, have consulted the Abhidhamma and
Visuddhimagga Commentaries, as well as Sinhalese treatises,
as Dharmaratana’s Visesha-vistarārtha-sahita-paṭicca-
samuppādaya, and Sattvotpatti-Viniścaya, and others.
Hence, being entirely based on authentic Pāli texts and
commentaries, this short exposition of the paṭicca-samuppāda
reflects the true orthodox interpretation of the original Thera-vāda
Buddhism, and it must certainly be regarded as the first real
explanation of the paṭicca-samuppāda in a western tongue.
Due to the terse and laconic diction, which for the sake of
brevity and preciseness often had to be adopted, some of the
statements may at first sight appear somewhat unintelligible,
but, after getting used to it, nearly everything becomes clear and
self-evident.
Before beginning with the study of this essay, however, I
must ask the reader at first to thoroughly re-read the
Introduction to the Paṭṭhāna, and try to impress on his mind and
memory the names of the 24 conditions, or ways of dependency,
together with their full import.
221
PAṬICCA-SAMUPPĀDA
“The Dependent Origination”

I–II Avijjā-paccayā saṅkhārā.
II–III Saṅkhārā-paccayā viññāṇaṃ.
III–IV Viññāṇa-paccayā nāma-rūpaṃ.
IV–V Nāma-rūpa-paccayā sa¿āyatanaṃ.
V–VI Sa¿āyatana-paccayā phasso.
VI–VII Phassa-paccayā vedanā.
VII–VIII Vedanā-paccayā taṇhā.
VIII–IX Taṇhā-paccayā upādānaṃ.
IX–X Upādāna-paccayā bhavo.
X–XI Bhava-paccayā jāti.
XI–XII Jāti-paccayā jarā-maraṇaṃ soka-parideva-
dukkha-domanassūpāyāsā sambhavanti.
Evam-etassa kevalassa dukkha-kkhandhassa
samudayo hoti.
Avijjāya tv-eva asesa-virāga-nirodhā saṅkhāra-nirodho,
saṅkhāra-nirodhā viññāṇa-nirodho, viññāṇa-nirodhā nāma-
rūpa-nirodho, nāma-rūpa-nirodhā sa¿āyatana-nirodho,
sa¿āyatana-nirodhā phassa-nirodho, phassa-nirodhā
vedanā-nirodho, vedanā-nirodhā taṇhā-nirodho, taṇhā-
nirodhā upādāna-nirodho, upādāna-nirodhā bhava-nirodho,
bhava-nirodhā jāti-nirodho, jāti-nirodhā jarā-maraṇaṃ
soka-parideva-dukkha-domanassūpāyāsā nirujjhanti.
Evam-etassa kevalassa dukkha-kkhandhassa nirodho
hoti.
Paṭicca-samuppāda
TRANSLATION
I–II. “Through ignorance (avijjā) conditioned are
the kamma-formations (saṅkhārā).
II–III. “Through the kamma-formations (saṅkhārā)
conditioned is consciousness (viññāṇa; in a
new birth).
III–IV. “Through consciousness (viññāṇa) conditioned
are mentality and corporeality (nāma-rūpa).
IV–V. “Through mentality and corporeality (nāma-
rūpa)
conditioned are the 6 bases (sa¿āyatana).
V–VI. “Through the 6 bases (sa¿yatana) conditioned
is impression (phassa).
VI–VII. “Through impression (phassa) conditioned is
feeling (vedanā).
VII–VIII. “Through feeling (vedanā) conditioned is
craving (taṇhā).
VIII–IX. “Through craving (taṇhā) conditioned is
clinging (upādāna).
IX–X. “Through clinging (upādāna) conditioned is
the (karmic and kamma-resultant) process of
becoming (bhava).
X–XI. “Through the (karmic) process of becoming
(bhava) conditioned is rebirth (jāti).
XI–XII. “Through rebirth (jāti) conditioned are decay
and death (jarā-maraṇa), sorrow, lamentation,
pain, grief and despair. Thus arises this whole
mass of suffering.
“Through the entire fading away and extinction of this
ignorance, however, the kamma-formations become
extinguished. Through extinction of the kamma-formations,
consciousness becomes extinguished. Through extinction of
consciousness, mentality and corporeality become
extinguished. Through extinction of mentality and
corporeality, the 6 bases become extinguished. Through
223
extinction of the 6 bases, impression becomes extinguished.

Through extinction of impression, feeling becomes
extinguished. Through extinction of feeling, craving becomes
extinguished. Through extinction of craving, clinging
becomes extinguished. Through extinction of clinging,
becoming becomes extinguished. Through extinction of
becoming, rebirth becomes extinguished. Through extinction
of rebirth, decay and death become extinguished, as well as
sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair. Thus takes
place the extinction of this whole mass of suffering.”
In Visuddhimagga XVII it is pointed out that, and also the
reason why, the Buddha employed various methods in dealing
with the paṭicca-samuppāda. The 1st and usual method leads in
progressive order from I–XII, the 2nd in progressive order from
VII–XII, the 3rd in retrogressive order from XII–I, the 4th in
retrogressive order from VIII–I. But, as a matter of fact, besides
these 4 methods mentioned, there are still some other methods to
be found in the Sutta-Piṭaka, e. g., one leading from III–XII (SN
12:49), one from V–VIII (ib. 43), whilst Vibhaṅga VI (q. v.) gives
even 24 different methods. Here some examples may be quoted
for the above-mentioned 4 methods.
(1st method). This is as shown above.
(2nd method). “And whilst approving of the feeling (VII)
and cherishing it, lust springs up. But lust for feeling means
clinging, and through clinging conditioned is the process of
becoming, through the process of becoming conditioned is
rebirth, and through rebirth conditioned are decay and death
(XII), sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair. Thus
arises this whole mass of suffering.” (SN 12).
(3rd method). “Through rebirth conditioned are decay
and death (XII): thus it was said. But are, O Monks, decay
and death really conditioned through rebirth, or not? Or how
is it?” “Decay and death, O Venerable One, are conditioned
through rebirth. Thus we think.”— “Through the process of
becoming conditioned is rebirth: thus it was said. ... etc. ...
Through ignorance (I) conditioned are the kamma-
formations: thus it was said. ... etc. ... (ib.).
224
(4th method). “Through what, O Monks, are these 4

nutriments (material food, sense-impression, mind-volition,
consciousness) conditioned, what is their origin, how are they
produced, how do they arise? Through craving (VIII) are
these 4 nutriments conditioned. ... Through what, O Monks,
is craving conditioned ... is feeling conditioned ... .etc are the
kamma-formations conditioned ... ? Through ignorance (I) ...
etc. ...
I–II. THROUGH IGNORANCE CONDITIONED ARE THE KAMMA-
FORMATIONS (AVIJJĀ-PACCAYĀ SAṄKHĀRĀ).
“IGNORANCE” (avijjā) is in the Sutta-Piṭaka explained as not

understanding the four Noble Truths, regarding the misery of
life, its origin, its extinction, and the path leading to its
extinction; and in the Abhidhamma-Piṭaka, further, as not
understanding the past, future, and both the past and future
existence, and as not understanding the dependent origination of
all the phenomena of existence.
By “KAMMA-FORMATIONS” (saṅkhāra) are meant the
rebirth-producing wholesome and unwholesome volitions
(cetanā), manifested in bodily, verbal, or mental actions
(kamma, Sanskrit kamma). In both, the Sutta and Abhidhamma,
they are mostly classified as: 1. “meritorious”
(puññābhisaṅkhāra), as such appertaining either to the sense-
sphere (1-8),1 or to the 5 jhānas, absorptions, of the form-sphere
(9–13); 2. “demeritorious” (apuññābhisaṅkhāra), appertaining
only to the sense-sphere (22–33); 3. “imperturbable”
(āneñjābhisaṅkhāra), appertaining to the 4 jhānas of the
immaterial sphere (14–17). Of these, 1 and 3 are worldly
wholesome (lokiya-kusala), whilst 2 is unwholesome (akusala).
Karmically neutral (avyākata), and supramundane wholesome
(lokuttara-kusala) states, do not come into consideration here,
as they are not kamma-formations, i.e. not conditions for
rebirth.
1. The numbers in parenthesis refer everywhere to the classes of con-

sciousness in the Table in Appendix II.
225
(Meritorious kamma-formations).—Ignorance may be to

the meritorious kamma-formations a condition (a) by way of
object (ārammaṇa, see p. 168, Paṭṭh VI.2). or (b) by way of
decisive support (upanissaya, see p. 173, Paṭṭh VI.9).
(a) For example, if we take our own, or another person’s,
ignorance, as object of our contemplation, considering it, for
instance, as something evil, then we thereby produce
meritorious volitions, meritorious kamma-formations. In this
case, Ignorance is to these meritorious kamma-formations—
belonging to this sense- sphere—a condition through being the
object (ārammaṇa) of our contemplation.
Or, when with jhāna-vision (in the form-sphere) we
perceive ignorance in another person’s mind, at that time the
thus produced meritorious kamma-formations in the fine-
material sphere are dependent on ignorance as their object.
(b) But if in order to overcome ignorance we are induced to
perform meritorious deeds and practise self-control—belonging
to the sense-sphere—or attain the jhānas of the fine-material
sphere, in that case all these meritorious kamma-formations
produced thereby, are dependent on ignorance as their decisive
support (upanissaya).
(Demeritorious kamma-formations)—If, through thinking
on a state of ignorance, however, greed or any other
demeritorious phenomena are springing up, then these
demeritorious kamma-formations are dependent on ignorance,
conditioned through ignorance by way of object (ārammaṇa).
Or, if we pay great attention to that state of ignorance as
object, concentrate our mind on it and enjoy it by way of greed,
etc., then ignorance is to these demeritorious kamma-formations
a condition by way of predominating object (ārammaṇādhipati,
see p. 168, Paṭṭh VI.3), and by way of decisive support through
object (ārammaṇūpanissaya, see p. 173, Paṭṭh VI.9).
Or, if blinded and impelled by ignorance, one is induced to
commit crimes, or any other demeritorious kamma-formations,
226
then these demeritorious kamma-formations are conditioned

through ignorance by being their decisive support (upanissaya).
The ignorance bound up with each immediately preceding
impulsive moment, is to the demeritorious kamma-formations
of each immediately following impulsive moment (javana; see
Vibh III, and Table in App. II) a condition by way of proximity
(anantara), contiguity (samanantara), by way of decisive
support of proximity (anantarūpanissaya) by way of frequency
(āsevana), absence (natthi), and disappearance (vigata). Cf. p.
169ff, Paṭṭh VI.
At the very moment of performing any demeritorious
kamma-formation, ignorance is to the associated demeritorious
kamma-formation a condition by way of root (hetu), co-
nascence (sahajāta), mutuality (aññamañña), support (nissaya),
association (sampayutta), presence (atthi), non-disappearance
(avigata). Cf. p. 168ff, Paṭṭh VI.
(Imperturbable kamma-formations).—To the imperturbable
kamma-formations, ignorance may be a condition only by way
of decisive support (upanissaya). If, namely, for the purpose of
overcoming ignorance, we produce the 4 jhānas of the
immaterial sphere, then these imperturbable kamma-formations
of the formless-sphere depend on ignorance as their decisive
Here I wish to call attention to the fact that ignorance,
though being an obvious condition, is in no way the only
condition of the kamma-formations; and so it is in all other
cases. For, each of the conditionally arising phenomena of the
paṭicca-samuppāda is dependent on various other conditions
besides that given in the formula and all are inter-related and
inter-dependent in manifold ways.
227
II–III. THROUGH THE KAMMA-FORMATIONS

CONDITIONED IS CONSCIOUSNESS
(SAṄKHĀRA-PACCAYĀ VIÑÑĀṆAṂ).
Here by “CONSCIOUSNESS” (viññāṇa) are meant only those
classes of consciousness which are the results (vipāka) of
wholesome or unwholesome kamma-formations done in former
existence (34–65), namely: “eye-, ear-, nose-, tongue-, body-
consciousness” (i.e., visible sensation, audible sensation, etc.),
with either desirable or undesirable objects, according to
whether they are the results of wholesome (34–38), or of
unwholesome kamma (50–54); further the recipient
(sampaṭicchana) “mind-element” (mano-dhātu,)—receiving the
sense-objects, and being either the result of wholesome (39) or
unwholesome kamma (55)—; further, the investigating
(santīrana) and registering (tad-ārammaṇa) “mind-
consciousness” element (mano-viññāṇa-dhātu) not
accompanied by moral roots, which, as result of wholesome
kamma-formation, is accompanied either by happiness (40) or
equanimity (41); and, as result of unwholesome kamma-
formation, by equanimity (56); further, those “8 kamma-
resultant lofty states” of registering-, rebirth-, death-, and sub-
consciousness, accompanied by the moral roots, greedlessness
and hatelessness, and either associated with knowledge or not,
accompanied by joy or equanimity, prepared or not (42–49);
further the kamma-resultant consciousness in the fine-material
world and immaterial world (57–65) due to the jhānas practised
in a previous birth.
Now, the kamma-formations are to all the above kamma-
resultant classes of consciousness, hence also to rebirth-
consciousness (paṭisandhi-viññāṇa) a condition by way of
kamma, and thus also by way of decisive support (upanissaya).
For it is said in the Tika-Paṭṭhāna: “Wholesome and
unwholesome kamma is to its result a condition by way of
decisive support.”
228
Rebirth-consciousness arises at the very moment of

conception.
In the Sutta it is said: “Once all (I) ignorance (avijjā) and
clinging are extinguished, neither karmically meritorious, nor
demeritorious, nor imperturbable (II) kamma-formations
(saṅkhāra) are produced, and thus no (III) consciousness
(viññāṇa) will spring up again in a new mother’s womb.” (SN
12:51).
III–IV. THROUGH CONSCIOUSNESS CONDITIONED ARE
MENTALITY AND CORPOREALITY (VIÑÑĀṆA-PACCAYĀ NĀMA-
RŪPAṂ)
“For if consciousness were not to appear in the mother’s
womb, would there in that case (IV) mentality and corpore-
ality arise?” (DN 15). “Just as two bundles of reed one
leaning against the other so are mentality and corporeality
dependent on consciousness.” (SN 12:67).
“MENTALITY” (nāma) refers here only to 3 of the mental
groups, i.e. kamma-resultant feeling, perception, and—except
for (42-49)—a few general mental formations, because the
fourth, the consciousness-group, is here already mentioned as
the condition to mentality.
Apart from the paṭicca-samuppāda formula, mentality
(nāma) is a name for all the 4 mental groups.
“CORPOREALITY” (rūpa) comprises the primary physical
elements—solid, fluid, heat, motion—and all the corporeal
phenomena derived therefrom. For these see Vibh II.
In the Sutta it is said:
“(In this connection) feeling, perception, volition,
impression, and advertence, are called the “mental” (nāma). The
4 primary physical elements, and the corporeality derived
therefrom, are called the ‘corporeal’ (rūpa)” (MN 9).
The above-mentioned mental phenomena, together with
concentration and mental vitality, are those 7 primary general
229
qualities present in every consciousness, and the only ones in the 5

classes of sense-consciousness. Cf. non. 34-38 in Table, App. II).
The 5 groups, i.e. the 4 mental groups and the Corporeality
group, are minutely explained in Vism XIV.
(Consciousness and mentality).—The kamma-resultant
classes of consciousness are to the simultaneously arising 3
mental groups—during life-continuity, as well as at rebirth,
etc.—a condition by way of co-nascence (saha-jāta), mutuality
(aññamañña), support (nissaya), association (sampayutta),
faculty (indriya; mind-faculty, p. 187), presence (atthi), and
non-disappearance (avigata).
(Consciousness and corporeality).—Consciousness is to the
6 physical sense-organs, only at the moment when they come
into existence a condition by way of co-nascence, kamma-result
(vipāka), nutriment (āhāra), faculty, dissociation (vippayutta),
presence, non-disappearance, and mutuality. To the remaining
corporeal phenomena it is a condition in the same ways,
excepting only mutuality.
There are many more ways in which kamma-resultant
consciousness is a condition to the numerous corporeal and
mental phenomena.
IV–V. THROUGH MENTALITY AND CORPOREALITY
CONDITIONED ARE THE 6 BASES (Nāma-rūpa-paccayā
sa¿āyatanaṃ)
The 6 “BASES” (āyatana) are a name for the 5 physical sense-
organs (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body-sensitivity) and the “mind-
base” (manāyatana), the latter being a collective term for all the
different classes of consciousness. Cf. Vibh III.
“MENTALITY” (nāma) refers, again, to the above-mentioned
3 Kamma-resultant mental groups, whilst “CORPOREALITY”
(rūpa) refers here to the 4 primary elements, the 6 physical
organs, and the physical vitality.
The physical organ, or seat, of mind must not be
confounded with the mind-base (s. above).
230
(Mentality and mind-base).—At the moment of conception,

as well as during life-continuity, the 3 mental groups are to the
mind-base (consciousness) a condition in at least 7 ways, i.e. by
way of co-nascence, mutuality, support (nissaya), association,
kamma-result, presence, and non-disappearance; some mental
phenomena (e.g., greedlessness, etc.), also by way of root
(hetu); some (e.g., mind-volition, and mind-impression), by way
of nutriment (āhāra).
The meritorious and demeritorious mental phenomena—
which however, do not come into consideration here—are to the
mind-base a condition in the same ways, excepting only
kamma-result. Some are a condition by way of root (e.g., greed,
hatred, etc.), some by way of nutriment (see last §).
(Mentality and the 5 physical sense-organ bases).—
Kamma-resultant mental phenomena dependent on the 5
sensitive organs (i.e. those mental phenomena associated with
eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, etc.) are, during life-
continuity, to the 5 physical sense-organ bases a condition by
way of post-nascence (pacchā-jāta, p. 123, § 11), dissociation,
presence, and non-disappearance.
(Corporeality and mind-base).—The physical organ of mind
is, at the moment of conception, to the mind-base a condition by
way of co-nascence, mutuality, support, dissociation, presence,
and non-disappearance.
The mind, namely, is functioning in the embryo from the
very first moment of conception. Hence, only at conception
does the physical organ of mind arise ‘simultaneously’ with
consciousness, both being conditions ‘to one another’, whilst
the physical organ of mind is a ‘support’ (foundation) to
consciousness by its ‘presence’ and ‘not-disappearance.’
(Corporeality and the 5 physical sense-organ bases).—The
4 primary physical elements are to any of the 5 physical sense-
organ bases (eye, ear, etc.)—but only at the very moment when
they first come into existence—a condition by way of co-
nascence, presence, and non-disappearance.
231
Of the 5 sentient organs, body-sensitivity appears first in the

human embryo while the other organs arise later.
During life-continuity, the 4 elements are to the 5 sense-
organs a condition by way of support (nissaya), presence, and
non-disappearance.
Physical vitality is, during life-continuity as well as at
conception, to the 5 physical sense-organ bases a condition by
way of presence, non-disappearance, and faculty.
In other words, the 5 sense-organs are, at any time,
dependent on the presence of physical vitality.
Bodily nutriment is to the 5 sense-organ bases a condition
by way of presence, non-disappearance, and nutriment.
In other words, the 5 sense-organs can only exist as long as
material nutriment is present.
(Corporeality and mind-base).—The 5 physical sense-
organs are, during life-continuity, to the 5 kinds of sense-
consciousness, as eye- consciousness, etc., a condition by way
of support, pre-nascence (pure-jāta, p. 122 f.), faculty,
dissociation, presence, and non-disappearance.
In other words, these 5 kinds of sensuous consciousness can
not arise without the pre-arising, the presence, and the faculty of
the 5 physical sense-organs as support.
The physical organ of mind is, during life-continuity, to the
mind-base (consciousness) a condition by way of support, pre-
nascence, dissociation, presence, and non-disappearance.
In other words, consciousness, during life-continuity,
depends on the support, pre-arising and presence of the physical
organ of mind.
V–VI. THROUGH THE 6 BASES CONDITIONED IS IMPRESSION
(SAḶAYATANA-PACCAYĀ PHASSO)
The 6 kinds of “IMPRESSION” (phassa) are: eye-impression, ear-
impression, nose-impression, tongue-impression, body-
impression, mind-impression, which here are either the results of
232
wholesome or unwholesome kamma. They are associated with

all the above kinds of kamma-resultant consciousness (34–65).
(The 5 physical sense-organ bases and 5 sense-
impressions).— The 5 sense-organ bases (eye-sensitivity, etc.)
are to the corresponding 5 kinds of sense-impression (associated
with eye-consciousness, etc.) a condition by way of support,
pre-nascence (pure-jāta), faculty, dissociation, presence, and
non-disappearance.
Here it should be remembered that the 5 physical sense-
organs are included in the 20 faculties (cf. p. 177, § 16), and that
the 5-fold sense-impression (being associated with
consciousness) cannot take place if the physical sense-organs
have not already arisen, or if after arising have disappeared
again.
(Mind-base and the 5 sense-impressions).—The 5 classes of
sense-consciousness (included in the mind-base) are to the
associated 5 kamma-resultant sense-impressions, at all times, a
condition by way of co-nascence, mutuality, support, kamma-
result, nutriment, faculty, association, presence, and non-
disappearance.
Here, again, we have to remember that consciousness and
its mental concomitants, hence also impression, are all
‘simultaneously’ arising, mutually conditioned and inseparably
associated with each other; and that the 5 kinds of sense-
consciousness are kamma-results, and considered as nutriment
(cf. p. 124, § 15) and faculty.
(The 5 physical sense-object bases and 5 sense-
impressions).—The 5 physical sense-object-bases (as visible
object, sound, etc.) are to the corresponding 5 sense-impressions
(visual impression, etc.) a condition by way of object, pre-
nascence (pure-jāta), presence and non-disappearance.
This means that, if the 5 physical objects had not yet
appeared or after their appearance had disappeared again, no
corresponding sense-impressions would take place.
233
(The 6 object bases and mind-impression).—The 6 objects—

i.e. the 5 physical objects, and the mind-object (s. Vibh II)—are to
mind-impression a condition merely by way of object.
VI–VII. THROUGH IMPRESSION CONDITIONED IS FEELING
(PHASSA-PACCAYĀ VEDANĀ)
There are 6 kinds of “FEELING” (vedanā): born of eye-
impression, ear-impression, nose-impression, tongue-
impression, body-impression, and mind-impression. With every
kind of consciousness, feeling is inseparably associated. Here,
however, only the kamma-resultant feelings come into
consideration, i.e. those feelings which are associated with the
above-mentioned classes of kamma-resultant consciousness and
kamma-resultant impressions.
(The 5 sense-impressions and 5 feelings).—The 5 sense-
Impressions (eye-impression, etc.) are to the corresponding 5
kinds of feeling (born of eye-impression, etc.) a condition in 8
ways, i.e. by way of co-nascence, mutuality, support, kamma-
result, nutriment, association, presence, and non-disappearance.
Here, again, the reader has to remember that all the mental
phenomena in one and the same state of consciousness, hence,
also the above sense-impressions and the corresponding five
kinds of feeling, are necessarily dependent upon each other by
their simultaneous arising, their presence their association, etc.
(The 5 sense-impressions and recipient consciousness,
etc.).— The 5 sense-impressions are to those feelings associated
with recipient (39, 55), investigating (40, 41, 56), and
registering (40, 49, 56) consciousness, merely, a condition by
way of decisive support (upanissaya).
The 5 sense-impressions, namely, are only associated with
eye-consciousness, etc., and precede those other classes of
consciousness. To recipient consciousness, however, they are a
condition also by way of contiguity (samanantara). Cf. Vibh III.
(Mind-impression and registering consciousness).—Mind-
impression is to the simultaneously arising kamma-resultant
234
feelings associated with registering consciousness (40–49; 56),

a condition in the above 8 ways.
(Mind-impression and conception, etc.)—To those kamma-
resultant feelings that arise in all the 3 spheres at conception, in
sub-consciousness, and at death (41–49, 56–65), as well as to
those feelings that arise along with the registering consciousness
(40–49; 56),—to all those does mind-impression associated with
the ‘advertence to the threshold of mind’ (mano-dvārāvajjana;
71)—which, however, is not kamma-resultant, but merely
functional (kriyā)—constitute a condition by way of decisive
VII–VIII. THROUGH FEELING CONDITIONED IS CRAVING
(VEDANĀ-PACCAYĀ TAṆHĀ)
With regard to the 6 objects, there are 6 kinds of “CRAVING”
(taṇhā), i.e. craving with regard to visible objects, sounds,
odours, tastes, bodily sensations, and mind-objects.
If, with regard to any of these objects, craving arises with
the desire for sensual enjoyment, it is called “sensuous craving”
(kāma-taṇhā). If it is connected with the belief in eternal
personal existence, it is called “craving for existence” (bhava-
taṇhā). If it is connected with the belief in annihilation of
personal existence, it is called “craving for self-annihilation”
(vibhava-taṇhā).
Any feeling associated with any kamma-resultant
consciousness, is to craving a condition only by way of decisive
support (upanissaya), all the same whether the feeling be
agreeable, painful, or neutral. For even painful feeling may be a
condition to craving, as conditioned by painful feeling there
may arise the desire and craving for happiness.
VII–IX. THROUGH CRAVING CONDITIONED IS
CLINGING (TAṆHĀ-PACCAYĀ UPĀDĀNAṂ)
The four kinds of “CLINGING” (upādāna) are: 1. “sensuous
clinging” (kāmūpādāna), 2. “clinging to erroneous opinions”
235
(diṭṭhūpādāna), 3. “clinging to mere rules and rituals”

(sīlabbatūpādāna), 4. “clinging to the ego-belief” (atta-
vādūpādāna).
Sensuous craving (kāma-taṇhā) is to sensuous clinging
(kāmūpādāna) a condition by way of decisive support. Craving
(taṇhā) is to the simultaneously arising 3 other kinds of clinging
a condition by way of co-nascence, mutuality, support,
association, presence, non-disappearance, and root (greed); to
the not simultaneously arising clinging, however, merely a
condition by way of decisive support.
IX–X. THROUGH CLINGING CONDITIONED IS THE PROCESS OF
BECOMING (UPĀDĀNA-PACCAYĀ BHAVO)
The “PROCESS of BECOMING” (bhava) is of 2 kinds: (1)
“Kamma-process” (kamma-bhava), being the active side of
existence; and (2) “rebirth-process” (uppatti-bhava), being the
passive (reactive), kamma-resultant side of existence.
(1) The “KAMMA-PROCESS” (kamma-bhava) consists of
rebirth-producing volitions (cetanā), and the therewith
associated phenomena which, all combined together, are to be
considered as kamma or action (kamma). As it is said in
Vibhanga: “What, at that occasion, is the kamma-process? It is
the meritorious, demeritorious, and imperturbable kamma-
formation (s. I-II). This is called the kamma-process. Moreover,
all action leading to rebirth is called kamma-process.”
Hence, “kamma-process” is a collective name for rebirth-
producing volition (cetanā), and all the mental phenomena
associated therewith; whilst the 2nd link of the formula, the
kamma-formations (saṅkhāra), according to the
Paṭisambhidāmagga (Ñāṇakathā No. 4), designates the rebirth-
producing volitions only.
By the way, volition (cetanā) being often spoken of as the
dominating and active factor amongst all the various
phenomena belonging to the group of saṅkhāras (‘formations’),
it would not be very wrong—except for the karmically neutral
236
states—to call this group the ‘group of kamma-formations.’ It is

really this group, that makes up kamma, and character.
(2) The “REBIRTH-PROCESS” (uppatti-bhava), in short,
comprises the kamma-resultant (vipāka) groups of existence. In
Vibhaṅga VI it is said: “What, on that occasion, is the rebirth-
process? There is the process of becoming in the sensuous
sphere, in the fine-material sphere, the immaterial sphere, the
perception-sphere, the non-perception-sphere, the neither-
perception-nor-non-perception-sphere, in the one-group sphere
(i.e. of the unconscious beings, possessing only one group, the
corporeality-group; rebirth in that sphere being caused by the
attainment of the 4th jhāna), the four-group sphere (immaterial
sphere), the five-group sphere (sense-sphere and form-sphere):
this is called the rebirth-process of becoming.”
About kamma-process and rebirth-process see the table on
p. 240.
Now, impelled by “sensuous clinging” (kāmūpādāna), one
may produce a meritorious or demeritorious kamma-process
that causes rebirth in a corresponding world. Or, impelled by
sensuous clinging to happiness and joy (which one hopes to find
in the fine-material or immaterial sphere), one might practise the
jhānas of the fine-material or immaterial-sphere, and thus be
reborn in one of those higher spheres. In such case, sensuous
clinging would be the condition of that meritorious kamma-
process that causes rebirth in these spheres.
Or, impelled by “clinging to erroneous opinions”
(diṭṭhūpādāna), e.g., to the belief that the ego reaches extinction
in one of the three spheres, one may produce a kamma-process
that causes rebirth in that special sphere. Thus, the clinging to
erroneous opinions is a condition of that kamma-process that
causes rebirth in one of these 3 spheres.
In a similar way, also, “clinging to mere rules and virtuals”
(sīlabbatūpādāna), and “clinging to the ego-belief” (atta-
vādūpādāna), may be a condition of such a kamma-process that
causes rebirth in one of these 3 spheres.
237
To the existence in the fine-material and the immaterial-

sphere, as well as to the wholesome kamma- and rebirth-process
included in the sense-sphere, this fourfold clinging is a
condition only by way of decisive support (upanissaya).
In the sensuous existence, these four kinds of clinging are to
the simultaneously arising unwholesome kamma-process, a
condition by way of co-nascence, mutuality, support,
association, presence, non-disappearance, and root (greed); but
to the not simultaneously arising kamma-process they are
merely a condition by way of decisive support.
X–XI. THROUGH THE PROCESS OF BECOMING CONDITIONED IS
REBIRTH (BHAVA-PACCAYĀ JĀTI)
“BIRTH” (jāti) is here explained as the manifestation of the 5
groups of existence (corporeality, feeling, perception, mental
formations, consciousness) at conception, which in the world of
men takes place in the mother’s womb.
By the “PROCESS of BECOMING” (bhava) in this connection,
i.e. as the condition of Rebirth, we have to understand the
“kamma-process of becoming” (kamma-bhava).
This kamma-process is to rebirth a condition by way of
Kamma, and hence also by way of decisive support (s. II–III).
To the question, how one could know whether the kamma-
process is really the condition of rebirth, Vism XVII gives the
following answer:
“Though the outward conditions may be absolutely the
same, there still can be seen a difference in beings with regard to
their qualities, such as wretched, noble, etc. Even though the
outward conditions, such as sperm and blood of father and
mother, may be the same, there still can be seen that difference
between beings, even if they be twins. This difference cannot be
without a cause, as it can be noticed at any time, and in any
being. It can have no other cause than the kamma-process. And
as in the own life-continuity of those reborn beings not any
other cause can be found, that difference must be due to the
238
kamma-process. Kamma (action) namely is the cause for the

difference amongst beings, with regard to high, and low, etc.
Therefore, the Buddha has said: “Kamma (action) divides
beings into high, and low” (MN 135). In this sense we should
understand that the process of existence is the condition of
rebirth.”
That in this ever and ever repeated process of rebirth, in the
absolute sense, no self, no ego-entity, is to be found besides
these conditionally arising and passing phenomena, this truth is
expressed by the Buddha in the words:
“To believe that the doer of the deed be the same as the
one who experiences its result (in the next life): this is one
extreme. To believe that the doer of the deed, and the one
who experiences its result, be two different persons: this is
the other extreme. Both these extremes the Perfect One has
avoided, and taught the truth that lies in the middle of both,
to wit: Through ignorance conditioned are the kamma-
formations, through the kamma-formations conditioned is
consciousness, etc. ... Through rebirth conditioned are decay
and death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair.” (SN
12:46).
No doer of the deeds is found,
No one who ever reaps their fruits.
Empty phenomena are there.
Thus does the world roll on and on.
No god, no Brahmā, can be called
The maker of this wheel of life:
Empty phenomena roll on,
Dependent on conditions all.
(Quoted in Vism XIX).
XI–XII. THROUGH REBIRTH CONDITIONED ARE DECAY AND
DEATH (JĀTI-PACCAYĀ JARĀ-MARAṆAṂ)
Where there is no rebirth, there is no decay and death, no
sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair. But where there is
Rebirth, there also is decay and death, etc. Thus, rebirth is to
decay and death, etc., a condition by way of decisive support.
239
The following diagram shows at a glance the relationship of

dependence existing between three successive lives:
Past 1. ignorance (avijjā) kamma-process

2. kamma-formations (kamma-bhava)
(saṅkhāra)
Present 3. consciousness (viññāṇa) rebirth process
4. mentality & corporeality (uppatti-bhava)
(nāma-rūpa)
5. the 6 bases (āyatana)
6. impression (phassa)
7. feeling (vedanā)
8. craving (taṇhā) kamma-process

9. clinging (upādāna) (kamma-bhava)
10. process of becoming (bhava)
Future 11. rebirth (jāti) rebirth-process
12. decay & death (jarā- (uppatti-bhava)
maraṇa)
1–2 are identical with 8–10, as each of these 2 groups

represents the kamma process, containing the 5 karmic causes of
rebirth, to wit: 1. ignorance, 2. kamma-formations (rebirth-
producing volitions), 8. craving, 9. clinging, and 10. kamma-
process (avijjā, saṅkhāra, taṇhā, upādāna, kamma-bhava).
In the same way, 3–7 are identical with 11–12, as each of
these 2 groups represents the rebirth process, containing the 5
kamma-results, to wit: 3. consciousness (rebirth, etc.), 4.
mentality & corporeality (conception), 5. the bases, 6.
impression, 7. feeling (viññāṇa, nāma-rūpa, āyatana, phassa,
vedanā) (Paṭisambhidāmagga, Ñāṇakathā No. 4).
Five causes were there in the past,
Five fruits we find in present life,
Five causes do we now produce,
Five fruits we reap in future life.”
(Quoted in Vism XVII).
240
In SN 12:34, there are given 77 kinds of knowledge

regarding the paṭicca-samuppāda. They form 11 groups,
corresponding to the 11 propositions of the formula, each with 7
kinds of knowledge. As all the 11 groups are in every respect
throughout analogous, I am giving here only the first group of
seven kinds of knowledge, namely:
(1) That through ignorance the kamma-formations are
conditioned.
(2) That, if there is no ignorance, there also are no kamma-
formations.
(3) That also in the past the kamma-formations were condi-
tioned through ignorance.
(4) That, if there had been no ignorance, there also would
have been no kamma-formations.
(5) That also in the future the kamma-formations will be
conditioned through ignorance.
(6) That, if there will be no ignorance, there also will be no
kamma-formations.
(7) That even one’s knowledge of this fixity of the law is
subject to decay, disappearance, waning, and cessation.
241
243
APPENDIX II
TABLES
Guide Through the Abhidhmma Piṭaka
Consciousness (Citta)
KARMICALLY WHOLESOME (kusala)
(1) Joyful, with knowledge, unprepared. (Imp.)
(2) Joyful, with knowledge, prepared. (Imp.)
(3) Joyful, without knowledge, unprepared. (Imp.)
(4) Joyful, without knowledge, prepared. (Imp.)
Sensuous Sphere
(5) Indifferent, with knowledge, unprepared. (Imp.)
(6) Indifferent, with knowledge, prepared. (Imp.)
(7) Indifferent, without knowledge, unprepared. (Imp.)
(8) Indifferent, without knowledge, prepared. (Imp.)
(9) 1st Jhāna (Imp.)
Fine-material (10) 2nd Jhāna (Imp.)
Sphere (11) 3rd Jhāna (Imp.)
(Absorptions) (12) 4th Jhāna (Imp.)
(13) 5th Jhāna (Imp.)
(14) “Boundless Space” (Imp.)
Immaterial Sphere (15) “Boundless Consciousness” (Imp.)
(Absorptions) (16) “Nothingness” (Imp.)
(17) “Neither-perception-nor-non-perception” (Imp.)
(18) Path (-moment) of “stream-entry” (Imp.)
Super-mundane (19) Path (-moment) of “once-returning” (Imp.)
(20) Path (-moment) of “nonreturning” (Imp.)
(21) Path (-moment) of “arahatship” (Imp.)
KARMICALLY UNWHOLESOME (akusala)
Rooted in Greed (lobha)
(22) Joyful, with evil view, unprepared. (Imp.)
(23) Joyful, with evil view, prepared. (Imp.)
(24) Joyful, without evil view, unprepared. (Imp.)
(25) Joyful, without evil view, prepared. (Imp.)
(26) Indifferent, with evil view, unprepared. (Imp.)
(27) Indifferent, with evil view, prepared. (Imp.)
Sensuous Sphere
(28) Indifferent, without evil view, unprepared. (Imp.)
(29) Indifferent, without evil view, prepared. (Imp.)
Rooted in Hate (dosa)
(30) Sad, angry, unprepared. (Imp.)
(31) Sad, angry, prepared. (Imp.)
Rooted in Delusion (moha)
(32) Indifferent and sceptical. (Imp.)
(33) Indifferent and restless. (Imp.)
244
Appendix II
Fine-material
Sphere ---------
(Absorptions)
Immaterial Sphere
---------
(Absorptions)
Supermundane ---------
KARMICALLY NEUTRAL (avyākata)
(a) karma results (vipāka)
Result of wholesome Karma (with desirable objects):
1. Without Root-cause
(34–38) Eye-, ear-, nose-, tongue-, (agreeable) body
consciousness. (Adv.)
(39) Mind-element (mano-dhātu) (Rec.)
(40) Joyful mind-consciousness-element (mano-viññāṇa
dhātu). (Inv. Reg.)
(41) Indifferent mind-consciousness-element (mano-
viññāṇa dhātu). (Inv. Reg.)
Sensuous Sphere 2. With Root-cause
(42–49) = (1–8) (Reg. R. S. D.)
Result of unwholesome Karma (with undesirable
objects):
Without Root-cause only
(50–54) Eye-, ear-, nose-, tongue-, (painful) body-
consciousness.
(55) Mind-element (mano-dhātu) (Rec.)
(56) Mind-consciousness-element (mano-viññāṇa dhātu).
}
(Inv. Reg. R. S. D.)
(57)
(58)
Fine-material
(57)
Sphere = (9–13) (R.S.D.)
(58)
(Absorptions)
(60)
(61)
}
(62)
Immaterial Sphere (63) = (14–17) (R.S.D.)
(Absorptions) (64)
(65)
(66) Fruit (-moment) of “stream-entry” (Imp.)
(67) Fruit (-moment) of “once-returning” (Imp.)
Supermundane
(68) Fruit (-moment) of “nonreturning” (Imp.)
(69) Fruit (-moment) of “arahatship” (Imp.)
245
KARMICALLY NEUTRAL (avyakāta)

(b) Independent functions (kriyā)
1. Without Root-cause
(70) Mind-element. (Adv: 5d)
(71) Indifferent Mind-consciousness-element (Adv.)
}
Sensuous Sphere (72) Joyful mind-consciousness-
element (Imp.)
2. With Root-cause
(73–80) = (1–8) (Imp.)
Only in the
Fine-material Sphere
(81–85) = (9–13) (Imp.) Arahat
(Absorptions)
Immaterial Sphere
(86–89) = (14–17) (Imp.)
(absorptions)
Supermundane --------
246
Appendix II
MENTAL CONCOMITANTS (CETASIKA)

There are 52 mental concomitants, of which 13 are general psychological elements; 25,
lofty qualities: and 14, karmically unwholesome qualities.
13 GENERAL ones*1
(a) Seven Primary ones (in all consciousness):
Mental impression (phassa) Perception (saññā)
Feeling (vedanā) Concentration (samādhi)
Volition (cetanā) Advertence (manasikāra)
Vitality (jīvita)
(b) Six Secondary ones (not in all consciousness):
Thought conception (vitakka) Energy (viriya)
Discursive thinking (vicāra) rapture (pīti)
Determination (adhimokkha) Intention (chanda)
25 LOFTY ones
(a) Primary ones (in all wholesome and its corresponding neutral
consciousness):
Faith (saddhā) Elasticity of (mental) body
Mindfulness (sati) (kāya-mudutā)
Moral shame (hiri) Elasticity of consciousness
Moral dread (ottappa) (citta-mudutā)
Greedlessness (a-lobha) Adaptability of (mental) body
Hatelessness (a-dosa) (kāya-kammaññatā)
Equanimity (tatramajjhattatā) Adaptability of consciousness
Tranquillity of (mental) body (kāya- (citta-kammaññatā)
passaddhi) Proficiency of (mental) body
Tranquillity of consciousness (kāya-pāguññatā)
(citta-passaddhi) Proficiency of consciousness
Agility of (spiritual) group (citta-pāguññatā)
(kāya-lahutā) Uprightness of (mental) body
Agility of consciousness (kāya-ujukatā)
(citta-lahutā) Uprightness of consciousness
(citta-ujukatā)
(b) Secondary ones (not in all lofty consciousness):
3 Abstinences: †2 2 Boundless States †2
Abstinence from wrong bodily Compassion (karuṇā)
action Sympathetic Joy (muditā)
Abstinence from wrong words
Abstinence from wrong livelihood
Non-delusion (a-moha = paññā, knowledge)
1 The moral quality of these 13 concomitants depends upon whether they are associated with a
karmically wholesome, unwholesome, or neutral state of consciousness.
2 The 3 abstinences, and 2 boundless states, as well as envy, stinginess worry, conceit, torpor, and
languour, are called 'unfixed' (aniyata), as they are only occassionally associated with the states of con-
sciousness in question, and also then only one at a time.
247
14 UNWHOLESOME ones
(a) 4 Primary ones (in all unwholesome consciousness):

Delusion (moha) Lack of moral dread (anottappa)
Lack of moral shame (ahirika) Unrest (uddhacca)
(b) 10 Secondary ones (not in al unwholesome consciousness):

4 Hateful Ones further:
Hate (dosa) Greed (lobha)
Envy (issā) † Evil View (diṭṭhi)
Stinginess (macchariya) † Conceit (māna) †
Worry (kukkucca)† Torpor (thīna) †
Languor (middha) †
Scepsis (vicikicchā) †
IN CONNECTION WITH THE 89 CLASSES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

KARMICALLY WHOLESOME
(1) & (2)1 13 General + 25 Lofty = 38
(3) & (4) above 36 -1 Knowledge ** = 35
(5) & (6) above 36 - Interest = 35
(7) & (8) above 36 - Interest - knowledge = 34
(9) and above 36 - 3 Abstinences = 33
(10) the latter 33 - Thought-conceptions = 32
(11) the latter 32 - Discursive Thinking = 31
(12) the latter 31 - Interest = 30
(13) the latter 30 - 2 Boundless states = 28
(14) to (17) the latter 28 Formations
(18) to (21) = (9) to (13) but - 2 Boundless states + 3 Abstinences
KARMICALLY UNWHOLESOME
(a) Greedy
(22) 11 General + 4 Primary Unwholesome + Greed + Evil View = 19
(23) above 19 + Torpor †2 & Languor † = 21
(24) above 19 - Evil View + Conceit = 19
(25) = (No. 23) - Evil View + Conceit = 21
(26) above 19 - Interest = 18
(27) = (No. 23) - Interest = 20
(28) = (No. 24) - Interest = 18
(29) = (No. 25) - Interest = 20
1. The – sign means minus in this table.

2. † Unfixed, i.e. only occasionally present.
248
Appendix II
(b) Hateful
(30) = (No. 22) - Interest - greed - Evil View + 4 Hateful = 20
(31) = (No. 30) + Torpor † & Languor † = 22
(c) Delusive
(32) 8 General (missing Interest, Determination, Intention) = 15
+ 4 primary Unwholesome + Scepsis
(33) = (No. 32) but Determination instead of Scepsis = 15
KARMICALLY NEUTRAL
(a) Karma resultant
(34) to (38) 7 Primary General (concentration weak)
(50) to (54) 7 Primary General (concentration weak)
(39) & (55) = preceding 7 + Thought Conception =8
(41) & (56) Preceding 8 + Discursive Thinking + Determination = 10
(40) 11 General (missing: Energy and Intention; Concentration weak)
(42) to (49) = (1) to (8), but - 2 Boundless states - 3 Abstinences
(57) to (69) = (9) to (21)
(b) Functional (kiriyā)
(70) = (39)
(71) 9 General (missing: Interest & Intention = 11 =9
(72) 12 General (missing Intention) =10
(73) to (80) = (1) to (8) - 3 Abstinences
(81) to (89) = (9) to (17)
249
Appendix II
251
Of Related Interest
A COMPREHENSIVE MANUAL OF ABHIDHAMMA

Bhikkhu Bodhi, General Editor
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BP 304S 426 pp.
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Nyanatiloka Mahathera
Authentic, clear explanations of all key Theravada Buddhist
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BP 601S 272 pp.
THE PATH OF PURIFICATION: VISUDDHIMAGGA

Translated by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli
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Guide Through the

A Synopsis of the Philosophical

Buddhist Publication Society

Copyright © Buddhist Publication Society, 1971, 2008

National Library of Sri Lanka-Cataloguing in Publication Data

Typeset in Times-BPS and NCS-BPS at the BPS.

In token of admiration for her great services rendered to the

This very valuable synopsis of canonical Abhidhamma litera-

This edition is an unchanged reprint of the second revised and

Buddhist Publication Society

AN Aṅguttara Nikāya (Book & Sutta number)

The third collection of the Pāli Tipiṭaka, or ‘Triple Basket,’ the

one another with regard to the subject matter of their respective

Chapters 11, 15, 16, and 18 of Vibhaṅga are not found in

By the way, it may here be noted that, just as in the

While these phenomena are in the Suttas treated under the

For the most part the Abhidhamma triads and dyads

objective facts,’ showing their dependent origination and their

I. THE MATRIX OF THE TRIADS

10. States leading to kamma-increase—to kamma-decrease—to

II. THE MATRIX OF THE DYADS

not roots, but are associated with roots (§§1079–80)

Minor Intermediate Section (§§1083–95)

Section on Taints (§§1096–1112)

Section on Fetters (§§1113–1134)

Section on Ties (§§1135–1150)

Section on Floods (§§1151)

Section on Hindrances (§§1152–1173)

Section on Misapprehensions (§§1174–1184)

Major Intermediate Section (§§1185–1212)

Section on Clinging (§§1213–1228)

Section on Defilements (§§1229–53)

80. *States that are defilements and defiled—that are not

Final Section (§§1254–95)

B. THE SUTTANTA MATRIX

30. *Mindfulness and clear comprehension

Accordingly, Part I of the Dhammasaṅgaṇī, dealing with

I. CONSCIOUSNESS AND ITS CONCOMITANTS

1. The numbers in parentheses in connection with conscious states

1. (Mental) impression (phassa)

40. Tranquillity of consciousness (citta-passaddhi)

1 11 (= 24) — see 12 31 (= 34) 41 — see 13

1. In the Visuddhimagga nine further phenomena are enumerated,

After a detailed explanation, and description, of each of the

into the first absorption produced by the earth-kasiṇa1 which

1. The earth-kasiṇa consists in fixing one’s whole undivided attention

returner’ (anāgāmin), and (4) ‘Holy One’ (arahant), beginning

scepticism (vicikicchā), or merely by restlessness (uddhacca).

(a) Results of Wholesome Kamma (kusala-vipāka) are:

(34–38) The five classes of sensuous consciousness (i.e., seeing,

feeling. The text to the analysis of eye-consciousness as a result

The above classes of kamma-resultant consciousness are not

(b) Results of Unwholesome Kamma (akusalavipāka) are:

(c) Kammically Neutral Functionals (kriyā) are neither

elaborate lists of the Dhammasaṅgaṇī are condensed by

are neither training, nor have completed their training”?

formations, consciousness.) Which have not? (All corporeality

“Which phenomena are kammically wholesome?

I. THE FIVE GROUPS OF EXISTENCE