OSI REFERENCE MODEL

A
Seminar Report
Submitted in the partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award
of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology
In
“ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING”
By
KARTIKEYA SHARMA
(Roll NO. - 2021041143)

Submitted in
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
MADAN MOHAN MALAVIYA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
GORAKHPUR(U.P.), INDIA

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 TABLE OF CONTENT
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................3
2. SEVEN LAYERS OF OSI...............................................................4
2.1 APPLICATION
LAYER………………………………………………...4
2.2 PRESENTATION LAYER……………………………………………...4
2.3 SESSION
LAYER……………………………………………………….5
2.4 TRANSPORT LAYER…………………………………….
………….....6
2.5 NETWORK LAYER…………………………………………………….6
2.6 DATA LINK LAYER……………………………………………………
7
2.7 PHYSICAL
LAYER……………………………………………………..7
3. WORKING.......................................................................................8
4. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS. ………………………………...10
5. GENERAL ISSUES.......................................................................11
7. REFERENCE.................................................................................13

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 1.INTRODUCTION

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model serves several key
functions in the field of networking:
Standardization: One of the primary functions of the OSI model is to provide a
standardized framework for understanding and implementing network protocols.
By defining seven distinct layers and specifying the functions and interactions of
each layer, the OSI model enables consistency and interoperability across different
networking technologies and devices.
Layered Architecture: The OSI model organizes network communication into
layers, with each layer responsible for specific functions. This layered architecture
facilitates modular design, development, and troubleshooting of network protocols
and systems. It also allows for easier integration of new technologies and upgrades
without disrupting the entire network.
Abstraction: Another function of the OSI model is to abstract the complexities of
network communication. Each layer operates independently of the others,
providing a clear separation of concerns. This abstraction simplifies the design
process and makes it easier to understand and manage complex networking
systems.
standardized interfaces between adjacent layers. This allows networking equipment
and software from different vendors to work together seamlessly, as long as they
adhere to the same standards and protocols specified by the OSI model.
Troubleshooting and Diagnosis: The layered structure of the OSI model
facilitates troubleshooting and diagnosis of network issues. By isolating problems
to specific layers, network administrators can pinpoint the source of errors more
quickly and efficiently, leading to faster resolution of issues.
As for its invention, the OSI model was developed in the late 1970s by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in response to the growing
need for a standardized approach to networking. It was created to address the
challenges of connecting diverse computer systems and networks, which were
becoming increasingly prevalent at the time. The OSI model was officially
published in 1984 as ISO 7498 and quickly became the de facto standard for

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networking protocols and systems. While it has been largely superseded by the
TCP/IP model in practice, the OSI model remains an important conceptual
framework for understanding network architecture and protocols.

2.SEVEN LAYERS OF OSI

The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information between
computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable
problems.

2.1 APPLICATION LAYER

The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to the user. Enables the user to
access the network resources. Therefore establishes the interface between network
and application.
• It provides network services to the user‘s applications.
• It differs from the other layers in that it does not provide services to any
other OSI layer, but rather, only to applications outside the OSI model.
• Examples of such applications are spreadsheet programs, word processing
programs, and bank terminal programs.
• The application layer establishes the availability of intended communication
partners, synchronizes and establishes agreement on procedures for error recovery
and control of data integrity.
Services provided by Application Layer:
• Files transfer and access management (access files in remote computer)
• Mail Services (mail forwarding and storage)
• Directory services

2.2 PRESENTATION LAYER

The presentation layer ensures that the information that the application layer of one
system sends out is readable by the application layer of another system.
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 • If necessary, the presentation layer translates between multiple data formats
by using a common format.
• Provides encryption and compression of data.
• This layer ensures that the information that the application layer of one
sends out is readable by the application layer of another system.
• Concerned with the syntax (standard representation) of information
exchanged between two systems.
Services provided by Presentation Layer:
• Translation (Common format accepted by sender and receiver)
• Encryption (Used for confidential data)
• Compression
Examples: - JPEG, MPEG.

2.3 SESSION LAYER

• Layer 3 from the top.
• The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and control (synchronize)
the interaction between communicating devices.
• The session layer defines how to start, control and end conversations (called
sessions) between applications.
• This includes the control and management of multiple bi-directional
messages using dialogue control.
• It also synchronizes dialogue between two hosts' presentation layers and
manages their data exchange.
• The session layer offers provisions for efficient data transfer.
Services provided by Session Layer:
• Dialog Control (establishes a singlet or a duplex mode)
• Synchronization (divides communication into checkpoints and forwards in
direction of checkpoints)

2.4 TRANSPORT LAYER

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The transport layer regulates information flow to ensure end-to-end connectivity
between host applications reliably and accurately.
• The transport layer segments data from the sending host's system and
reassembles the data into a data stream on the receiving host's system.
• The boundary between the transport layer and the session layer can be
thought of as the boundary between application protocols and data-
flow protocols.
• Whereas the application, presentation, and session layers are concerned with
application issues, the lower four layers are concerned with data transport
issues.
• Heart among all the layers.
• Responsible for process to process delivery pf entire message.
Services provided by Transport Layer:
• Port addressing (Allotment of port numbers)
• Segmentation and Reassembly (Message to be provided with some segment
address)
• End to end flow control.

2.5 NETWORK LAYER

Defines end-to-end delivery of packets. Responsible for delivery of data from the
original source to destination network.
• Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.
• Defines how routing works and how routes are learned so that the packets
can be delivered.
• The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller
packets to accommodate different media.
• Routers operate at Layer 3.
Services provided by Network Layer:
• Logical addressing (Source IP address and destination IP address are added)
• Routing (Best path/route selection)

2.6 DATA LINK LAYER

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The data link layer provides access to the networking media and physical
transmission across the media and this enables the data to locate its intended
destination on a network.
• The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical link by
using the Media Access Control (MAC) addresses.
• The data link layer uses the MAC address to define a hardware or data link
address in order for multiple stations to share the same medium and still
uniquely identify each other.
• Concerned with network topology, network access, error notification,
ordered delivery of frames, and flow control.
Services provided by Data Link Layer:
• Framing (Groups of 0’s and 1’s are known as frames)
• Physical Addressing
• Flow Control
• Error Control (Trailer part)

2.7 PHYSICAL LAYER

The physical layer deals with the physical characteristics of the transmission
medium.
• It defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional
specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link
between end systems.
• Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical
data rates, maximum transmission distances, physical connectors, and other
similar attributes are defined by physical layer specifications.
• Responsible for transmitting bits over a medium. It also provides electrical
and mechanical specification.
Services provided by Physical Layer:
• Physical characteristics of medium (wired or wireless)
• Representation of bits in electrical signal or optical signals.
• Bit rate decide

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 • Physical Topology (Two processes at the same time)

3.WORKING
OSI Reference model working is as follows:
• Data is taken in D7 and H7 header is added by application layer.
• In D6 data is encrypted, translated and then sent to session layer D5 in which
some session layer performances are added and header H5 is added.
• In D4 Transport layer adds Port addresses in the data(H4).
• In D3 Network Layer source/destination IP address are added in the
data(H3).
• In D2 Data Link Layer Source/Destination MAC address are added(H2) and
trailer(T2) which control error.
After this the data is converted to Binary in Physical Layer and sent through
Transmission medium to receiver.
Let's delve into a thorough explanation of step-by-step communication in different
layers of the OSI model using the example of sending an email from one computer
to another:
Application Layer (Layer 7):
The communication process starts at the Application layer. Let's say User Alice
wants to send an email to User Bob using her email client, such as Outlook or
Gmail.
Alice begins by composing an email in her email client. She enters Bob's email
address, subject, and message content. When she clicks "Send," the email client
initiates the sending process.
Presentation Layer (Layer 6):
The Presentation layer is responsible for data translation, encryption, and
compression.
Before the email is transmitted, the Presentation layer in Alice's email client
formats the email message into a standard format that can be understood by

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different email clients. This may involve converting text, images, and attachments
into a standardized format like MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions).
If encryption is enabled, the Presentation layer encrypts the email content to ensure
the confidentiality of the message during transmission.
Session Layer (Layer 5):
The Session layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions
between applications.
Alice's email client establishes a session with her email server. This session
management involves processes like authentication and authorization to ensure that
Alice has permission to send emails from her account.
Once the session is established, the email client proceeds to send the email
message.
Transport Layer (Layer 4):
At the Transport layer, data is segmented into smaller units for transmission and
ensures reliable end-to-end communication.
Alice's email client uses the SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) to segment the
email message into smaller packets called segments or datagrams.
It adds necessary information like source and destination port numbers to the
segments for proper routing.
Network Layer (Layer 3):
The Network layer manages the routing of data packets between different
networks.
Alice's email client adds the IP (Internet Protocol) address of Bob's email server as
the destination address to the packets.
It determines the optimal path for the packets to reach Bob's email server based on
routing tables and network topology.
Data Link Layer (Layer 2):
The Data Link layer deals with node-to-node communication and handles error
detection and correction.

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Alice's computer sends the packets to her local router or switch, which adds MAC
(Media Access Control) addresses to the packets for local network transmission.
The router or switch ensures reliable transmission of packets within the local
network.
Physical Layer (Layer 1):
Finally, the Physical layer deals with the physical transmission of data over the
network medium.
Alice's computer transmits the packets containing the email message through
physical mediums such as Ethernet cables or wireless signals.
The packets travel through various network devices (routers, switches, etc.) until
they reach Bob's email server.
Upon reaching Bob's email server, the process is reversed. Each layer of the OSI
model performs its respective functions to deliver the email message to Bob's
email inbox, ensuring reliable and secure communication between Alice and Bob.

4.PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

1. Network Design and Architecture: The OSI model serves as a conceptual

framework for designing and implementing network architectures. It helps in
understanding the different layers involved in communication and enables
network architects to design scalable, efficient, and interoperable networks.
2. Troubleshooting and Diagnostics: When diagnosing network issues, the
OSI model provides a structured approach for troubleshooting. By
systematically checking each layer, network engineers can identify the
source of the problem more efficiently.
3. Protocol Development and Standardization: The OSI model provides a
reference point for developing and standardizing networking protocols. Each
layer of the model represents a set of functions and services, guiding the
development of protocols that operate at specific layers.

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4. Security Implementation: Security mechanisms such as firewalls, intrusion
detection systems (IDS), and encryption technologies can be implemented at
various layers of the OSI model to protect networks and data.
5. Training and Education: The OSI model serves as a fundamental concept
in networking education and training programs. It provides a structured
framework for teaching networking principles, protocols, and technologies,
helping students grasp complex networking concepts more effectively.
6.

5.GENERAL ISSUES

1. Lack of Flexibility: The OSI model was designed as a theoretical framework

and may not always adapt well to real-world networking scenarios.
2. Overlap and Redundancy: Some functions and protocols may appear
redundant or overlapping between layers, leading to confusion and
inefficiencies.
3. Limited Adoption: While the OSI model provides a conceptual foundation
for networking, it has not been
universally adopted in practice.
Many networking professionals and organizations prefer alternative models
such as the TCP/IP model.
4. Difficulty in Mapping to Specific Technologies: While the OSI model
provides a high-level abstraction of network communication, mapping its
concepts directly to specific technologies or protocols can be challenging.
5. Inadequate Emphasis on Real-Time Communication: The OSI model was
primarily designed for general-purpose data communication and may not
adequately address the requirements of real-time communication applications
such as voice and video streaming. These applications often have stringent
latency and reliability requirements that may not be fully accommodated by
the OSI model.

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 6.CONCLUSION

As we conclude, it's essential to emphasize several key points:

1. Conceptual Clarity: The OSI model provides a clear and structured way to
conceptualize network communication. By breaking down the process into
distinct layers, it simplifies the understanding of complex networking
concepts.
2. Interoperability: One of the primary goals of the OSI model is to promote
interoperability among different vendors' networking equipment and
protocols. By defining standardized interfaces between layers, it facilitates
seamless communication between disparate systems.
3. Troubleshooting and Design: Understanding the OSI model is invaluable
for troubleshooting network issues and designing efficient network
architectures. It allows network engineers to isolate problems to specific
layers and implement solutions effectively.
4. Evolution and Relevance: Despite being conceptualized decades ago, the
OSI model remains relevant in today's networking landscape. While newer
models and protocols have emerged, the OSI model's principles continue to
underpin modern networking standards and technologies.
5. Flexibility and Adaptability: While the OSI model provides a structured
framework, it also allows for flexibility and adaptation to evolving
technologies. Its modular design enables the incorporation of new protocols
and technologies without necessitating a complete overhaul of the model
itself.

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 7.REFERENCE

1. J. D. Day and H. Zimmermann, "The OSI reference model," in Proceedings

of the IEEE, vol. 71, no. 12, pp. 1334-1340, Dec. 1983, doi:
10.1109/PROC.1983.12775. keywords: {Open systems;Standards
development;ISO standards;Communication standards;Computer
networks;Standards organizations;Protocols;Springs;ARPANET;Packet
switching},
2. Bora, Gaurav, et al. "OSI reference model: An overview." International
Journal of Computer Trends and Technology (IJCTT) 7.4 (2014): 214-218.
3. H. Zimmermann, "OSI Reference Model - The ISO Model of Architecture
for Open Systems Interconnection," in IEEE Transactions on
Communications, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 425-432, April 1980, doi:
10.1109/TCOM.1980.1094702. keywords: {Open systems;Standards
development;ISO standards;Protocols;Computer networks;Computer
architecture;Standards organizations;Computer aided
manufacturing;Constitution;Standardization},
4. “https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/open-systems-interconnection-model-osi/
5. “https://www.javatpoint.com/osi-model

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