CELL CYCLE

All the cells are produced by division of pre-existing cells.

Cell cycle can be defines as ‘the entire sequence of events happening from the end of one nuclear division to
the beginning of the next’.
Howard & Pelc (1953) have divided cell cycle into 4 phases or stages: G1, S, G2 and M phase.
The G1 phase, S phase and G2 phase are combined to form ‘Interphase’.
G1 - Phase: Pre – DNA synthesis phase
After the M – Phase of the previous cycle, the daughter cells begin G1 of interphase of new cell cycle.
G1 is a resting phase. It is called the first gap phase, since no DNA synthesis takes place during this stage.
Also called ‘first growth phase’. Increases the number of organelles (such as mitochondria, ribosomes), and
grows in size.
During G1 phase, chromatin is fully extended and is not distinguishable as discrete chromosomes.
It involves synthesis of RNA, proteins and membranes which leads to growth of nucleus and cytoplasm of each
daughter cell.
G1 involves transcription of 3 types of RNAs namely – mRNA, rRNA and tRNA.
Proteins synthesized during this phase include –
a. Regulatory proteins – controls various events of mitosis
b. Enzymes – required for DNA synthesis (ex – DNA polymerase)
c. Tubulin (involved in spindle formation) & other mitotic apparatus proteins.
 G1 phase is most variable as to duration, it either occupies 30 to 50% of the total time of cell cycle or lacks
entirely in rapidly dividing cells.
G0 Phase (extended G1 phase)
This is a period in the cell cycle in which cells exist in a quiescent state.
It is viewed as either an extended G1 phase, where the cell is neither dividing nor preparing to divide
Cells that reach the state of maturity will no longer divide and remain in G0 phase. (ex – nerve cells and heart
cells).
When a cell enters the G0 phase, they exit the cell cycle.
2. S – Phase: DNA – synthesis phase
It is called a ‘synthetic phase’ of interphase.
Replication of DNA and synthesis of histone proteins occur.
The genetic material of a cell is doubled (number of chromosomes is doubled) before it enters mitosis or
meiosis, allowing there to be enough DNA to be split into daughter cells.
S phase occupies roughly about 35 to 45 % of the total time of cell cycle.
G2 – Phase: Post DNA – synthesis phase
This is the second gap phase or second growth phase or resting phase of interphase.
Synthesis of RNA and proteins continues which is required for cell growth.
It occupies about 10 to 20% time of cell cycle.
After G2 phase, the cell enters M – phase.
General events of Interphase
The nuclear envelope remains intact.
The chromosomes occur in the form of diffused, long, coiled chromatin fibres.
The DNA amount becomes doubled.
Accumulation of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and ribosomal proteins in the nucleolus occurs.
M – phase / Mitotic phase
The mitosis occurs in the somatic cells.
It is meant for multiplication of cell number during embryogenesis of plants.
This short period involves chromosome condensation, segregation and cytoplasmic division.
This phase is divided into following stages – Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase and Cytokinesis.
 State Phase Abbreviation Description

A phase where the cell has left the cycle and has
Resting Gap 0 G0
stopped dividing.

Cells increase in size in Gap 1.

Gap 1 G1 The G1 checkpoint control mechanism ensures that
everything is ready for DNA synthesis.

Synthesis S DNA replication occurs during this phase.

Interphase

During the gap between DNA synthesis and

mitosis, the cell will continue to grow.
Gap 2 G2 The G2 checkpoint control mechanism ensures that
everything is ready to enter the M (mitosis) phase
and divide.
Cell growth stops at this stage and cellular energy
is focused on the orderly division into two
Cell division Mitosis M daughter cells. A checkpoint in the middle of
mitosis (Metaphase Checkpoint) ensures that the
cell is ready to complete cell division.
 REGULATION OF CELL CYCLE
The complex macromolecular events of the cell cycle are regulated by a small number of heterodimeric protein kinases.

The regulatory sub units of these kinases are called as ‘cyclins’. Their catalytic sub units are termed as ‘cyclin –
dependent kinases (Cdks) as they have no kinetic activity unless they are associated with cyclin.

The 3 classes of cyclin – Cdk complexes that control the cell cycle include –

1. G1 Cdk complex

2. S phase Cdk complex

3. Mitotic Cdk complex

G1 Cdk complex

They prepare the cell for the S – phase by activating transcription factors that cause expression of enzymes required for
DNA synthesis and the genes encoding S – phase Cdk complex.

G1 Cdk complex induces the degradation of S-phase inhibitor, releasing the activity of S – phase Cdk’s which stimulate
entry into S – phase.
S – phase Cdk complex

S – phase Cdk’s phosphorylate regulatory sites of proteins that form DNA pre replication complexes.

This activates the initiation of DNA replication and inhibits reassembly of new pre replication complexes so that
each chromosome is replicated only once during the cell cycle.

Mitotic Cdk complexes

These are synthesised during S – phase and G2 phase but their activities are held in check until DNA synthesis is
completed.

Once these complexes are activated, they induce –

1. Chromosome condensation

2. Breakdown of the nuclear envelope

3. Assembly of spindle apparatus

4. Alignment of chromosomes at metaphase plate.

 Then M – Cdk’s activate Anapahse – promoting complex (APC).

This multiprotein complex (APC) directs the proteolysis of anaphase inhibitors, leading to inactivation of
protein complexes that connect sister chromatids at metaphase and thus lead to segregation to the opposite pole.

Then APC also directs proteolysis of Mitotic cyclins which then permit –

1. chromosomes to decondense

2. nuclear envelope to reform around daughter nuclei in telophase and

3. cytokinesis yielding 2 daughter cells.