CHT 322

ENERGY ENGINEERING
Module 1
Energy Engineering
• Energy engineering or Energy systems is a broad field of engineering
dealing with energy efficiency, energy services, facility management,
plant engineering, environmental compliance and alternative energy
technologies.
• Energy engineering is one of the more recent engineering disciplines
to emerge.
ENERGY
• Energy is the ability to cause change in an object
- The change can involve either the motion or position of an object or its particles
• In physics, energy is the quantitative property that is transferred to a body or to a
physical system, recognizable in the performance of work and in the form of heat
and light.
• Energy is a conserved quantity; the law of conservation of energy states that energy
can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed
• Energy exists in many different forms.
- Examples of these are: light energy, heat energy, mechanical energy, gravitational
energy, electrical energy, sound energy, chemical energy, nuclear or atomic
energy and so on
Classification of energy
• Primary energy (natural gas, crude oil)
• Secondary energy (refined crude oil products)
• Commercial energy (electricity)
• Non-commercial energy (firewood)
• Renewable energy (wind energy)
• non-renewable energy (hydropower)
 World energy resources and energy consumption
Globally we get the largest amount of our energy from oil, followed by coal, gas,
then hydroelectric power.

Energy consumption by source,

World

Primary energy consumption is

measured in terawatt-hours
(TWh). Here an inefficiency
factor (the 'substitution' method)
has been applied for fossil fuels,
meaning the shares by each
energy source give a better
approximation of final energy
consumption
 Energy Consumption and Standard of Living
The energy consumption of a nation can be broadly divided into the following areas or sectors
depending on energy-related activities.
• Domestic sector (houses and offices including commercial buildings)
• Transportation sector
• Agriculture sector
• Industrial sector
• Consumption of a large amount of energy in a country indicates increased activities in these sectors.
• This may imply better comforts at home due to use of various appliances, better transport facilities
and more agricultural and industrial production.
• All of this amount to a better quality of life. Therefore, the per capita energy consumption of a
country is an index of the standard of living or prosperity (i.e. income) of the people of the country
 Indian energy resources and energy consumption
Indian Energy Scenario
• Coal dominates the energy mix in India, contributing to 55% of the total primary
energy production.
• Over the years, there has been a marked increase in the share of natural gas in
primary energy production from 10% in 1994 to 13% in 1999.
• There has been a decline in the share of oil in primary energy production from 20%
to 17% during the same period
• Energy Supply
1. Coal Supply
 India has huge coal reserves, at least 84,396 million tones of proven recoverable
reserves (at the end of 2003).
 These amounts to almost 8.6% of the world reserves and it may last for about 230
years at the current Reserve to Production (R/P) ratio.
 In contrast, the world's proven coal reserves are expected to last only for 192 years
at the current R/P ratio
• Reserves/Production (R/P) ratio- If the reserves remaining at the end of the year
are divided by the production in that year, the result is the length of time that the
remaining reserves would last if production were to continue at that level
• India is the fourth largest producer of coal and lignite in the world.
• Coal production is concentrated in these states (Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Jharkhand, and West Bengal)
2. Oil Supply
• Oil accounts for about 36 % of India’s total energy consumption.
India today is one of the top ten oil-guzzling nations in the world

• The majority of India's roughly 5.4 billion barrels in oil reserves are
located in the Bombay High, upper Assam, Cambay (Gujarat),
Krishna-Godavari

• In terms of sector wise petroleum product consumption, transport

accounts for 42% followed by domestic and industry with 24% each
respectively
3. Natural Gas Supply
• Natural gas is a gaseous fossil fuel consisting primarily of methane.
• Natural gas provides around 20 % of the world’s consumption of energy.
• Almost 70% of India's natural gas reserves are found in the Bombay High basin and
in Gujarat. Offshore gas reserves are also located in Andhra Pradesh coast (Krishna
Godavari Basin) and Tamil Nadu coast (Cauvery Basin). Onshore reserves are located
in Gujarat and the North Eastern states (Assam and Tripura).
• Natural gas accounts for about 8.9 per cent of energy consumption in the country.
• The current demand for natural gas is about 96 million cubic metres per day
(mcmd) as against availability of 67 mcmd
4. Electrical Energy Supply
• India is the world’s third largest producer and third consumer of electricity
• The national electric grid in India has an installed capacity of 372.693 GW
• Renewable power plants, which also include large hydroelectric plants, constitute
35.94% of India’s total installed capacity

5. Nuclear Power Supply

• Contributes to about 2.4 per cent of electricity generated in India. India has ten
nuclear power reactors at five nuclear power stations producing electricity. More
nuclear reactors have also been approved for construction.
• The total install capacity in India is around 6780 MW
 6. Hydro Power Supply

• India is 5th globally for installed hydroelectric power capacity

• India is endowed with a vast and viable hydro potential for power generation of
which only 15% has been harnessed so far
• India’s hydroelectric power potential is estimated at 148,700 MW at 60% load factor
• Maharashtra is the highest producer of hydroelectric power in India
Energy consumption in India (various sectors) and World consumption
 Energy crisis
• Energy crisis is a situation in which the nation suffers from a disruption of energy
supplies accompanied by rapidly increasing energy prices that threaten economic
and national security.
– An energy crisis is any great shortfall in the supply of energy to an economy.
– It usually refers to the shortage of oil, petroleum, electricity or other natural
resources.
– An energy crisis is any significant bottleneck in the supply of energy resources to
an economy.
 Causes of energy crisis
Over consumption
The current consumption model relies almost entirely on the use of non-renewable energy
sources such as oil, gas, coal and uranium. At the current rate of consumption, oil will be the
first fossil fuel to run out. According to projections, there would be between 40 and 60 years of
proven reserves of conventional oil. Natural gas could be exploited for another 70 years. For
coal, there would be around two centuries of reserves.

OVERPOPULATION

These data are to be put into perspective because they are based on current consumption,
while it is clear that it will increase considerably. Energy demands are and will be amplified by
the demographic - the world’s population should reach nearly 10 billion people in 2050 - and
economic boom of growing areas. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), global
energy demand could increase by more than 50% by 2030 in the absence of public policies in
this area.
• AGING INFRASTRUCTURE

Another reason for energy shortage and scarcity is the poor infrastructure of power generating
equipment. Most of energy producing companies keep on using outdated equipments that
limits energy production. The need to upgrade the infrastructure and set a high standard of
performance is critical.

• ENERGY WASTE

Mainly coming from the unnecessary use of energy resources, energy waste describes the
wastage of energy sources, in particular fuels and electricity. Consequently, the reduction of
waste is a colossal source of energy savings, which requires actions both on an individual and
collective level.
 Effects of energy crisis
• ENVIRONMENTAL

The massive use of traditional energy sources leads - among other things - to the increase of
greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide (CO2), resulting in global warming and
harming the environment and biodiversity. Therefore, the energy crisis is closely linked to the
environmental crisis.

• ECONOMIC AND SOCIO-POLITICAL

Energy is one of the most important inputs for economic development. From a physical
viewpoint, the use of energy drives economic productivity and industrial growth. The energy
crisis could thus have a dramatic impact on the global economy. Besides, when energy markets
fail, an energy shortage develops. Energy shortages and resulting economic factors may create
socio-political issues.
 Energy crisis prevention
1. Energy transition to renewable energy sources

Unlike fossil fuels, some energy sources are totally renewable, and do not emit
greenhouse gases. These clean and sustainable alternative energy solutions include
solar energy, hydropower, wind energy, geothermal energy and biomass energy.

2. Energy efficiency and conservation

• In order to prevent an energy crisis, it is also crucial that we consume less energy
by improving and modernising energy infrastructure such as smart grid solutions,
and smart cities. It is also important that we replace old devices by energy
efficient solutions, such as replacing traditional light bulbs by LEDs.
 Energy alternatives
• Fossil fuels (oil, coal, and natural gas) are our most traditional source for power generation.
Therefore, the energy that’s produced from any source other than fossil fuels is alternative
energy.
• In other words, alternative energy is any amount of energy derived from non-fossil fuel
sources
AFFORADABLE ENERGY PRODUCTION OPTIONS
• Onshore wind power and solar photovoltaics, respectively, are currently the most affordable
options when it comes to energy production. Using these two natural resources over coal
could save as much as $23 billion in yearly power system expenses. It could also lower
annual carbon dioxide emissions by 1.8 gigatons. Bioenergy, geothermal energy,
hydroelectric power, and nuclear energy are also making their way into the financially
competitive spotlight, depending significantly on location.
 Most Commonly Used Alternative Energy Sources
1. Wind Energy
• Wind power is one of the alternative energy sources that serves both individuals and entire communities. It’s
versatile, and can be produced from small-scale windmills or wind turbines on residential properties to large-
scale offshore wind farms.
2. Solar Energy
• Solar power most commonly refers to the use of photovoltaic cells (or solar cells) to create energy. On a small
scale, you may see a few solar panels on a house roof used to produce energy for just that one home. On a
larger scale, you may see a solar farm used as a power plant to produce electricity for their consumers.
3. Hydroelectric Energy
• Generated from the energy of moving water, hydroelectricity (also known as hydropower) is produced when
water behind a dam causes turbine blades to move as it flows through an intake. The turbine blades then rotate
a generator to produce electricity that is sent to power homes and businesses.
4. Geothermal Energy
• We generate geothermal power by tapping into underground reservoirs of hot water and steam. Geothermal
electricity can directly heat and cool buildings.
5. Hydrogen Energy
• Hydrogen is used as a clean-burning fuel, leading to fewer pollutants and a cleaner environment. We also use it
for fuel cells. These are similar to batteries and are used to supply power to electric motors.
6. Bioenergy
• We generate bioenergy from organic materials known as biomass or biofuels. Some examples would be recently
living animal or plant byproducts and wood. For example, methane can be captured from landfills to produce
bioenergy, which we then used to produce electricity and heat. Ethanol is one example of a biofuel that many
people are familiar with.
7. Nuclear Energy
• Nuclear energy is created in the form of heat through the fission process of atoms. The initial fission process
creates energy and triggers a chain reaction that repeats the process and generates more energy. In nuclear
power plants, the heat that fission produces creates steam. The steam then rotates a turbine, which leads to the
production of electricity.
8. Tidal Energy
• With the movement of the tides, we get tidal energy when the kinetic energy of the water movement converts
into electrical energy. Of course, this is one of the location-specific sources of energy, but it’s very effective. Tidal
energy is renewable and produces large amounts of energy even with low-speed tides.
9. Wave Energy
• Wave energy is an alternative energy source derived from waves as they move across the water. Wave energy
uses electricity generators placed on the ocean’s surface. Wave height, wavelength, wave speed, and water
density determine the energy output. Wave energy is environmentally friendly, renewable, and harmless to the
atmosphere.
 All renewable energy sources fall under the category of
alternative energy sources, but it doesn’t work the other way
around.
 While nuclear energy itself happens to be a renewable energy source, we do not
classify it in the renewable category. The material used in nuclear power plants to
create nuclear fission is typically a rare type of uranium, which is non-renewable.

 Another alternative energy source that is sometimes considered a non-renewable

source is biomass energy which relies on biomass feedstocks (plants that are
processed and burned for electricity generation). Biomass feedstocks include crops
like corn and soy. If you don’t replant quickly enough, biomass energy turns into a
non-renewable energy source.
 Thermal power plants
• A thermal power plant is an electric power generation station in which heat energy
is converted to electricity.
• In this process of energy conversion, the fuel is burnt to produce a high temperature
that converts water into steam in a boiler. High-pressure steam is passed to create a
force on the turbine causing it to rotate at high speed.
• A power generator is coupled with the turbine which in turn generates power from
this movement. Heat energy is used to produce electric power so this is called
thermal power.
Typical Layout And Working Of A Thermal Power Plant
 Advantages Disadvantages
• The volume of water requirement: Thermal plants require a
large amount of water to produce steam that can drive the
• Financial Benefits: One of the main advantages of thermal turbines to produce electricity. The huge requirement of
power is the low cost of power generation. The plants use water causes a serious impact on water sources in rivers,
fossil fuels to generate power which is still abundant and lakes, and groundwater.
economical. The initial investment cost for the installation
of a thermal power plant is also less as compared to the • Use of fossil fuels: The fuels used to produce thermal power
other types of power plants. Considering the proximity to are exhaustible resources. Thermal power generation
urban areas, the transportation and other costs are requires the extraction of coal and natural oil from the earth
minimal. Usually, these plants are placed near the load which causes depletion of these fossil fuels. The power
center thereby reducing the power distribution cost. generation in thermal plants is also dependent on the quality
of coal or natural oil sometimes affecting the optimum level
• Location Advantage: One of the greatest advantages of of output.
thermal plants is that they can be located in any suitable
area without any specific geographical requirements, • Air and soil pollution: The operation of power plants, in the
unlike a hydroelectric project. Thermal plant locations can long run, causes air pollution due to the emission of harmful
be selected considering areas where displacement of gasses. The occasional release of harmful gasses like sulfur
people is not required. The locations of thermal power dioxide, carbon dioxide, and other gasses makes an adverse
plants are generally not far from consuming centers, so the impact on the environment. Some thermal power plants are
cost-benefit ratio is always better than hydroelectric also said to emit a large amount of mercury and generate fly
projects. Thermal power stations generally develop in ashes that can contaminate air, water, and soil in the
plain regions and also do not require much larger areas, surroundings. There are chances of pollution created from
thus favoring the scope of expansion. non-point sources due to transportation of coal, loading, and
unloading of fuels, storage of coal and oil, etc. Water
pollution can be caused by plant effluents, ash handling,
demineralization, etc.
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Environmental Impact: The installation and construction • High maintenance cost: The cost of maintenance and
phase of the thermal power plant causes no major operation of a thermal power plant is quite high. The machines
environmental damage. The thermal power generation and equipment in thermal plants are complicated and require
process involves using fuels that have virtually no toxic skilled personnel to handle them efficiently. The occurrence of
emissions. For the installation of thermal power plants, not machine trouble is frequent and maintenance requirement is
very large areas of land are required. This is an advantage in more. Lack of modern equipment and qualified personnel to
terms of protecting forest life which is getting destroyed due handle operations and maintenance restricts further expansion
to an increase in the setting up of industrial plants. The of plant capacity and resources. There are additional costs
construction of thermal power stations also does not involve involved for transportation of raw materials and maintaining
much time, thereby reducing chances of air and soil pollution large storage space for coal and other fuels.
to a large extent. • Low efficiency and life span: The overall efficiency of the
• A reliable source of energy: Thermal energy generation is thermal power plant is considered low. Many coal-based
considered a more reliable source to handle future power thermal power plants use older technologies that lack chances
demands. The power plants have the flexibility to respond to of upgrading. This also affects the general life span of and
various power requirements and the changing demand efficiency of thermal power plants as compared to
pattern. It can adjust the output of power generation as per hydroelectric power plants. Environment experts have
the demand. Thermal power provides a stable output and is suggested limiting the operation of coal-based power plants
considered the backbone of grid supply. The technology for considering the climate changes due to pollution and the
thermal power generation is well established and easily greenhouse effect. The relative financial security regarding
accessible making it a more reliable source of energy. restrictions on fossil fuel extraction may create an additional
disadvantage for the required expansion of thermal power
plants.
 Energy Efficiency of Thermal Power Stations

• Much heat is lost in different processes in the facility. The condenser loses significant heat.
That is why the thermal power plant productivity is so low.

• Thermal Efficiency: Thermodynamic performance is calculated by the ratio of 'heat equal to

mechanical energy delivered to the turbine shaft' to 'heat of coal combustion.’ The
performance of thermal power production has improved and is around 30%. If 100 calories
of heat are generated by coal combustion, the amount of energy available at the turbine
shaft equals 30 calories.

• Overall Efficiency: A thermal plant’s productivity falls between 29 and 30 percent (slightly
less than the thermal efficiency)

• The average production for a large-scale thermal power plant operating on coal and oil is
about 20-25 per cent, but the plant’s efficiency utilizing gas is 40 per cent.
 Hydel power plants
• In the generation of hydroelectric power, water is collected or stored at a higher elevation
and led downward through large pipes or tunnels (penstocks) to a lower elevation; the
difference in these two elevations is known as the head. At the end of its passage down the
pipes, the falling water causes turbines to rotate, that convert the potential energy of falling
or fast-flowing water into mechanical energy. The turbines in turn drive generators, which
convert the turbines’ mechanical energy into electricity. Transformers are then used to
convert the alternating voltage suitable for the generators to a higher voltage suitable for
long-distance transmission. The structure that houses the turbines and generators, and into
which the pipes or penstocks feed, is called the powerhouse
• In the early 21st century, hydroelectric power was the most widely utilized form of
renewable energy; in 2019 it accounted for more than 18 percent of the world’s total power
generation capacity.
 Hydel power plants
There are three types of hydropower facilities:
1. impoundment,
2. diversion, and
3. pumped storage.
IMPOUNDMENT
• The most common type of hydroelectric power plant is an impoundment facility. An
impoundment facility, typically a large hydropower system, uses a dam to store river water
in a reservoir. Water released from the reservoir flows through a turbine, spinning it, which
in turn activates a generator to produce electricity.
DIVERSION
A diversion, sometimes called a
“run-of-river” facility, channels a
portion of a river through a canal
and/or a penstock to utilize the
natural decline of the river bed
elevation to produce energy. A
penstock is a closed conduit that
channels the flow of water to
turbines with water flow regulated
by gates, valves, and turbines. A
diversion may not require the use of
a dam.
 Advantages
• It is continually renewable owing to the recurring nature of the hydrologic cycle.
• It does not produce thermal pollution. (However, some dams can produce methane
from the decomposition of vegetation under water.)
• Hydroelectric power is a preferred energy source in areas with heavy rainfall and
with hilly or mountainous regions that are in reasonably close proximity to the main
load centres.
• Some large hydro sites that are remote from load centres may be sufficiently
attractive to justify the long high-voltage transmission lines.
• Small local hydro sites may also be economical, particularly if they combine storage
of water during light loads with electricity production during peaks.
 Disadvantages
• Dams can interrupt the migrations of spawning fish, such as
salmon, and permanently submerge or displace ecological and
human communities as the reservoirs fill.
• In addition, hydroelectric dams are vulnerable to water
scarcity.
 Classification of turbines
There are two main types of hydropower turbines:
• reaction and impulse.
– The type of hydropower turbine selected for a project is based on the height of standing
water—referred to as "head"—and the flow, or volume of water over time, at the site.
– Other deciding factors include how deep the turbine must be set, turbine efficiency, and
cost.
• Reaction turbines are generally used for sites with lower head and higher flows and are the
most common type. In fact, the drop in pressure due to the rotating nozzle gives a reaction
and hence motion to the rotor.
• Common types of reaction turbines are
1. Propeller (including Kaplan) and
2. Francis
3. Kinetic turbines
 Propeller turbine
• In the propeller turbine, the water flow is
regulated by adjustable guide vanes (or wicket
gates). The vanes move the water into the
runner to transfer its energy to the blades. The
propeller turbine is usually employed in
hydraulic sites with high flow rates.
• The propeller turbine runner generally has three
to six blades, to which water strikes
continuously at a constant rate and water power
is transformed into the rotational force that
drives the generator.
 Francis turbine
• Water enters these turbines radially meaning that it enters the turbine perpendicular to the
rotational axis. Once entering the turbine, the water always flows inwards, towards the center. Once
the water has flown through the turbine, it exits axially - parallel to the rotational axis.
 Kinetic turbine
• Kinetic energy turbines, also called free-flow turbines, generate electricity from the
kinetic energy present in flowing water rather than the potential energy from the
head.
• There are opportunities to generate electric power using kinetic energy available in
any flowing water stream, without construction of dams or barrages for storage of
water.
• Can be used to harness the kinetic energy of flowing streams of rivers, canals or tail-
race of existing dams to generate electricity
 IMPULSE TURBINE

• An impulse turbine generally uses the velocity of the water to move the runner and
discharges at atmospheric pressure. A water stream hits each bucket on the runner. With no
suction on the down side of the turbine, the water flows out the bottom of the turbine
housing after hitting the runner. An impulse turbine is generally suitable for high-head,
low-flow applications.
• The two main types of impulse turbine are
– Pelton
– cross-flow turbines.
 Pelton turbine
• The water in a Pelton turbine is moving quickly (high velocity head) and the turbine extracts
energy from the water by slowing the water down, which makes this an impulse turbine.
• A nozzle turns hydraulic head into a high velocity (with high velocity head) stream of water
which hits the Pelton turbine. This change in momentum of the water creates an impulse
on the blades of the turbine, generating torque and rotation in the turbine.
 Cross flow turbine
• A cross-flow turbine is drum-shaped and uses an elongated, rectangular section nozzle directed
against curved vanes on a cylindrically shaped runner. The cross-flow turbine allows water to flow
through the blades twice. On the first pass, water flows from outside of the blades to the inside; the
second pass goes from the inside back out. A guide vane at the entrance to the turbine directs the
flow into a limited portion of the runner. The cross-flow turbine was developed to accommodate
larger water flows and lower heads than the Pelton can handle.
 Nuclear power plants
• Nuclear power provides almost 15 percent of the world’s electricity.
• Nuclear power plants heat water to produce steam. The steam is used to spin large
turbines that generate electricity.
• Nuclear power plants use heat produced during nuclear fission to heat water.
• In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms, releasing energy.
• Thermal power is obtained from splitting the nuclei of atoms in their reactor core,
with uranium being the dominant choice of fuel in the world today. Thorium also
has potential use in nuclear power production, however it is not currently in use.
• The reactor is a key component of a power plant, as it contains the fuel and its
nuclear chain reaction, along with all of the nuclear waste products. The reactor is
the heat source for the power plant, that heat the water in the core directly to
steam
• Once steam has been produced, it travels at high pressures and speeds through one or
more turbines.
• These get up to extremely high speeds, causing the steam to lose energy, therefore,
condensing back to a cooler liquid water.
• The rotation of the turbines is used to spin an electric generator, which produces electricity
that is sent out the electrical grid.
Efficiency
• The efficiency of a nuclear power plant is determined similarly to other heat engines—since
technically the plant is a large heat engine. The amount of electric power produced for each
unit of thermal power gives the plant its thermal efficiency, and due to the second law of
thermodynamics there is an upper limit to how efficient these plants can be.
• Typical nuclear power plants achieve efficiencies around 33-37%, comparable to fossil
fuelled power plants. Higher temperature and more modern designs like the Generation IV
nuclear reactors could potentially reach above 45% efficiency
A fission reactor contains a number of different parts:
•Nuclear fuel - the uranium or plutonium isotope that will split when triggered by an
incoming neutron. The fuel is held in rods so that the neutrons released will fly out and
cause nuclear fission in other rods.
•Moderator - graphite core - a graphite core, for example, slows the neutrons down so
that they are more likely to be absorbed into a nearby fuel rod.
•Control rods - these are raised and lowered to stop neutrons from travelling between
fuel rods and therefore change the speed of the chain reaction.
•Coolant - this is heated up by the energy released from the fission reactions and is used
to boil water to drive turbines in the power station.
•Concrete shield - the daughter products of the fission reaction are radioactive and can
be a hazard.
 Fluidised bed combustion
• Fluidized combustion could be used to provide heat for many industrial
processes.
• One potential application is the generation of a hot gas for drying.
• In fluidized-bed combustion, any fuel such as coal, oil, or gas is dispersed
and burnt in a fluidized bed of inert particles.
• The amount of fuel that can be burnt in a fluidized bed is determined by
the air-supply rate.
• In fluidized combustion, the fuel is burnt within a fluidized bed of mineral
matter such as coal ash, silica sand, or limestone for sulfur retention.
• The passage of the air for combustion through the bed maintains the
particles in a violently fluidized state.
• Fluidized-bed combustion systems are particularly suitable for coals of low quality and high
sulfur content because of their capacity to retain sulfur dioxide (SO2; a pollutant gas) within
the bed and their ability to burn coals of high or variable ash content.
• When limestone (calcium carbonate; CaCO3) or dolomite (a mixture of calcium and
magnesium carbonates; CaMg(CO3)2) is introduced into the bed along with the coal, the
limestone decomposes to calcium oxide (CaO), which then reacts in the bed with most of
the SO2 released from the burning coal to produce calcium sulfate (CaSO4).
• The CaSO4 can be removed as a solid by-product for use in a variety of applications.
• In addition, partially spent calcium or magnesium can be regenerated and recycled by a
variety of techniques.
• Fluidized-bed combustors, in general, need additional equipment (such as cyclone
separators) to separate fines containing a high amount of combustibles and recycle them
back into the system.
• Fluidized Bed Combustion takes place when the forced draught fan supplies air to the
Furnace of the Boiler. In the furnace, and is (used for Bubbling phenomenon) placed on the
Bed and is heated before fluidization, the air enters the bed from the nozzles fitted on the
Furnace Bed. And above the nozzles; the sand opposes the upward motion of the air.

• But at sufficient velocities, when the pressure applied by the air becomes equal to the
weight of the sand, fluidization of the sand occurs.

• Now the fuel supplied by fuel conveyor is fed to the preheated bubbling sand and gets
combusted away. This phenomenon also ensures complete combustion of the Fuel.

• The heat released during combustion heats up the surrounding boiler tubes and generates
steam. The major advantages of Bubbling Fluidized Bed Combustion are the enhanced
thermal efficiency, easy ash removal.
 Combined cycle power plants
A combined-cycle power plant uses both a gas turbine (Brayton cycle) and a steam turbine (Rankine cycle)
together to produce up to 50% more electricity from the same fuel than a traditional simple-cycle plant.
The waste heat from the gas turbine is routed to the nearby steam turbine, which generates extra power.
1) Gas turbine burns fuel:
• The gas turbine compresses air and mixes it with fuel that is heated to a very high temperature. The hot
air-fuel mixture moves through the gas turbine blades, making them spin.
• The fast-spinning turbine drives a generator that converts a portion of the spinning energy into
electricity.
2) Heat recovery system captures exhaust heat:
• A heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) captures exhaust heat from the gas turbine that would
otherwise escape through the exhaust stack.
• The HRSG captures heat from high temperature exhaust gases to produce steam, which is then supplied
to a steam turbine to generate additional electric power
3) Steam turbine delivers additional electricity.
• The steam turbine sends its energy to the generator drive shaft, where it is converted into additional
electricity.
Gas turbine:
The idea of gas turbine is very old one, its working principle is an advanced version of wind mill. To achieve efficient
working of turbine, the movement of gas is controlled and directed to blades. The air which is under pressure
supplied to the turbine by the air compressor. In gas turbine initially, the air is obtained from the atmosphere and
compressed in the air compressor. The air which is compressed passed into the combustion chamber. Hot air is
made to flow over moving blades, which causes rotational motion to the runner. In this process, the air expands
and finally exhausted into the atmosphere. The major part of the power developed by the turbine consumed to
derive the compressor.
The steps in the Rankine Cycle as shown in Figure 1 and the
corresponding steps in the pressure volume diagram (figure 2)
are outlined below:

Pump: Compression of the fluid to high pressure using a pump

(this takes work) (Figure 2: Steps 3 to 4)

Boiler: The compressed fluid is heated to the final temperature

(which is at boiling point), therefore, a phase change occurs—
from liquid to vapor. (Figure 2: Steps 4 to 1)

Turbine: Expansion of the vapor in the turbine. (Figure 2: Steps 1

to 2)

Condenser: Condensation of the vapor in the condenser (where

the waste heat goes to the final heat sink (the atmosphere or a
large body of water (ex. lake or river). (Figure 2: Steps 2 to 3)