THERMO 1 - LECTURE 2

ENERGY & ENERGY

TRANSFER
 INTRODUCTION
• If we take the entire room—including the air and the refrigerator (or fan)—as
the system, which is an adiabatic closed system since the room is well-sealed
and well-insulated, the only energy interaction involved is the electrical energy
crossing the system boundary and entering the room.
• As a result of the conversion of electric energy consumed by the device to
heat, the room temperature will rise.

A fan running in a
well-sealed and
well-insulated room
will raise the
temperature of air in
the room.

A refrigerator
operating with its
door open in a well-
sealed and well-
insulated room 2
FORMS OF ENERGY

• Internal Energy (Sensible, latent, chemical, nuclear)

• Enthalpy
• Potential Energy (mass)
• Kinetic Energy (mass)
• Mechanical Energy (Flow of fluids)
• Work (Force x Distance, and Shaft Work)
• Heat
• Electrical

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 FORMS OF ENERGY
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic,
potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum
constitutes the total energy, E of a system.
• Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total energy.
• Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a whole
with respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and potential
energies.
• Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular structure of
a system and the degree of the molecular activity.
• Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.

• Kinetic energy, KE: The energy that

a system possesses as a result of its
motion relative to some reference
frame.
• Potential energy, PE: The energy The macroscopic energy of
that a system possesses as a result an object changes with
of its elevation in a gravitational field. velocity and elevation. 4
 Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy
Sensible energy: The portion
of the internal energy of a
system associated with the
kinetic energies of the
molecules.
Latent energy: The internal
energy associated with the
phase of a system.
Chemical energy: The internal
energy associated with the
atomic bonds in a molecule.
Nuclear energy: The
tremendous amount of energy
associated with the strong
The internal energy of a
bonds within the nucleus of the
system is the sum of all forms
of the microscopic energies. atom itself.
The various forms of
microscopic Thermal = Sensible + Latent
energies that make Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear
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up sensible energy.
• The total energy of a system, can
be contained or stored in a system,
and thus can be viewed as the
static forms of energy.
• The forms of energy not stored in a
system can be viewed as the
dynamic forms of energy or as
energy interactions.
• The dynamic forms of energy are
recognized at the system boundary
as they cross it, and they represent
the energy gained or lost by a
system during a process.
• The only two forms of energy
interactions associated with a
closed system are heat transfer
and work.
• The difference between heat transfer and work: An energy interaction is
heat transfer if its driving force is a temperature difference. Otherwise it is
work. 6
 More on Nuclear Energy
• The best known fission reaction
involves the split of the uranium atom
(the U-235 isotope) into other elements
and is commonly used to generate
electricity in nuclear power plants (440
of them in 2004, generating 363,000
MW worldwide), to power nuclear
submarines and aircraft carriers, and
even to power spacecraft as well as
building nuclear bombs.
• Nuclear energy by fusion is released
when two small nuclei combine into a
larger one.
• The uncontrolled fusion reaction was
achieved in the early 1950s, but all the
efforts since then to achieve controlled
fusion by massive lasers, powerful
magnetic fields, and electric currents to
generate power have failed.
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Mechanical Energy

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 Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy
per unit mass

Mass flow rate

Potential energy

Potential energy
per unit mass Energy flow rate

Total energy
of a system

Energy of a system
per unit mass

Total energy
per unit mass 9
 ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Heat: The form of energy that is
transferred between two
systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a
temperature difference.

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Energy is
recognized
as heat
During an adiabatic process, a system
transfer only
exchanges no heat with its surroundings.
as it crosses
the system
boundary.

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 Historical Background on Heat
• Kinetic theory: Treats molecules as
tiny balls that are in motion and thus
possess kinetic energy.
• Heat: The energy associated with the
random motion of atoms and
molecules.
Heat transfer mechanisms:
• Conduction: The transfer of energy
from the more energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interaction
between particles.
• Convection: The transfer of energy
between a solid surface and the
adjacent fluid that is in motion, and it
involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
• Radiation: The transfer of energy due
to the emission of electromagnetic
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waves (or photons).
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 ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
• Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
– A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the
system boundaries are all associated with work interactions
• Formal sign convention: Heat transfer to a system and work done by a
system are positive; heat transfer from a system and work done on a system
are negative.
• Alternative to sign convention is to use the subscripts in and out to indicate
direction. This is the primary approach in this text.
Work done
per unit mass

Power is the
work done per Specifying the directions
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unit time (kW) of heat and work.
 MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK
• There are two requirements for a work interaction between a
system and its surroundings to exist:
– there must be a force acting on the boundary.
– the boundary must move.

When force is not constant

Work = Force  Distance

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 A force F acting through
Shaft a moment arm r
generates a torque T
Work
This force acts through a distance s

Shaft
work
The power transmitted through the shaft
is the shaft work done per unit time

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Power is the work done per unit time

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 Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body
1. The work transfer needed to raise a body is equal to
the change in the potential energy of the body.
2. The work transfer needed to accelerate a body is
equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the body.
Nonmechanical Forms of
Work
Electrical work: The generalized force is
the voltage (the electrical potential) and the
generalized displacement is the electrical
charge.
Magnetic work: The generalized force is
the magnetic field strength and the
generalized displacement is the total
magnetic dipole moment.
Electrical polarization work: The
generalized force is the electric field
strength and the generalized displacement
is the polarization of the medium.
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 ENERGY CONVERSION EFFICIENCIES
Efficiency is one of the most frequently used terms in thermodynamics, and it
indicates how well an energy conversion or transfer process is accomplished.

Efficiency of a water
heater: The ratio of the
energy delivered to the
house by hot water to
the energy supplied to
the water heater.

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Heating value of the fuel: The amount of heat released when a unit amount of
fuel at room temperature is completely burned and the combustion products are
cooled to the room temperature.
Lower heating value (LHV): When the water leaves as a vapor.
Higher heating value (HHV): When the water in the combustion gases is
completely condensed and thus the heat of vaporization is also recovered.

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• Generator: A device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.
• Generator efficiency: The ratio of the electrical power output to the mechanical
power input.
• Thermal efficiency of a power plant: The ratio of the net electrical power output
to the rate of fuel energy input.
Overall efficiency of a power plant

Lighting efficacy:
The amount of light
output in lumens
per W of electricity
consumed.

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• Using energy-efficient appliances conserve
energy.
• It helps the environment by reducing the
amount of pollutants emitted to the
atmosphere during the combustion of fuel.
• The combustion of fuel produces
• carbon dioxide, causes global warming
• nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons,
cause smog
• carbon monoxide, toxic
• sulfur dioxide, causes acid rain. 25
 Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices
Mechanical efficiency

The effectiveness of the conversion process between

the mechanical work supplied or extracted and the
mechanical energy of the fluid is expressed by the
pump efficiency and turbine efficiency,

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Pump
efficiency

Generator
efficiency

Pump-Motor
overall efficiency

Turbine-Generator
overall efficiency

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 ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT
• The conversion of energy from one form to another often affects the
environment and the air we breathe in many ways, and thus the study of energy
is not complete without considering its impact on the environment.
• Pollutants emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels are responsible for
smog, acid rain, and global warming.
• The environmental pollution has reached such high levels that it became a
serious threat to vegetation, wild life, and human health.

Energy conversion processes are often

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accompanied by environmental pollution.
 Ozone and Smog
• Smog: Made up mostly of ground-level ozone (O3), but it also contains numerous other
chemicals, including carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter such as soot and dust,
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene, butane, and other hydrocarbons.
• Hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides react in the presence of sunlight on hot calm days to
form ground-level ozone.
• Ozone irritates eyes and damages the air sacs in the lungs where oxygen and carbon
dioxide are exchanged, causing eventual hardening of this soft and spongy tissue.
• It also causes shortness of breath, wheezing, fatigue, headaches, and nausea, and
aggravates respiratory problems such as asthma.

• The other serious pollutant in smog is carbon

monoxide, which is a colorless, odorless, poisonous
gas.
• It is mostly emitted by motor vehicles.
• It deprives the body’s organs from getting enough
oxygen by binding with the red blood cells that would
otherwise carry oxygen. It is fatal at high levels.
• Suspended particulate matter such as dust and soot
are emitted by vehicles and industrial facilities. Such
particles irritate the eyes and the lungs.

Ground-level ozone, which is the primary component

of smog, forms when HC and NOx react in the
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presence of sunlight in hot calm days.
 Acid Rain
• The sulfur in the fuel reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide (SO2), which is an
air pollutant.
• The main source of SO2 is the electric power plants that burn high-sulfur coal.
• Motor vehicles also contribute to SO2 emissions since gasoline and diesel fuel
also contain small amounts of sulfur.
• The sulfur oxides and nitric oxides react
with water vapor and other chemicals high
in the atmosphere in the presence of
sunlight to form sulfuric and nitric acids.
• The acids formed usually dissolve in the
suspended water droplets in clouds or
fog.
• These acid-laden droplets, which can be
as acidic as lemon juice, are washed from
the air on to the soil by rain or snow. This
is known as acid rain.

Sulfuric acid and nitric acid are formed

when sulfur oxides and nitric oxides react with
water vapor and other chemicals high in the
atmosphere in the presence of sunlight. 31
The Greenhouse • Greenhouse effect: Glass allows the solar
radiation to enter freely but blocks the
Effect: Global infrared radiation emitted by the interior
Warming and surfaces. This causes a rise in the interior
temperature as a result of the thermal
Climate Change energy buildup in a space (i.e., car).
• The surface of the earth, which warms up
during the day as a result of the absorption
of solar energy, cools down at night by
radiating part of its energy into deep space
as infrared radiation.
• Carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor, and
trace amounts of some other gases such
as methane and nitrogen oxides act like a
blanket and keep the earth warm at night
by blocking the heat radiated from the
earth. The result is global warming.
• These gases are called “greenhouse
gases,” with CO2 being the primary
component.
• CO2 is produced by the burning of fossil
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fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
• A 1995 report: The earth has already warmed about 0.5°C during the last
century, and they estimate that the earth’s temperature will rise another 2°C by
the year 2100.
• A rise of this magnitude can cause severe changes in weather patterns with
storms and heavy rains and flooding at some parts and drought in others, major
floods due to the melting of ice at the poles, loss of wetlands and coastal areas
due to rising sea levels, and other negative results.
• Improved energy efficiency, energy conservation, and using renewable
energy sources help minimize global warming.

The average car produces several times its

weight in CO2 every year (it is driven 20,000
km a year, consumes 2300 liters of gasoline,
and produces 2.5 kg of CO2 per liter). 33
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mass (sq.inch)

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Thank you to your attention!

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