Biology Module Final 2

Jigjiga University in Collaboration with Somali
Regional Education Bureau

Remedial Education Programme
Biology Module
Compiled by:
Andualem Ts. (MSc) & Abdilahi D. (MSc)
January 2024
Jigjiga University
Jigjiga, Ethiopia
Contents
1. The Science of Biology ................................................................................................................. 6
1.1. Introduction to Biology ........................................................................................................... 6
1.2. The Scientific Method ............................................................................................................. 7
1.3. The relevance and promise of biological science ................................................................... 9
2. Biological Molecules ................................................................................................................... 14
2.1. Synthesis of Biological Molecules ........................................................................................ 15
2.2. Carbohydrates ....................................................................................................................... 15
2.3. Lipids .................................................................................................................................... 18
2.4. Proteins.................................................................................................................................. 19
2.5. Nucleic Acids ........................................................................................................................ 20
2.6. Vitamins ................................................................................................................................ 21
2.7. Water ..................................................................................................................................... 21
2.8. Minerals ................................................................................................................................ 22
3. Cell Biology ................................................................................................................................. 26
3.1. Cells ...................................................................................................................................... 26
3.1.1. Cell Theory .................................................................................................................... 27
3.1.2. Cell Diversity ................................................................................................................. 27
3.1.3. Types of cells ................................................................................................................. 29
3.1.4. Parts of the cell and their functions ............................................................................... 30
3.1.5. Structure and function of organelles .............................................................................. 34
3.2. The cell and its environment ................................................................................................. 37
3.3. Transport across the cell membranes .................................................................................... 37
4. Energy Transformation ................................................................................................................ 46
4.1. Energy ................................................................................................................................... 47
4.2. Enzymes ................................................................................................................................ 48
4.2.1. Enzymes and Their Role in Metabolism ....................................................................... 48
4.2.2. Chemical nature and classification of enzymes. ............................................................ 49
4.2.3. Mechanisms of Enzyme Action ..................................................................................... 49
4.2.4. Factors Affecting Enzymatic Activities......................................................................... 50
4.3. Respiration ............................................................................................................................ 52
4.3.1. Stages and site of cellular respiration ............................................................................ 54
4.3.2. Energy from non-carbohydrate sources ......................................................................... 59
4.3.3. Fermentation .................................................................................................................. 61
4.4. Photosynthesis ....................................................................................................................... 62
4.4.1. The site of photosynthesis ............................................................................................. 63
4.4.2. Photosynthetic pigments ................................................................................................ 64
4.4.3. Light-dependent and light-independent reactions ......................................................... 66
4.4.4. Photosystem I and photosystem II ................................................................................. 67
4.4.5. Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin cycle) ................................................................. 68
4.4.6. Contributions of photosynthesis for the continuity of life, for O 2, and CO2: balance and
global warming ............................................................................................................................ 71
5. Micro-Organisms ......................................................................................................................... 76
5.1. What are microorganisms?.................................................................................................... 76
5.1.1. Protozoa ......................................................................................................................... 77
5.1.2. Fungi .............................................................................................................................. 77
5.1.3. Algae .............................................................................................................................. 78
Biology Module Page 2

5.1.4. Bacteria .......................................................................................................................... 78
5.1.5. Viruses ........................................................................................................................... 85
5.1.6. HIV and AIDS ............................................................................................................... 87
5.1.7. Control of micro-organisms ........................................................................................... 90
6. Human Biology and Health ......................................................................................................... 97
6.1. Food and Nutrition ................................................................................................................ 97
6.2. The Digestive System ......................................................................................................... 100
6.3. The Respiratory System ...................................................................................................... 106
6.4. The Circulatory System ...................................................................................................... 108
6.5. The Nervous System ........................................................................................................... 115
6.5.1. Sense Organs ............................................................................................................... 118
The Integumentary System (Skin .............................................................................................. 121
6.6. Endocrine Glands ................................................................................................................ 123
6.7. The Reproductive System ................................................................................................... 126
7. Genetics ..................................................................................................................................... 131
7.1. Introduction to Mendelian Inheritance ................................................................................ 132
7.2. Non-Mendelian Inheritance ................................................................................................ 137
7.2.1. Co-dominance .............................................................................................................. 137
7.2.2. Incomplete dominance: ................................................................................................ 137
7.2.3. Multiple Alleles: .......................................................................................................... 138
7.2.4. Sex-linked inheritance in humans:............................................................................... 139
7.2.5. Environmental effects on phenotype ........................................................................... 139
7.3. Genes and chromosomes ..................................................................................................... 140
7.4. The genetic materials .......................................................................................................... 141
7.4.1. The structure and function of DNA ............................................................................. 141
7.4.2. The structure and function of RNA ............................................................................. 143
7.4.3. DNA Replication and Cell Division ............................................................................ 144
7.5. Protein Synthesis ................................................................................................................. 145
8. Environment, Natural Resources & Climate Change ................................................................ 152
8.1. Ecosystems .......................................................................................................................... 152
8.1.1. Food Relationships ...................................................................................................... 155
8.1.2. Recycling in Nature ..................................................................................................... 160
8.2. Conservation of Natural Resources..................................................................................... 163
8.2.1. Conservation of biodiversity........................................................................................ 165
8.2.2. Air and Global Warming ............................................................................................. 170
8.3. Climate Change ................................................................................................................... 174
8.3.1. Cause and Effect of Climate Change ........................................................................... 174
8.3.2. Effects of Climate Change ........................................................................................... 177
8.3.3. Climate Change and Natural Disasters: ....................................................................... 180
8.3.4. International Conventions ............................................................................................ 182

Preface
The Remedial Education Program is an urgent and vital initiative aimed at addressing the
challenges in the educational sector faced by high school students in the Somali Region State of
Ethiopia. The most recent Ethiopian Secondary School Leaving Certificate Examination
(ESSLCE) results have revealed a disheartening nationwide pass rate of nearly 3.1%, with an
even lower pass rate for our region. There is a critical need for targeted intervention.
One of the ways to get out of this quagmire is to to equip carefully selected grade 12 students
with the competencies required to successfully pass the ESSLCE, paving the way for their
enrollment in universities and ensuring increased access to higher education opportunities from
the previous two years. It is with this intention and out of the need this module is compiled.
The different units of the module were organized from grade 9-11 old curriculum and grade 12
new curriculums. The module will certainly, serve our grade 12th students of the university as a
valid reference and /or textbook.
There are 8 chapters in this module. The first chapter deals with science of biology, methods of
science in biology, the relevance and promise of biological sciences, biology and HIV/AIDS.
The second chapter is about biochemical molecules, discusses the different types of inorganic
and organic molecules, which are useful for sustaining life. The third chapter is dealing with
cell biology it focuses on cell theory, types of cells, parts of the cell and their functions. The
fourth chapter is about energy transformation, it discusses photosynthesis and cellular
Respiration. It also discusses about the meaning and properties of enzymes, the biological
catalysts that speeds up biological chemical reactions. The fifth chapter discusses about the
microorganisms like eubacteria, archaea, fungi, protozoa and viruses.
Chapter six is about human body and health, it discusses the nervous system, sense organs, the
endocrine system, homeostasis in the human body, food and nutrition, the digestive system, the
respiratory system, cellular respiration and the circulatory system. The seventh chapter is about
genetics. It describes terms in genetics, cell division, and explains functions of DNA and RNA.

The last chapter is about environment, natural resources and climate change; it focuses on
environment, ecosystems, food relationships, recycling in nature, adaptations and climate
change.
Moreover, there are summary and review questions for each chapter, besides the in-text
questions set at various places within many of the chapters.
We believe that this module will serve the purpose it was intended for and will be improved in
future editions based on comments that will be received from its end users.
Teacher’s Role
Develop personal readiness to support students, because you may face students with less
knowledge of lower grades.
Since teaching is both science and an art, advise students to be self-learners.
Employ your previous teaching experience to support students with especially focus.
Regularly and patiently supervise students in every activity.
Don’t rush, check whether students grasped the concepts of lessons in each topics.
Prepare weekly/monthly progress check list, monitor and evaluate students’ progress
and fill the gap.
Student’s Role
Develop personal readiness, have a goal and minimize unnecessary social media
addiction and peer pressure.
Have study plan and prioritize subjects depending on your previous background.
At first hand, try to cover and understand textbooks to your maximum effort.
It’s strongly advised that students should be able to understand core biological principles
of each chapter before trying to attempt the review questions. If you miss this, it is
something like trying to get into locked door without key.
Repeatedly practice examples, exercises and ESSLCE exam questions and see how
examquestions are prepared from each unit or topics.

UNIT ONE: THE SCIENCE OF BIOLOGY
By the end of this section you should be able to :
Define Biology
Explain why Biology is studied?
Plan a biological investigation using the scientific
method
Explain the relevance and promise of biological
science
1. The Science of Biology
1.1. Introduction to Biology

Biological Sciences is the study of life and living organisms. It is also called as “Biology”. The
Greek word „bio‟ means life and „logos‟ means study of. In the late 1700s Pierre-Antoine de
Monet and Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck coined the term biology. Earlier study of living things was
restricted to the pure Science like Botany and Zoology that together comprise the Biology. But as
the time passed new branches had evolved. New technologies developed in pure subjects as well
as in applied fields, which gave rise to a very broad concept of science called Biological Sciences.
Biological Sciences is an extensive study covering the minute workings of chemical substances
inside living cells to the broad scale concepts of ecosystems and global environmental changes.
Biology uses the scientific methods to study the nature and functions of living things as well as
the interactions with each other and with the environment of which they are parts. It pays
attention and study on the things related to living organisms such as organization of life, their
functions, patterns and order of organisms, growth and development of living organisms and so
on. Living things have variety of shapes, forms and functions, and biologists study life in many
different ways from the cell at the smallest and ecosystems at large. Due to that, biology has
variety of branches and divisions such as evolutionary biology, cellular biology, genetics, growth
and developmental biology and so on.
Biology is one of the most interesting subjects. It is especially important subject for everyone,
since it will affect every one‘s future. Many Biologists are working on problems that critically
affect our lives, such as the world‘s rapidly expanding population and diseases like cancer,
COVID 19, and AIDS.

1.2. The Scientific Method
The word science comes from the Latin word scientia, which means ‘knowledge’. But science
isn’t just about having knowledge: science is a unique system of acquiring knowledge based on
the scientific method. This science is sometimes called experimental science, because it
depends very heavily on experimentation to obtain the information. This is different from applied
science, in which scientific research is used to meet certain human needs. However, it is often
difficult to separate the two.
Biologists study the living world by posing questions about it and seeking science -based
responses. This approach is common to other sciences as well and is often referred to as the
scientific method. The scientific method involves a series of steps that guide scientists through
such scientific investigations. Biologists study the living world by posing questions about it. The
general steps of the Scientific methods are:
Observation: The scientific process typically starts with an observation (often a
problem to be solved) that leads to a question.. The observations can be made
either directly (e.g. using your sense organs) or indirectly using scientific tools
such as microscopes.
Asking Questions: The observation usually leads the scientist to ask question
(inquiry).
Forming of a hypothesis: A hypothesis is proposed scientific explanations

(possible answers) for a set of question (s).To solve a problem, one can propose
several hypotheses. Scientific hypotheses should be testable.
To solve a problem, one can propose several hypotheses. For example, one
hypothesis might be, “The classroom is warm because no one turned on the air
conditioning.” However, there could be other responses to the question, and
therefore one may propose other hypotheses. A second hypothesis might be, “The
classroom is warm because there is a power failure, and so the air conditioning
doesn’t work.” Once one has selected a hypothesis, the student can make a
prediction. A prediction is similar to a hypothesis but it typically has the format “If
. . . then . . . .” For example, the prediction for the first hypothesis might be, “If the
student turns on the air conditioning, then the classroom will no longer be too
warm.”

Testing the hypothesis: A valid hypothesis must be testable. It should also be
falsifiable, meaning that experimental results can disprove it. Importantly, science
does not claim to “prove” anything because scientific understandings are always
subject to modification with further information. This step-openness to disproving
ideas—is what distinguishes sciences from non-sciences. The presence of the
supernatural, for instance, is neither testable nor falsifiable. To test a hypothesis, a
researcher will conduct one or more experiments designed to eliminate one or
more of the hypotheses. Each experiment will have one or more variables and one
or more controls.
A variable is any part of the experiment that can vary or change during the
experiment. The control group contains every feature of the experimental group
except it is not given the manipulation that the researcher hypothesizes. Therefore,
if the experimental group's results differ from the control group, the difference
must be due to the hypothesized manipulation, rather than some outside factor.
Making conclusions about the findings: Scientists consider their original

hypotheses and ask whether they could still be right in light of the new information
gathered during the experiment. If so, the hypotheses can remain as possible
explanations for how things work. If not, scientists reject the hypotheses and try to
come up with alternate explanations (new hypotheses) that can explain what
they’ve seen.
Communicating the findings: When scientists complete some work, they write a
paper that explains exactly what they did and the results they obtained. Then, they
submit the paper to a scientific journal in their field. In addition, the findings will
be printed in scientific journals and assist teachers and students in the field.

Fig. 1.1 The scientific method consists of a series of well-defined steps
Theory and law
Other scientists not only may repeat the experiments but also may carry out additional
experiments to challenge the findings. If the hypothesis is tested and confirmed often enough, the
scientific community calls the hypothesis a theory. Then numerous additional experiments test the
theory using rigorous experimental methods. Repeated challenges to the theory are presented. If
the results continue to support the theory and are found to be universally applicable, the theory is
elevated to a scientific law. A scientific law is a universal, uniform, or constant fact of nature. Sir
Isaac Newton’s law of gravity is an example of a scientific law.
Theory - A widely accepted hypothesis that stands the test of time. Often tested, and
usually never rejected.
1.3. The relevance and promise of biological science

The study of biology has relevance in almost every aspect of life. It would take far too long to
analyse all aspects of the relevance of biology. However, there are some which are undoubtedly
of great importance.

Biology and agriculture
The world’s population is growing at an alarming rate and this poses challenges to governments
all over the world. The extra people all need homes, food and all the other services that are
provided. Many biologists are addressing the problem of how to produce the extra food. However,
they have another problem to consider, which is that global warming may alter the way in which
crops grow.
Many crops that now produce high yields in some countries will not do so if the current trends
continue. Some countries will benefit, as they will find that their agricultural output will increase
with global warming. There are many different estimates as to which countries will ‘win’ and
which will ‘lose’. So how can biologists help? They are carrying out research into how to produce
crop plants that:
 Will be adapted to the new conditions
 Are capable of producing their crop quickly so that more than one crop can be obtained
per year from a field
 Are disease resistant
 Are drought resistant.
This work involves the genetic modification of existing crop plants to give them the new
characteristics that will enable them to be productive in the changed environment.
Biology and medicine

Biologists are also able to give advice on ways of reducing the rate of population growth. They
can advise individuals and governments on effective methods of contraception and ways of
educating people about the need to limit population growth.
Biologists, as we found earlier, are closely involved in medical work. Doctors and nurses have
specialized biological knowledge and expertise to help sick people and to advise people on ways
of staying healthy. Their work is supported by a whole range of other biologists, such as:
 Medical laboratory technicians who test blood samples and other samples and provide
reports for doctors
 Medical researchers who are constantly finding out more about the ways in which
disease-causing organisms function and are spread
 Radiographers, who produce X-rays and other images to help in the diagnosis of disease
 Specialised researchers who look into why and how cancer is caused
 Drug development researchers, who usually work for a commercial company and
develop new drugs to treat diseases

Biology and the environment
Biologists are actively involved in monitoring the impact of global warming on the environment.
Many of the fieldwork techniques we discussed earlier are used to find out how the abundance
and distribution of species in areas are changing. These biologists give advice to governments on
how best to conserve environments and to, where necessary, introduce new species that will
maintain the best balance of species within the area. Biotechnology is an exciting area of
biological research that is expanding rapidly. It involves many different aspects of biology
The promise of research in these fields is huge. Among the goals are:
 cures for genetic diseases
 treatments for degenerative diseases, such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease
 establishing biologically controlled industrial processes to manufacture more biological
products in the same way as insulin is now manufactured
 producing drugs that are ‘tailor-made’ to suit an individual’s needs
 genetically modifying plants to meet a specific need; for example:
 plants that can produce a good yield of a crop in dry conditions
 plants that produce their own insecticide will not need to be sprayed with
chemical insecticides
 cloning of productive animals and plants
 production of monoclonal antibodies that can deliver a drug to only those cells that need
treatment (for example, cancer cells)
 using stem cells to repair damaged organs and, ultimately, to grow whole new organs from
just a few of a person’s stem cells
Unit Review
In this unit, you have learnt about:
Biology is the scientific study of living things.
Living organisms interact with themselves and the environment at all levels of
biological organizations.
Biological inquiry depends on a scientific method. Scientists follow a method while
performing scientific experiments and writing up the results.
By following the scientific method carefully, scientists make sure that their conclusions are
based on observations and that other scientists can repeat their experiments.
The steps for scientific method includes: observations, questions, hypothesis,
experiment, conclusion (result) and communication with other Scientists

Review Questions
1. Which of the following is not a property of life?

A. Populations of organisms rarely change over time.
B. Living things exhibit complex but ordered organization.
C Organisms take in energy and use it to perform all of life’s activities.
D Organisms reproduce their own kind.
2. Which of the following is the correct procedure of scientific method?
A. Experiment conclusion application Question observation
B Question observation experiment analysis prediction result
C. Observation question hypothesis prediction, experiment results conclusion
D Observation question opinion conclusion hypothesis
3. Hypothesis in biology is best described as...
A Possible explanation of an observation.
B. An observation that supports a theory.
C. A general principle that explains some aspect of life.
D. An unchanging statement that correctly predicts some aspect of life.
4. Which of the following corresponds to the beginning step of a scientific work?
A. Testing hypotheses C. Conducting observations
B. Making observations D. Drawing conclusions
5. In an experiment designed to test the effect of different concentrations of a fertilizer on the
growth rate of a plant, which one of the following is the dependent variable?
A. The growth rate of the plant. C. Concentrations of the fertilizer applied.
B. Plants assigned to the control group. D. Plants assigned to the experimental group.
6. A biologist applied the scientific method repeatedly, gathered a large amount of supporting
experimental data and finally described a pattern or relationship between different factors.
What is the best term referring to facts established in this way?
A. Theory B. Hypothesis C. Predication D. Law
7. Which of the following is NOT in agreement with the scientific method?
A. Putting forward testable hypotheses.
B. Putting forward personal value judgments.
C. Carrying out experiments in duplicates.
D. Analyzing results and drawing conclusions

8. Which of the following steps in the scientific method comes following observation?
A. Prediction B. Hypothesis C. Experiment D. Theory
9. Which of the following step of the scientific method comes before all the rest?
A. Hypothesis B. Experiment C. Conclusion D. Reporting the result
10. In scientific method, what is the importance of a background research for a given problem?
A. To formulate a hypothesis C. To prepare report of the result
B. To make a prediction D. To make a conclusion
11. What do you call the reasoning technique in science where general principles are used to
analyze specific cases?
A. Induction B. Deduction C. Pseudo-deduction D. Pseudo-induction
12. Choose the step that comes at the last step in the scientific method.
A. Proposing the research hypothesis C. Conducting experiments
B. Formulation of a scientific theory D. Making predictions
13. Which of the following is a worthwhile biological problem for scientific investigation?
A. Estimation of the amount of carbon in a forest ecosystem.
B. How a crying dog can tell who among elders of the village is going to die next
C. How witchcrafts inflict bad health by cursing a healthy person
D. How the traditional medicine men/women cure a possessed person.
14. What is the ultimate source of all scientific knowledge?
A. Observation C. Trial and error
B. Guessing D. Observation and experimentation
15. In an experiment designed to study the effect of temperature on the rate of seed germination,
which of the following should the experimenter vary?
A. Seed number C. Temperature
B. B. Water quality D. Seed size
16. Which of the following is consistent with science ?
A. Proof by investigation of the causes of a phenomenon
B. Proof by reference to an unknown object
C. proof by reference to a respected leader
D. Proof based on lessons from a person one believes

UNIT TWO: BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
By the end of this section you should be able to:
Group biochemical molecules as inorganic and organic.

Explain which chemical elements are found most often in biological
molecules
Describe the properties of water.
Explain the importance of water to living organisms.
Show the structures and functions of biological molecules using
chemical formulae and examples.
Identify biologically important compounds by conducting simple food
tests.
Appreciate how biological molecules are obtained from different foods.
2. Biological Molecules
All living organisms require several compounds to continue to live. We call these compounds
biomolecules. The smallest unit that make up a cell are called elements. Scientists have
identified about 13 elements are involved in producing & maintaining life on our planet. Of these
13, 6 make up the common building block, which chemically join together to give a cell its
unique structure & internal activity (chemical function). These 6 are the elements of carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) & sulfur (S). All living things are composed these 6
elements. The 4 most common elements in living organism are, in order, H, C, O & N. The
biological importance of H, O, N & C is largely due to their having valences of 1,2,3 & 4
respectively & their ability to form more stable covalent bonds than any other elements with
these valences. C, H, and O & N chemically join or bond together to form 4 large units of
organization called organic compounds,
Biological molecules are often referred to as the molecules of life that are basically found in a
living cell and categorized as organic and inorganic molecules in general. Each member of the
groups is vital for every single organism on Earth. The organic bio-molecules are proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids. They are important either structurally or functionally for
cells and, in most cases, they are important in both ways. The most commonly known inorganic
molecules are water and minerals, which are still important for the normal functioning of the cell.

2.1. Synthesis of Biological Molecules
Most biological molecules are large molecules (Biological macromolecules) that are built from
smaller organic molecules by dehydration synthesis and breakdown by hydrolysis.
Dehydration Synthesis: Most macromolecules are made from single subunits, or building
blocks, called monomers. The monomers combine with each other using covalent bonds to form
larger molecules known as polymers. In doing so, monomers release water molecules as
byproducts. This type of reaction is dehydration synthesis, which means “to put together while
losing water.”
Hydrolysis: Polymers break down into monomers during hydrolysis. A chemical reaction occurs
when inserting a water molecule across the covalent bond. During these reactions, the polymer
breaks into two components: one part gains a hydrogen atom (H+) and the other gains a hydroxyl
molecule (OH–) from a split water molecule.
Fig. 2.1: Organisms are made up of chemical building blocks: All organisms are composed of a
variety of these biological macromolecules.
2.2. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are a large group of molecules that can be represented by the formula (CH2O)n,
where n is the number of carbons in the molecule. Therefore, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to
oxygen is 1:2:1 in carbohydrate molecules. The origin of the term “carbohydrate” is based on its
components: carbon (“carbo”) and water (“hydrate”). When their molecular structures are
examined, the linked carbon atoms are seen to be bonded with hydrogen atoms (—H) and
hydroxyl groups (—OH), the components of water.

Carbohydrates have three major biochemical roles:
They are a source of stored energy that can be released.
They are used to transport stored energy within complex organisms.
They serve as carbon skeletons that can be rearranged to form new molecules.
It also helps with communication between cells (cell-cell recognition).
Carbohydrates are classified into three subtypes: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides.
MONOSACCHARIDES
Monosaccharides (mono- = “one”; sacchar- = “sweet”) are simple sugars. In monosaccharides,
the number of carbons usually ranges from three to seven. If the sugar has an aldehyde group (the
functional group with the structure R-CHO), it is known as an aldose, and if it has a ketone group
(the functional group with the structure RC(=O)R’), it is known as a ketose. Depending on the
number of carbons in the sugar, they also may be known as trioses (three carbons), pentoses (five
carbons), and or hexoses (six carbons). Monosaccharides can exist as a linear chain or as ring-
shaped molecules; in aqueous solutions they are usually found in ring forms.
Glucose (C6H12O6) is a common monosaccharide and an important source of energy. During

cellular respiration, energy is released from glucose and that energy is used to help make
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Plants synthesize glucose using carbon dioxide and water, and
glucose, in turn, is used for energy requirements for the plant.
Galactose (a milk sugar) and fructose (found in fruit) are other common monosaccharides.
Although glucose, galactose, and fructose all have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6), they
differ structurally and stereo chemically. This makes them different molecules despite sharing the
same atoms in the same proportions, and they are all isomers of one another, or isomeric
monosaccharides. Glucose and galactose are aldoses, and fructose is a ketose.

Fig 2.2: Structure of monosaccharides (glucose and fructose)
DISACCHARIDES
Disaccharides (di- = “two”) form when two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration reaction
(also known as a condensation reaction or dehydration synthesis). During this process, the
hydroxyl group of one monosaccharide combines with the hydrogen of another monosaccharide,
releasing a molecule of water and forming a covalent bond. A covalent bond formed between a
carbohydrate molecule and another molecule (in this case, between two monosaccharides) is
known as a glycosidic bond (also called glycosidic linkages).
Common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose. Lactose is a disaccharide consisting
of the monomers glucose and galactose. It is found naturally in milk. Maltose, or malt sugar, is a
disaccharide formed by a dehydration reaction between two glucose molecules. The most
common disaccharide is sucrose, or table sugar, which is composed of the monomers glucose and
fructose.
Fig: 2.3 Structure of maltose (disaccharides)

POLYSACCHARIDES
A long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds is known as a polysaccharide (poly-
= “many”). The chain may be branched or unbranched, and it may contain different types of
monosaccharides. Starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin are primary examples of polysaccharides.
Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates. It is made up of
monomers of glucose. Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch and is a highly branched
molecule usually stored in liver and muscle cells. Whenever blood glucose levels decrease,
glycogen is broken down to release glucose in a process known as glycogenolysis.
Cellulose is the most abundant natural biopolymer. The cell wall of plants is mostly made of
cellulose and provides structural support to the cell. Cellulose is made up of glucose monomers
that are linked by β 1-4 glycosidic bonds. Every other glucose monomer in cellulose is flipped
over, and the monomers are packed tightly as extended long chains. This gives cellulose its
rigidity and high tensile strength—which is so important to plant cells.
2.3. Lipids
Lipids are highly diverse group of compounds that are largely non-polar in nature. This is
because they are hydrocarbons that include mostly non-polar carbon–carbon or carbon–hydrogen
bonds. Non-polar molecules are hydrophobic (“water fearing”), or insoluble in water. Lipids
perform many different functions in a cell. Cells store energy for long-term use in the form of
fats. Lipids also provide insulation from the environment for plants and animals. Lipids are also
the building blocks of many hormones and are an important constituent of all cellular membranes.
Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and some steroids.

Fats and Oils: A fat molecule consists of two main components—glycerol and fatty acids.
Glycerol is an organic compound (alcohol) with three carbons, five hydrogen, and three hydroxyl
(OH) groups. Fatty acids have a long chain of hydrocarbons to which a carboxyl group is
attached, hence the name “fatty acid.” The number of carbons in the fatty acid may range from 4
to 36. The most common are those containing 12–18 carbons. In a fat molecule, the fatty acids
attach to each of the glycerol molecule's three carbons with an ester bond through an oxygen
atom.
Waxes: Wax covers some aquatic birds' feathers and some plants' leaf surfaces. Because of
waxes' hydrophobic nature, they prevent water from sticking on the surface. Long fatty acid
chains esterified to long-chain alcohols comprise waxes.

Phospholipids: Phospholipids are major plasma membrane constituents that comprise cells'
outermost layer. Like fats, they are comprised of fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol or
sphingosine backbone. However, instead of three fatty acids attached as in triglycerides, there are
two fatty acids forming diacylglycerol,
Steroids: Unlike the phospholipids and fats that we discussed earlier, steroids have a fused ring
structure. Although they do not resemble the other lipids, scientists group them with them because
they are also hydrophobic and insoluble in water. All steroids have four linked carbon rings and
several of them, like cholesterol, have a short tail. Many steroids also have the –OH functional
group, which puts them in the alcohol classification (sterols)
2.4. Proteins
A protein is a compound made of small carbon compounds called amino acids. Amino acids are
small compounds that are made of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and sometimes
sulfur. All amino acids share the same general structure.
Fig.2.4. Basic structure of amino acid
Amino acids have a central carbon atom like the one shown in Fig. 1.1. Recall that carbon can
form four covalent bonds. One of those bonds is with hydrogen. The other three bonds are with
an amino group (–NH2), a carboxyl group (–COOH), and a variable group (–R). The
variable group makes each amino acid different. There are 20 different variable groups, and
proteins are made of different combinations of all 20 different amino acids. Several covalent
bonds called peptide bonds join amino acids together to form proteins, which are also shown in
Fig: 2.5. A peptide forms between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of
another.
Fig: 2.5. Peptide bond

Based on the variable groups contained in the different amino acids, proteins can have up to four
levels of structure. The number of amino acids in a chain and the order in which the amino
acids are joined define the protein‘s primary structure. After an amino acid chain is
formed, it folds into a unique three-dimensional shape, which is the protein‘s secondary
structure. A protein might contain many helices, pleats, and folds. The tertiary structure is the
overall shape of a polypeptide resulting from interactions between the side chains (R-groups) of
the various amino acids.. Some proteins form a fourth level (quaternary structure) of structure
by combining with other proteins. Quaternary proteins are the overall protein structure results
from the aggregation of polypeptide units. e.g. hemoglobin ( 2 alpha & 2 beta subunits).
Proteins make up about 15 percent of your total body mass and are involved in nearly every
function of your body. For example, your muscles, skin, and hair all are made of proteins.
Your cells contain about 10,000 different proteins that provide structural support, transport
substances inside the cell and between cells, communicate signals within the cell and between
cells, speed up chemical reactions, and control cell growth.
2.5. Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are complex macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information. Nucleic
acids are made of smaller repeating subunits called nucleotides. Nucleotides are composed of
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and hydrogen atoms. There are 5 major nucleotides, all of
which have three units a phosphate, a nitrogenous base, and a ribose sugar, as shown in Fig. 2.6.
Fig. 2.6: Basic structure of nucleotide
There are two types of nucleic acids in living organisms: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA). In nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA, the sugar of one nucleotide
bonds to the phosphate of another nucleotide. There are five different bases found in nucleotide
subunits that make up DNA and RNA, Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, Thymine and Uracil. Each of
these nitrogenous bases that stick out from the chain is available for hydrogen bonding with other
bases in other nucleic acids. A nucleotide with three phosphate groups is adenosine triphosphate
(ATP).

2.6. Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds that are needed in small amounts for metabolic activities. Many
vitamins help enzymes function well. Vitamin D is made by cells in your skin. Some B vitamins
and vitamin K are produced by bacteria living in the large intestine. Sufficient quantities
of most vitamins cannot be made by the body, but a well-balanced diet can provide the vitamins
that are needed. Some vitamins that are fat-soluble can be stored in small quantities in the liver
and fatty tissues. Other vitamins are water-soluble and cannot be stored in the body. Foods
providing an adequate level of these vitamins should be included in a person‘s diet on a regular
basis.
2.7. Water
Water molecules are formed by covalent bonds that link two hydrogen atoms to one oxygen atom.
It is one of the most plentiful and essential of compounds, existing in gaseous, liquid, and solid
states. Water has many properties that are critical to maintaining life. It is a polar molecule,
allowing for forming hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonds allow ions and other polar molecules to
dissolve in water. Therefore, water is an excellent solvent. The hydrogen bonds between water
molecules cause the water to have a high heat capacity, meaning it takes considerable added heat
to raise its temperature. As the temperature rises, the hydrogen bonds between water continually
break and form anew. This allows for the overall temperature to remain stable, although energy is
added to the system. Water also exhibits a high heat of vaporization, which is key to how
organisms cool themselves by evaporating sweat. Water’s cohesive forces allow for the property
of surface tension; whereas, we see its adhesive properties as water rises inside capillary tubes.
The pH value is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution and is one of many
chemical characteristics that is highly regulated in living organisms through homeostasis. Acids
and bases can change pH values, but buffers tend to moderate the changes they cause. These
properties of water are intimately connected to the biochemical and physical processes performed
by living organisms, and life would be very different if these properties were altered, if it could
exist at all.
Water has several properties that are important to living things:
 transparency allows light to penetrate, which allows water plants to photosynthesise
 a high surface tension allows organisms to live on and just below the surface
 a high specific heat capacity means that water does not heat up or cool down too quickly
 a high latent heat of vaporisation means that water takes in a lot of energy when it is
turned to a vapour

 ice is less dense than liquid water, so ponds freeze from the top down allowing life to
continue under the ice
 it is a good solvent, allowing reactions to occur and making it ideal as a transport
medium
 it is a reactant in many reactions, including photosynthesis and all hydrolysis reactions
(for example, those of digestion)
 it has a low (but not too low) viscosity, again making it ideal as a transport medium.
2.8. Minerals
Minerals are inorganic compounds used by the body as building material, and they are
involved with metabolic functions. For example, the mineral iron is needed to make hemoglobin
in red blood cells and is delivered to body cells as blood circulates in the body. Calcium, and
other minerals, is an important component of bones and are involved with muscle and nerve
functions and they serve as cofactors for enzymes. Magnesium is an important component of
chlorophyll, involved in photosynthesis.

Unit Review
Organic molecules always contain carbon and hydrogen. •
The most common elements in living tissue are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and
phosphorus.
Carbohydrate molecules contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only. The ratio of
hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is 2:1.
Monosaccharides are carbohydrates with atoms that are arranged in a single ring-like structure.
Starch and glycogen are storage carbohydrates. They have compact molecules that enable much
glucose to be stored in a small place. They are insoluble, which means that they have no osmotic
effects within the cell and do not move from the cell.
Amino acids contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. They have the general structure
shown on the right.
Fatty acid molecules can be either saturated (all carbon– carbon bonds are single),
monounsaturated (one carbon–carbon double bond) or polyunsaturated (more than one carbon–
carbon double bond).
A phospholipid molecule consists of two fatty acids and a phosphate group bonded to a
molecule of glycerol. The phosphate group gives the molecule a hydrophilic ‘head’ and the fatty
acids give the molecule hydrophobic ‘tails’.
Phospholipid bilayers are the basis of biological membranes.
Nucleic acids are made from nucleotides.
DNA is a double-stranded nucleic acid; RNA is a single- stranded nucleic acid.
Reducing sugars react with Benedict’s solution when heated to give a yellow/orange/red
precipitate.
Non-reducing sugars must first be hydrolysed by boiling with HCl and then neutralised before
they will react with Benedict’s solution; they then give the same yellow/orange/red precipitate
as reducing sugars.
Proteins react with Biuret reagent to give a mauve/purple colour.
The emulsion test for lipids produces a milky-white colour in wate

Review Question
1. Which of the following pairs of elements are found in all carbohydrates in addition to the
element carbon?
A. Nitrogen and oxygen. C. Hydrogen and nitrogen.
B. Hydrogen and oxygen. D. phosphorus and nitrogen.
2. Among the molecules found in cells, which of the following contains less energy?
A. A glucose molecule C. A triglycerids
B. An amino acid D. A water molecule
3. In which one of their structural parts do different molecules of amino acids differ from one
another?
A. In their R group. C. In their carboxyl group.
B. In their amino group. D. In their alpha – carbon group.
4. If one mixes a sample of a fruit juice and some drops of Benedic’ts solution and obtains a
brick – red precipitate up on warming the mixture, what does the juice contain?
A. Starch B. Reducing sugar C. Sucrose D. Protein
5. The main advantage of the high level of branching in a molecule of amylopectin is that:
A. the many ‘ends’ allow rapid hydrolysis C. there is no osmotic effects
B. much can be stored in a small space D. it is insoluble
6. The secondary structure of a protein can be:
A. a globular or a fibrous structure
B. a specific sequence of amino acids
C. a dipeptide
D. an α-helix or a β-pleated sheet
7. Condensation involves:
A. the creation of new bonds with the addition of a molecule of water
B. the creation of new bonds with the loss of a molecule of water
C. the breaking of existing bonds with the addition of a molecule of water
D. the breaking of existing bonds with the loss of a molecule of water
8. DNA is made from:
A. a single polynucleotide chain C. two chains of amino acids
B. a single chain of amino acids D. two polynucleotide chains
9. The functional group of a fatty acid is:
A. a ketone group C. a carboxyl group
B. an aldehyde group D. An amino group

10. In a saturated fatty acid:
A. there is only single bonds between carbon atoms
B. there is one double bond between carbon atoms
C. there is one triple bond between carbon atoms
D. there is more than one double bond between carbon atoms
11. DNA differs from RNA in that it (DNA) is:
A. larger and double stranded C. smaller and single stranded
B. smaller and double stranded D. larger and single stranded
12. Maltose is a:
A. reducing monosaccharide sugar C. non-reducing disaccharide sugar
B. reducing disaccharide sugar D. non-reducing monosaccharide sugar
13. The main component of the plant cell wall is ___________ ?
A. Starch B. Cellulose C. protein D. Chitin
14. All proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and what other element?
A. Chlorine B. Flourine C. Nitrogen D. Sulphur
15. How many carbon atoms are there in one disaccharide molecule?
A. 6 B. 12 C. 18 D. 24
16. What is the name of the sugar found in milk?
A. Glucose B. Lactose C. Maltose D. Sucrose
17. What can one conclude about the contents of the foodstuff if a mixture of Benedict solution
and a foodstuff remain blue after heating?
A. It contains proteins. C. It contains fats
B. It lacks starch D. It lacks reducing sugar
18. Which of the following groups of substances are all inorganic?
A. Water, sugar, calcium, carbonate C. Water, calcium carbonate, carbon dioxide
B. Sugar, fatty acid, amino acid D. Carbon dioxide, amino acid, fatty acid
19. In which of the following compounds are both members of the pair are polymers of
carbohydrates that naturally occur in plants only?
A. Starch and chitin C. Glycogen and cellulose
B. Starch and cellulose D. Glycogen and chitin
20. Which of the following is generally expected to give better health benefits when present in
human diet?
A. Animal fat C. Monounsaturated fatty acid
B. Saturated fatty acid D. Polyunsaturated fatty aci

UNIT THREE: CELL BIOLOGY
explain how living things are composed of cells

Identify unicellular organisms from multicellular organism
State the cell theory.
List the structures of cells and describe their function.
Describe the permeability of the cell membrane.
Describe the process of diffusion and its importance in living organisms.
Demonstrate diffusion and osmosis experimentally.
Explain plasmolysis and turgor pressure.
Explain passive and active transport across cell membranes.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of diffusion, osmosis and active
transport for moving substances into and out of cells.
3. Cell Biology
3.1. Cells
The cell is a basic unit of structure and function in living organisms. Cell is the simplest structure
capable of existing as an individual living unit in unicellular organisms. There are certain
chemical reactions within a cell, required to maintain life. With time cellular organization has led
to cell-differentiation and that has given rise to organs and organ systems.
This is possible only by division of labor, an individual comprised of many organ systems
working in a co-coordinated manner.
Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organs systems → Individuals
Cell, though very small, is extremely complex. It acts as an autonomous unit i.e. able to carry out
its activities independently:
 it can carry out all biological processes
 it can oxidize the food molecules to produce energy & store this energy rich molecule
 by using nutrient molecules, it can build new structures & can replace worn out cells
 it can respire and exchange gases with its surroundings
 it can replace its own self
 it can maintain homeostasis
 each cell has its own life span
3.1.1. Cell Theory
The formulation of cell theory and the present day knowledge of cell structure and function is the
chronological order of scientific works
In the mid-16th Antony Van Leeuwenhoek (using his own compound microscope) was the
first person to see micro-organisms.
In 1665 Robert Hook was the first to observe the tiny box-like structure in the tree cork &
called it 'cells'.
In 1838 a formal hypothesis that cells make up the part of living thing was advanced by
Mathias Schleiden & Theador Schwann.
In 1855 Virchow showed that all cells arise from pre-existing cells by cell division.
The cell theory, in its modern form, includes the following three principles:
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells within which the life processes of
metabolism and heredity occur.
2. Cells are the smallest living things, the basic units of organizations of all
organisms.
3. Cells arise only by division of a previously existing cell. Although life evolved
spontaneously in the hydrogen rich environment of the early earth, biologists has
concluded that additional cells are not originating spontaneously at present. Rather, life on
earth represents a continuous line of descent from those early cells.
3.1.2. Cell Diversity

Cells are found in different organisms, and are very diverse in their size, shape and their internal
structure and this also applies to cells found in the same organism. This diversity is influenced by
their roles and function within organism‘s body.
Cell Shape
Cells have different shapes due to appropriate function. It is possible to find other cells which are
flat, most of these cells are body cells and their function is protecting and covering body surface.
Nerve cells have long extensions. Skin cells have a shape which is flat. Egg cells have shape
which is like sphere, and some bacteria are rod in shape. Some plant cells are rectangular
(See Fig 3.1).

Fig 3.1: Various types of cells
Cell Size
Cell size varies greatly. The smallest cells are found in bacteria (diameter: 0.2 µ to 0.5 µ). Some
cell can be seen without using magnification instruments as they are enough to be seen by the
naked eye (egg of birds and reptiles). Neuron cell of giraffe is 2 meters in length.
Fig 3.2: Various types of animal cells (shape)

3.1.3. Types of cells
In nature we have two categories of cells: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic. In broad terms cells can
be divided into two major classes, i.e. Prokaryotic and eukarotic cells.
Prokaryotic Cell
The word prokaryote comes from two Greece words, pro meaning before (primitive) and karyo
means nucleus. Therefore, prokaryotic cells are cells lacking a membrane-bound nucleus or
membrane-bound organelles, e.g. bacteria, blue-green algae, spirochetes, etc.
Prokaryotic cells were probably the first form of life on earth. Prokaryotic cells refer to a bacterial
cell where the hereditary material called DNA is not enclosed in a membrane and there is no
internal structure like nucleus. Also it lacks other intracellular cell organelles. Absence of
intracellular organelles indicates primitive nature of prokaryotic cell. Prokaryote is the term given
to organisms without true nucleus.
Eukaryotic Cell
Eukaryotic cells (Eu = good, true or well, karyo = nucleus) are cells characterized by membrane-
bound nucleus and other organelles, e.g. in plants from algae (some of them) to angiosperms and
in animals from protozoa to mammals. The cells of other multicultural organisms (like plants,
animals and fungi) have a membrane bound nucleus. The hereditary material (DNA) is present
within this nucleus. The cytoplasm contains a number of membrane bound organelles like
mitochondria, chloroplast etc. There are a number of non-membranous organelles also like
centriole and ribosomes. Each organelle performs a specific function

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Typical organisms bacteria, archaea protists, fungi, plants, animals
Typical size ~ 1–10 µm ~ 10–100 µm (sperm cells, apart from the tail, are smaller)
nucleoid region; no real
Type of nucleus real nucleus with double membrane
nucleus
DNA circular (usually) linear molecules (chromosomes) with histone proteins
RNA-/protein- RNA-synthesis inside the nucleus
coupled in cytoplasm
synthesis protein synthesis in cytoplasm
Ribosomes 50S+30S 60S+40S
Cytoplasmatic
very few structures highly structured by endomembranes and a cytoskeleton
structure
flagella and cilia containing microtubules; lamellipodia and
Cell movement flagella made of flagellin
filopodia containing actin
Mitochondria none one to several thousand (though some lack mitochondria)
Chloroplasts none in algae and plants
single cells, colonies, higher multicellular organisms with
Organization usually single cells
specialized cells
Binary fission (simple Mitosis (fission or budding)
Cell division
division) Meiosis
Table 3.1: Comparison of features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
3.1.4. Parts of the cell and their functions

An organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function. There are two kinds
of cell organelles on the basis membrane covering, membranous organelles and non
membranous organelles. Endoplasmic reticulum (Rough and Smooth), Golgi bodies,
mitochondria, chloroplasts, nucleus, lysosomes, peroxisomes and vacuoles are membranous
whereas, non-membrane bound cell organelles are ribosomes (70S and 80S), centrosomes, cilia
and flagella, microtubules, basal bodies and microfilaments.
Fig 3.3: A Generalized Animal Cell

Fig. 3.4: A Generalized Plant Cell
For the sake of discussion organelles in a typical (generalized) eukaryotic cell may be grouped
into four main parts, i.e.
I. Cell Wall
II. Cell Membrane
III. Nucleus and
IV. Cytoplasm
I. Cell Wall
The cell wall is a rigid covering that protects the cell, provides structural support, and gives shape
to the cell. Fungal and protistan cells also have cell walls. While the chief component of
prokaryotic cell walls is peptidoglycan, the major organic molecule in the plant cell wall is
cellulose, a polysaccharide comprised of glucose units.
Cell Wall is :-
Non-living, semi-rigid, laminated, permeable and external covering of
plant cells.
Secreted by the cell itself & primarily contains a complex polysaccharide
(carbohydrate) called cellulose.
Found in plants, algae, fungi, and most bacteria.
Function of Cell Wall:-

Provides protection & support to the plasma membrane & cytoplasm of
plant cell.
Gives strength & rigidity (shape) to the cell

II. Cell Membrane
The membrane that surrounds and encloses a cell is sometimes called the cell surface
membrane, but most biologists now refer to it as the plasma membrane. Although this
membrane has little mechanical strength to support the cell, it plays a crucial role in:
 Controlling what enters and leaves the cell
 Cell Signaling; various molecules in the membrane allow the cell to be recognized by
hormones and the immune system (in animals) and (in plants) growth regulator
substances, such as axons.
The plasma membrane clearly has a vital role in isolating the cell from its environment, whilst
allowing necessary exchanges with that environment.
The key features of plasma membrane are:

The phospholipid bilayer is the basis of the membrane
Integral proteins (also known as intrinsic proteins and trans-membrane proteins) that span
the membrane. Some of these proteins play an important role in moving substances across the
membrane. There are three main types of these transport proteins:
 Channel Proteins – these proteins have a channel through them along which a
specific ion can pass; there are different channel proteins for different ions
 Carrier Proteins – these proteins act in a more sophisticated way to move larger
molecules through the membrane by facilitated diffusion or active transport; the ones
involved in active transport are often referred to as pumps
 Peripheral Proteins (also known as extrinsic proteins) that span only one layer (or
sometimes less) of the membrane. They have a range of functions; some are enzymes,
others anchor integral proteins to the cytoskeleton
Glycoproteins and glycolipids – protein and lipid molecules that have carbohydrate chains
attached to them and often serve as signals to other cells. They also act as receptor sites for
hormones and drugs. The carbohydrate component of each can be cell-specific and so allow
identification of the cell by the immune system.
Cholesterol – reduces the fluidity of the membrane.

Cell Membrane / Plasma Membrane is :-
It is living, thin, elastic, porous, and Semi-permeable covering of a cell.
Function of Plasma Membrane:-
Define boundaries & serve as permeability barriers
Sites of specific functions (e.g. transport proteins)
Detect & transmit electrical & chemical signals
Mediate Cell to Cell communication
Fig. 3.5: Illustration of a Eukaryotic cell membrane
III. Nucleus
The nucleus typically occupies about 10% of the volume of a cell. It has several components:
The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus. There are many
nuclear pores, which allow the passage of some molecules between the nucleus and the
cytoplasm.
The nucleolus is an organelle within the nucleus. It is not membrane-bound. Its function is
to synthesise the components of ribosomes, which then pass through the nuclear pores into
the cytoplasm.
Chromatin consists of DNA molecules bound with proteins called histones. For most of
the cell cycle, the chromatin fibres are loosely dispersed throughout the nucleus. Just
before a cell is about to divide, the chromatin condenses into distinct, recognisable
structures called chromosomes.

IV. Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the entire region b/n the nucleus & plasma membrane of a eukaryotic cell, a
term also used for the interior of a prokaryotic cell. Cytoplasm is gelatin-like material
(intracellular fluid) filled with organelles, small structures and various substances that perform
specific cell functions.
The cytosol is the material of cell interior not occupied by the nucleus, containing a number of
distinct, highly organized membrane-enclosed structures- the organelles- dispersed within a
complex jelly – like marrow called the „cytosol‟. All cells contain six main types of organelles-
the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, and vacules.
They are similar in all cells, but with some variations depending on the cell specialization. Each
organelle is a separate compartment, containing different chemically setting for fulfilling a partial
or cellular function. These organelles occupy about half of the total cell volume. The remaining
part of the cytoplasm is cytosol.
3.1.5. Structure and function of organelles

Mitochondria
Mitochondria are the sites of most of the reactions of aerobic respiration. They are surrounded by
two membranes. The inner membrane is folded into cristae to increase the available surface area.
Some of the reactions of aerobic respiration take place in the fluid matrix. The folded inner
membrane provides a large surface area for the electron-transport system, which produces most of
the ATP (energy).
One of the major features distinguishing prokaryotes from eukaryotes is the presence of
mitochondria. Mitochondria are double-membraned organelles that contain their own ribosomes
and DNA. Each membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins. Eukaryotic cells
may contain anywhere from one to several thousand mitochondria, depending on the cell’s level
of energy consumption.
Fig. 3.6: Mitochondrial Structure

 Mitochondria are the “power houses of the cell”. They are the organelles
responsible for the production of energy in Kreb cycle, electron transport chain, and
beta-oxidation of fatty acids (sites of oxidative metabolism).
Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are useful organelles among plastids as they highly participate in the process of
photosynthesis which is a process by which plants synthesize their own food. They are located in
outer surface of the cell to receive enough light. Chloroplasts are green colored due to the
chlorophyll pigments found in its internal parts.
Chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes, like mitochondria, but, unlike mitochondria, the
inner membrane is not folded. There are two main regions in chloroplasts that are linked to the
stages of photosynthesis:
Membranous regions called grana (each of which is a stack of thylakoids) where the
light-dependent reactions occur, and
A fluid stroma – where the light-independent reactions occur.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. They can be found free in the cytoplasm, but are also
bound to the membrane system of the endoplasmic reticulum, forming rough endoplasmic
reticulum. Each ribosome comprises two subunits that are made from RNA and protein. The
subunits are manufactured in the nucleolus. They leave the nucleus through nuclear pores and
combine in the cytoplasm.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a membrane system found throughout the cytoplasm of eukaryotic
cells. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum:
Rough ER has ribosomes on its surface and is responsible for the manufacture and
transport of proteins. Protein molecules manufactured by the ribosomes pass through small
pores into the lumen (inner space) of the ER. They are then moved in a vesicle to the Golgi
body. Rough ER is extensive in cells that manufacture a lot of protein, such as cells that
manufacture enzymes to be secreted into the lumen of the intestine.
Smooth ER has no ribosomes on its surface. It is concerned with the synthesis of lipids. It
is also associated with carbohydrate metabolism and detoxification.
Golgi apparatus (or Golgi body)

The Golgi apparatus consists of a number of flattened membrane bound sacs in which proteins are
modified. Proteins may be converted into glycoproteins, for example. Many of the modifications
added in the Golgi apparatus act as a kind of ‘tag’, which determine the final destination of the
molecule. Think of the Golgi apparatus as a cellular post office that labels and then distributes
molecules!
Many of the modified molecules are released from the Golgi apparatus in vesicles to be carried to
other parts of the cell or to the plasma membrane to pass out of the cell by exocytosis to be used
elsewhere. Some vesicles form the lysosomes.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes have no specialized internal structure and are surrounded by a single membrane. They
are formed in the Golgi apparatus and contain digestive enzymes that break down cellular waste
and debris. Lysosomes are particularly abundant in phagocytic white blood cells. Here, enzymes
from the lysosomes digest foreign cells that have been engulfed.
Peroxisome:
Peroxisome is membrane-enclosed sacs containing oxidative enzymes and catalase that detoxify
various wastes. Oxidative enzymes need oxygen to remove hydrogen from specific
substance/molecule; such reactions are important in detoxifying various waste products within the
cell or foreign compounds that have entered in, such as ethanol consumed in alcoholic drinks (in
liver and kidneys).
Vacuole
The vacuole in a plant cell is a fluid-filled sac that stores a range of solutes. It is also important in
maintaining the turgidity, or turgor, of a cell. When the vacuole is full of liquid (mainly water), it
exerts pressure on the cytoplasm and, in turn, on the cell wall. If the vacuole loses water by
osmosis, the pressure reduces and turgor is lost. The cell becomes flaccid
Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a complex protein network that act as the ''bone and muscle'' of the
cell. This necessary intracellular scaffoldings supports and organizes cellular components
arrangements and to control their movements; this provides distinct shape, size to the
cell. This network has at least four distinct elements: Microtubules, Microfilaments,
Intermediate Filaments and Microtubular Lattice

3.2. The cell and its environment
The cell’s environment could be fluids inside the body of an animal, plant, fungus or alga, or it
could be the ocean, a river, a pond, soil or just about anything you care to think of! The plasma
membrane of a cell must isolate the cell from that environment, but, at the same time, allow
exchange with the environment.
The plasma membrane is selectively permeable. Not all particles can actually pass through a
plasma membrane unaided. This is because of the largely lipid nature of the membrane. To pass
through the plasma membrane by simple diffusion particles must be small, lipid soluble and non-
charged. This excludes particles such as ions (they are charged), sugars and amino acids (they are
not lipid soluble and are not small particles) and any of the really large particles, such as proteins.
We can group the processes by which substances cross plasma membranes into two main types:
Passive Processes – these processes rely only on the kinetic energy of the particles of the
substances and on concentration gradients; they need no extra energy from the cell’s
metabolism
Active Processes – these require energy from the cell’s metabolism in the form of ATP to
drive the transport.
3.3. Transport across the cell membranes

Plasma membranes must allow or prevent certain substances from entering or leaving a cell. In
other words, plasma membranes are selectively permeable; they allow some substances to pass
through, but not others. If they were to lose this selectivity, the cell would no longer be able to
sustain itself, and it would be destroyed. Some cells require larger amounts of specific substances
than other cells; they must have a way of obtaining these materials from extracellular fluids.
Generally for the cell to survive some materials need to be able to enter and leave the cell. There
are 4 basic mechanisms of transport across the cell membranes:
1. Diffusion {Free or Simple Diffusion and Facilitated Diffusion)
2. Osmosis
3. Active Transport
4. Bulk Transport

1. Diffusion
Free or Simple Diffusion

Diffusion is the net movement of molecules (or ions) from a region of their high
concentration to a region of their lower concentration. The molecules move down a
concentration gradient. Molecules have kinetic energy, which makes them move about randomly.
All molecules in liquid and gases are in continuous random motion in any direction as they have
more room to move before colliding with another.
The greater the concentration difference, the greater the likelihood of collision. Such a difference
in concentration between two adjacent areas is chemical /concentration gradient. The net
movement of the molecule by diffusion will be from the higher area of concentration to the area
of lower concentration.
The rate of diffusion across a membrane influenced by:

 Concentration gradient – a bigger difference in concentration results in faster diffusion
than a smaller gradient
 Thickness of the membrane – as all plasma membranes are the same thickness, this is
not really an issue when considering diffusion into and out of cells, but for other
situations where particles must cross some kind of barrier, a shorter distance
results in faster diffusion
 Surface area of the membrane – clearly if there is more membrane where diffusion can
take place, diffusion will happen faster.
 Permeability of the membrane
The rate of diffusion is also influenced by distance through which diffusion must take place and
temperature. Diffusion occurs faster at higher temperatures because the particles have more
kinetic energy and so move faster.
Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion uses a carrier protein to facilitate the transfer of a particular substance across
the membrane ''downhill'' from higher to lower concentration. This process is passive and does
not require energy because movement occurs naturally down a concentration gradient.

2. Osmosis
Osmosis is the net diffusion of water down its own concentration gradient. Water can readily
permeate the plasma membrane. The driving force for diffusion of water is its concentration
gradient from area of higher water concentration (low solute) to the area of lower water (high
solute) concentration. This net diffusion of water is known as osmosis.
Fig. 3.7: diffusion of water molecules

Osmosis is the movement of water from a system with a high (less negative) water potential to one
with a lower (more negative) water potential, across a partially permeable membrane.
What happens to cells placed in solutions of different concentrations? A cell may be

subjected to any of three kinds of osmotic solutions: isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic.
a. Isotonic Solution (iso means “equal”) is a medium in which the overall concentration of
solutes equals that found inside a cell.
 H2O leaves & enters the cell at the same rate (no net change)
b. Hypertonic Solution/ Strong Solution / (hyper means ‘above’ or ‘more’) is a medium

having a higher concentration of solutes than inside the cell has.
 H2O diffuses out of the cells.
 In plant cell, the cell will decrease in size and volume. This condition is called
plasmolysis.
 In case of animal cell the passage of water out of the cell by osmosis will cause the
cell to Shrink /Shrivel / Flaccid. This condition is called Crenation

c. Hypotonic Solution / Weak Solution/ (hypo means ‘under’ or ‘less’) is a medium whose
concentration of solutes is lower than that inside the cell.
 H2O molecules diffuse in into the cells.
 In plant cell, the cell will increase in size but the cell will not burst due to the
presence of cell wall. This condition is called turgidity.
 In case of animal cell, the entry of water by osmosis will increase the size the cell &
because of the absence of cell wall, the cell will burst & we say that the cell lysed.
Fig. 3.8: The effect of different solutions on plant cells
3. Active Transport
Active transport is energy consuming transport of molecules or ions across a membrane
against its natural tendency to diffuse in the opposite direction. The movement of molecules in
active transport is in one direction only; unlike diffusion that is reversible the energy is supplied
by the broke down of ATP. Active transport requires protein carrier to transfer a specific
substance across the membrane, transporting against concentration gradient.

Table 3.2: How molecules cross cell membrane
4. Bulk Transport:-Exocytocis and Endocytisis

Water and small solutes enter and leave the cell by passing through the lipid bilayer of the plasma
membrane or by being pumped or carried across the membrane by transport proteins, however,
large molecules, such as proteins and polysaccharides, as well as larger particles, generally cross
the membrane by a different mechanism—one involving vesicles.
Vesicular Transport: The special cell membrane transport system selectively transports ions and
small polar molecules. But large polar molecules and even multi-molecular material may leave or
enter the cell, such as hormone secretion or ingestion of invading microbe by leukocytes.
These materials cannot cross the plasma membrane but are to be transferred between the
intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid not by usual crossing but by wrapped in membrane. This
process of transport into or out of the cell in a membrane-enclosed vesicle is - vesicular transport.
Transport into the cell is termed endocytosis, whereas transport out of the cell is called
exocytosis.
In endocytosis, the transported material is wrapped in a piece of the plasma membrane,

thus gaining entrance to the interior of the cell. Endocytosis of fluid is called pinocytosis
(cell drinking), whereas endocytosis of large multi-molecular particle is known as phagocytosis
(cell eating).

Unit Review
Cell theory is the unifying foundation of cell biology. All organisms are composed of one or more
cells. Cells arise only by the division of preexisting cells.
All cells share simple structural features.
All eukaryotic cells have a centrally located nucleus, a semifluid cytoplasm, and an enclosing plasma
membrane.
In eukaryotic cells, membranes partition into several functional compartments called organelles.
The largest organelle is usually the nucleus. Other organelles are located in the cytoplasm, the region
outside the nucleus and within the plasma membrane.
Nucleus is the structure of the cell which control all activities of the cell. Within the nucleus, DNA and
proteins make up chromatin fibers; each very long fiber is a single chromosome. The nucleus also
contains the nucleolus, which produces components of ribosomes.
Endoplasmic Reticulum is the structure consists of membrane-enclosed tubes and sacs within
the cytoplasm. Rough ER, named because of the ribosomes attached to its surface, makes membrane
and secretory proteins. The functions of smooth ER include lipid synthesis and detoxification. The
Golgi apparatus refines certain ER products and packages them in transport vesicles targeted for other
organelles or export from the cell. Lysosomes are sacs containing digestive enzymes, aid digestion and
recycling within the cell. Vacuoles include the contractile vacuoles that expel water from certain
freshwater protists and a large multifunctional central vacuoles of plant cells. Microtubules are an
important component of the cytoskeleton, an organelle that gives support to and maintains the shape
of, cells.
Cilia and eukaryotic flagella are appendages that aid in movement.
Animal and plant cells have a cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm and organelles like
mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion), Golgi apparatus.
The difference between animal and plant cells is the presence of centriole, chloroplast, cell walls is
large permanent vacuoles only in plant cells.
Passive transport is the movement of substances down a concentration gradient. This movement
is from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration without the need for energy to
be used. Whereas active transport is the movement of molecules from areas where they’re less
concentrated to areas where they’re more concentrated using energy.
Life forms a hierarchy of organization from atoms to complex multicellular organisms. Atoms are
joined together to form molecules, which are assembled into more complex structures such as
organelles. These in turn form subsystems that provide different functions.

Review Questions
i. Match the following organelles under column ‘B’ with their functions under column ‘A’
A B
1. Protein export a. Mitochondria
2. Control cellular activity b. Golgi apparatus
3. Digestion c. Nucleus
4. Powerhouse of the cell d. Lysosome
5. Photosynthesis e. Chloroplast
ii. Choose the best answer for the following questions
1. Which of the following compounds in an important component of the bacterial cell wall?
A. Chitin B. Peptidglycan C. Cellulose D. pectin
2. Which of the following modes of material transport across the cell membrane is NOT
governed by the concentration gradient of the transported material?
A. Simple diffusion B. Facilitated diffusion C. Osmosis D. Active transport
3. Which of the following laboratory equipment is used to separate the organelles of the cell
according to their density?
A. Incubator C. Centrifuge
B. Measuring cylinder D. Filter paper with fine pores
4. Which of the following ideas in the cell theory was contributed by Rudolf virchow?
A. All plants are made up of cells. C. Cells are the structural unit of life
B. All animals are made up of cells. D. Cells come from per-existing cells
5. Which means of particle transport requires input of energy by the cell?
A. Simple diffusion C. Osmosis
B. Facilitated diffusion D. Active transport
6. Which of the following requires expenditure of ATP?
A. Osmosis C. Simple diffusion
B. B. Facilitated diffusion D. Endocytosis
7. Which of the following properties of water makes sweat and effective body cooler?
A. Its high specific heat. C. Its low density when frozen.
B. Its high surface tension. D. Its high heat of vaporization.
8. Which one of the following is the main constituent of biological membranes?
A. Phospholipids B. Glycoproteins C. Glycolipids D. Choloesterols

9. What is the reason that Louis Pasteur used a swan – necked flask instead of straight necked
on in his experiment designed to disprove the theory of spontaneous generation?
A. To allow free passage of air to the broth inside the flask.
B. To prevent the escape of any microororgnism form the flask.
C. To keep the broth in the flask hot to kill microorganisms.
D. To trip particles from the air that might enter the flask before reaching the broth.
10. Suppose we consider four hypothetical cells (designed A,B,C and D) having cubic shape
with their sides measuring 2,4,6 and 8 arbitrary units, respectively which of these cells has
the largest surface area to volume ration?
A. Cell A B. Cell B C. Cell C D. Cell D
11. Suppose three potato cylinders are kept for some time in 15%, 8% and 4% sucrose
solutions, respectively, and the fourth cylinder is kept in distilled water, which of the
cylinders will be more flaccid?
A. The cylinder in 4% solution. C. The cylinder in 15% solution.
B. The cylinder in 8% solution. D. The cylinder in distilled water.
12. If the size of a cell increases, which of the following gets smaller?
A. The volume of the cell C. Surface area to volume ratio of the cell
B. The surface area of the cell D. Volume to surface area ratio of the cell
13. What makes unsaturated fatty acids different from saturated fatty acids?
A. The presence of long chain of carbon.
B. The presence of large number of hydrogen atoms.
C. The presence of one or more double bonds.
D. Their occurrence as solid at room temperature.
14. If a suspension of a mixture of cellular organelles is spun in a centrifuge, which organelle
settles to the bottom first?
A. Mitochondria B. Nuclei C. Chloroplasts D. Ribosomes
15. Which of the following is an important function of the Golgi apparatus?
A. Protein synthesis
B. Packaging of proteins for export out of the cell
C. Removing of debris from cell
D. Storage of waste materials not needed by the cell
16. In which type of solution is the water potential more negative than in the cells?
A. Hypotonic C. Isotonic
B. Hypertonic D. Equal solute and solvent concentration

17. What will happen if human red blood cells are kept in a hypotonic solution?
A. Lose water by osmosis and burst.
B. Lose water by osmosis and shrink.
C. Take in water by osmosis, swell and burst.
D. Take in water by osmosis, swell and remain turgid.
18. Which of the following paired organelles are membrane – bound?
A. Ribosomers and peroxiomes C. Mitochondria and ribosomes
B. Chloroplasts and ribosomes D. Chloroplasts and miotochondria
19. Most cell membranes are primarily composed of which compounds?
A. Proteins and lipids C. Chitin and starch
B. DNA and ATP D. Nucleotides and amino acids
20. Which of the following cell types can be rich in lysosomes?
A. Red blood cells C. Phagocytic cells
B. Never cells D. Muscle cells

UNIT FOUR: ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
Define enzymes and explain the properties of enzymes.

Explain how enzymes are named and then classify them according to
their structure.
Conduct an experiment to show the specificity of an enzyme.
Appreciate the importance of enzymes in industries and local products
Explain the mechanism of enzyme action.
Describe the structure of ATP and its role in cellular metabolism.
Describe how ATP is produced in a cell.
Locate where the different processes of cellular respiration occur in
the cell.
Locate where light-dependent and –independent processes occur in the
chloroplast
Separate photosynthetic pigments by paper chromatography.
Explain photorespiration and how it is related to higher temperatures.
Distinguish between C3 and C4 plants and give at least three examples
of each.
4. Energy Transformation
Living cells are in constant activity. Macromolecules are assembled and broken down, substances
are transported across cell membranes, and genetic instructions are transmitted. All of these
cellular activities require energy. Living organisms are unique in that they can extract energy
from their environments and use it to carry out life activities such as movement, growth and
development, and reproduction. But the basic question is how living organisms or, their cells
extract energy from their environments. and how cells use this energy to synthesize
macromolecules? The answers to these questions lie in the enzyme-mediated chemical reactions
that take place in living matter (metabolism). In metabolism, series of chemical reactions are
taking place in the cells of organisms. These reactions may aid in the transformations of energy
from one form to another in cells.

4.1. Energy
Metabolism is the sum of chemical reactions that takes place within each cell of an organism. The
chemical reactions enable cells to produce energy for vital processes and also synthesize new
organic materials. Broadly, these reactions can be divided into catabolic reactions that convert
nutrients to energy and anabolic reactions that lead to the synthesis of larger bio-molecules.
 Anabolism is the set of reactions involved in the synthesis of complex molecules, starting
from the small molecules inside the cells of an organism. Anabolic reactions help in the
building of macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides.
 Catabolism is the set of reactions involved in the breakdown of complex molecules like
proteins, gacids, glucose, and fatty acids, respectively. It is also the breakdown of
monomers into carbon
Table 4.1: Comparison of anabolic and catabolic pathways
Fig. 4.1: Metabolic Pathways

4.2. Enzymes
4.2.1. Enzymes and Their Role in Metabolism

In many cases, heat may be a catalyst, but this is inefficient because heat cannot be applied to
molecules in a controlled fashion. Thus, most chemical reactions require biological catalyst called
enzymes
Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed biochemical reactions by facilitating the molecular
rearrangements that support cell function. Enzymes speed up (catalyze) chemical reactions; in
some cases, enzymes can make a chemical reaction millions of times faster than it would have
been without it. Almost all metabolic processes in the cell need enzyme catalysis in order to occur
at rates fast enough to sustain life.
Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering activation energy. Many enzymes change shape when
substrates bind to their active site. This is termed "induced fit", meaning that the precise
orientation of the enzyme required for catalytic activity can be induced by the binding of the
substrate.
 Activation Energy: the energy required to start off a chemical reaction

 Lock-And-Key Model; proposes that the shapes of the substrate
molecules are complementary to that of the active site
 Induced-Fit Model; the active site and substrate do not complement
each other but the binding of substrate molecules produces a change in
shape in the active site, allowing the substrate to fit the active site
Enzymes exhibit the following properties;

They are all proteins.
They are biological catalysts: they speed up a reaction without being used up, so they
can be used over and over again.
They are specific: they catalyse one reaction only.
A small amount of enzyme can bring about a change in a large amount of its substrate.
Enzymes are affected by pH and temperature. They can be destroyed by excessive
heat. They are also affected by the concentration of their substrate and the presence of
certain substances that act as inhibitors

4.2.2. Chemical nature and classification of enzymes.
All known enzymes are proteins with the exception of recently discovered RNA enzymes. Some
enzymes may additionally contain a non-protein group. Enzymes are high molecular weight
compounds made up principally of chains of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
Many enzymes require the presence of other compounds (cofactors) before their catalytic
activity can be exerted. This entire active complex is referred to as the holoenzyme; i.e.,
apoenzyme (protein portion) plus the cofactor (coenzyme, prosthetic group or metal-ion
activator).
Enzymes can be classified based on different criteria of which classification based on the
substrate they acted up on is the most common (Table 4.2).
Table: 4.2. Major classes of Enzymes
4.2.3. Mechanisms of Enzyme Action

Mechanisms of enzyme catalysis vary, but are all similar in principle to other types of
chemical catalysis in that the crucial factor is a reduction of energy barrier(s) separating the
reactants from the products. The reduction of activation energy increases the fraction of
reactant molecules that can overcome this barrier and form the product. An important
principle is that since they only reduce energy barriers between products and reactants, enzymes
always catalyze reactions in both directions, and cannot drive a reaction forward or affect the
equilibrium position.

An enzyme attracts substrates to its active site, catalyzes the chemical reaction by which products
are formed, and then allows the products to dissociate (separate from the enzyme surface). The
combination formed by an enzyme and its substrates is called the enzyme–substrate complex.
The substrates are attracted to the active site by electrostatic and hydrophobic forces,
which are called non-covalent bonds because they are physical attractions and not chemical
bonds.
4.2.4. Factors Affecting Enzymatic Activities

The activity of an enzyme is affected by its environmental conditions such as temperature and pH.
Changing these alter the rate of reaction caused by the enzyme. In nature, organisms adjust the
conditions of their enzymes to produce an optimum rate of reaction, where necessary, or
they may have enzymes which are adapted to function well in extreme conditions where
they live.
1. Temperature
Temperature affects enzyme action in two ways:
A higher temperature gives the enzyme molecules (and their substrate molecules) more
kinetic energy; they move around faster and form more enzyme–substrate complexes.
A higher temperature affects the chemical bonds holding the tertiary structure of the
enzyme in place (particularly those in the active site); as more and more of these bonds
break, the shape of the active site changes and it can no longer bind with its substrate
2. pH - Acidity and Basicity (Hydrogen ion Concentration)

pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration, and therefore a good indicator of the
hydroxide ion (OH-) concentration. Lower pH values mean higher H+ concentrations and lower
OH- concentrations. H+ and OH- ions are charged and therefore interfere with hydrogen and ionic
bonds that hold together an enzyme, since they will be attracted or repelled by the charges created
by the bonds. This interference causes a change in shape of the enzyme, and importantly, its
active site.
pH affects the enzyme molecule in a similar way to high temperatures. A pH that is too low (too
acid) or too high (too alkaline) will cause charges on the active site to alter and cause the active
site to lose its conformation. The substrate cannot bind and so the reaction is no longer catalysed.
3. Substrate Concentration
Changing the concentration of a substance only affects the rate of reaction if it is the limiting

factor. If it is the limiting factor, increasing concentration will increase the rate of reaction up to a
point, after which any increase will not affect the rate of reaction. This is because it will no longer
be the limiting factor and another factor will be limiting the maximum rate of reaction. As a
reaction proceeds, the rate of reaction will decrease, since the substrate will get used up.
4. Enzyme Concentration
Increasing enzyme concentration will increase the rate of reaction, as more enzymes will be
colliding with substrate molecules. However, this too will only have an effect up to a certain
concentration, where the enzyme concentration is no longer the limiting factor.
5. Enzyme Inhibitors
Enzyme activity can be inhibited in various ways. Inhibition could be reversible or irreversible.
A. Reversible Inhibition
Competitive inhibition: occurs when molecules very similar to the substrate molecules bind to
the active site and prevent binding of the actual substrate. Penicillin, for example, is a
competitive inhibitor that blocks the active site of an enzyme that many bacteria use to
construct their cell walls.
Noncompetitive inhibition: occurs when an inhibitor binds to the enzyme at a location other than
the active site (allosteric site). The inhibitor is thought to bind to the enzyme in such a way as
to physically block the normal active site. In other instances, the binding of the inhibitor is
believed to change the shape of the enzyme molecule, thereby deforming its active site and
preventing it from reacting with its substrate. This latter type of noncompetitive inhibition is
called allosteric inhibition. This inhibition of an enzyme by a product of its pathway is a form of
negative feedback.
B. Irreversible inhibition
Irreversible inhibitors usually covalently modify an enzyme, and inhibition can therefore not be
reversed. Irreversible inhibitors often contain reactive functional groups. Irreversible inhibition
is different from reversible enzyme inactivation. Irreversible inhibitors are generally specific for
one class of enzyme and do not inactivate all proteins; they do not function by destroying protein
structure but by specifically altering the active site of their target
6. Enzyme Activators:
Allosteric control can involve stimulation of enzyme action as well as inhibition. An activator
molecule can be bound to an allosteric site and induce a reaction at the active site by changing its

shape to fit a substrate that could not induce the change by itself. Common activators include
hormones and the products of earlier enzymatic reactions. Allosteric stimulation and inhibition
allow production of energy and materials by the cell when they are needed and inhibit production
when the supply is adequate.
4.3. Respiration
It is the process by which cells produce energy from glucose in the form of energy storing
compound called ATP (Adenosine Tri- Phosphate) for various cellular activities. The energy
released by cellular respiration is temporarily captured by the formation of Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP) within the cell. It is often referred to as the energy. currency of the cell, and
this can be compared to depositing cash in a bank. ATP can be used to store energy for future
reactions or be withdrawn to pay for reactions when energy is required by the cell.
Animals store the energy obtained from the breakdown of food as ATP. Likewise, plants capture
and store the energy they derive from light during photosynthesis in ATP molecules. ATP is a
nucleotide consisting of an adenine base attached to a ribose sugar, which is attached to three
phosphate groups. These three phosphate groups are linked to one another by two high-energy
bonds called phosphoanhydride bonds. When one phosphate group is removed by breaking a
phosphoanhydride bond in a process called hydrolysis, energy is released, and ATP is converted
to adenosine diphosphate (ADP). Similarly, energy is also released when a phosphate is removed
from ADP to form adenosine monophosphate (AMP). This free energy can be transferred to other
molecules to make unfavorable reactions in a cell favorable.
AMP can then be recycled into ADP or ATP by forming new phosphoanhydride bonds to store
energy once again. In the cell, AMP, ADP, and ATP are constantly interconverted as they involve
in biological reactions.
Fig. 4.2: Adenosine triphosphate

Coupled Reactions
Many biochemical reactions in which energy is given off (is called exothermic), whereas many
others reactions that require energy (are called endothermic). In order for both processes to be
carried out efficiently, they must be "coupled". Usually, a coupled reaction will involve ATP (Fig.
4.3) or some similar molecules. A coupled reaction is carried out when two reactions occur nearly
simultaneously. The first reaction must be exothermic and that gives off energy. The second
reaction is endothermic, which immediately uses the energy produced from the first reaction.
Fig. 4.3: Coupled Reaction
Examples of coupled reaction

1. The hydrolysis of ATP and the contraction of muscle tissue:- Two proteins, actin and myosin,
form a loose complex called actomyosin.
 When ATP is added to isolated actomyosin, the protein fibers contract.
 The hydrolysis of ATP releases energy which is used by muscles to contract.
 The coupled reaction is:
A. ATP + H2O  ADP+ P + energy
B. Relaxed muscle + energy  contracted muscle
 When the ATP is used up by the muscles, a further supply of energy is released from
creatine phosphate.
2. The hydrolysis of creatine phosphate to release energy which in turn is used for the formation
of more ATP.
 The coupled reaction is:
A. Creatine + PO3+H2O  creatine H + HPO4-3 + energy
B. ADP + HPO4-3 + energy  ATP + H2O

 During periods of low muscular activity, the reactions are reversed to replenish the
supplies of ATP and creatine phosphate. The energy for the formation of ATP is
supplied by other metabolic reactions.
4.3.1. Stages and site of cellular respiration

Cellular respiration involves many chemical reactions. The reactions can be summed up in this
equation
Cellular respiration consists of a sequence of many chemical reactions that vary during aerobic
(in the presence of O2) and anaerobic (in the absence of O2) conditions. Cellular respiration is
carried out by both. prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. In prokaryotic cells, it is carried out in the
cell cytoplasm, whereas in eukaryotic cells it begins in the cytosol then is carried out in the
mitochondria.
In eukaryotes, Aerobic cellular respiration takes place in a series of four main stages. These are:
A. Glycolysis: Occurs in the Cytoplasm (cytosol) it doesn’t require O 2 (anaerobic)
B. Pyruvate Oxidation: Transition reaction or Formation of Acetyl CoA or Preparation for
Kreb's Cycle - Occurs in the Mitochondria
C. Kreb's Cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle)- Occurs in matrix of Mitochondria
D. Oxidative Phosphorylation through the Electron Transport Chain (ETC) - Occurs in
the inner membrane of the Mitochondria

Fig. 4.4: Stages of cellular respiration
STAGE 1: GLYCOLYSIS
Glycolysis (means “splitting of sugar”) occurs in the cytosol of the cell in anaerobic condition. It
is the common pathway of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration Glycolysis begins cellular
respiration by breaking glucose into two molecules of a three-carbon compound called pyruvate.
Glycolysis is a 10-step biochemical pathway can be summed up in three phase:

First Phase: Steps 1-3 involves an energy investment. Two ATP molecules are
hydrolyzed, and the phosphates from those ATP molecules are attached to glucose,
which 15 converted to fructose-1,6- bisphosphate. The energy investment phase raises
the free energy of glucose, thereby allowing later reactions to be exergonic.

Second Phase: • The cleavage phase (steps 4-5) breaks this six-carbon molecule into
two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
Second Phase: The energy liberation phase (steps 6-10) produces four ATP, two
NADH, and two molecules of pyruvate. Because two molecules of ATP are used in the
energy investment phase, the net yield is two molecules of ATP.
STAGE II: PYRUVATE OXIDATION (LINK REACTION)

In order to oxidize to pyruvate, which is the product of glycolysis and enter the next pathway, it
must undergo several changes to become acetyl Coenzyme A (acetyl CoA). Acetyl CoA is a
molecule that is further converted to oxaloacetate, which enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle).
Note: - 2NADH Produced per glucose
STAGE III: KREB CYCLE

The Krebs cycle itself actually begins when acetyl-CoA combines with a four-carbon molecule
called OAA (oxaloacetate) (Figure 3.17). This produces citric acid, which has six carbon atoms.
This is why the Krebs cycle is also called the citric acid cycle. After citric acid forms, it goes
through a series of reactions that release energy. The energy is captured in molecules of NADH,
ATP, and FADH2, another energy-carrying compound. Carbon dioxide is also released as product
of these reactions. The final step of the Krebs cycle regenerates OAA, the molecule that began the
Krebs cycle. This molecule is needed for the next turn through the cycle.
From one glucose molecule, two pyruvate molecules are formed so that two cycles will be formed
for the complete breakdown. So, the total yield will be 6NADH, 2FADH2, and 2 ATP

Fig. 4.5: The Citric Acid Cycle
STAGE IV: OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION

It is the process in which ATP is formed as a result of the transfer of electrons from NADH or
FADH to O2 by a series of electron carriers. This process, which takes place in mitochondria, is
the major source of ATP in aerobic organisms. Oxidative phosphorylation generates 26 out of the
30 molecules of ATP that are formed when glucose is completely oxidized to CO 2 and H2O.
The three major steps in oxidative phosphorylation are:

a) Oxidation-reduction reactions involving electron transfers between specialized proteins
embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane;
b) The generation of a proton (H+) gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane
(which occurs simultaneously with step (a)); and
c) The synthesis of ATP using energy from the spontaneous diffusion of electrons down
the proton gradient generated in step (b) (Fig. 4.5).
The NADH and FADH2, formed during glycolysis, the link reaction, and the TCA cycle, give up
their electrons to reduce molecular O2 to H2O. Electron transfer occurs through a series of protein
electron carriers, the final acceptor being O2 and the pathway is called the electron transport
chain (ETC). The function of ETC is to facilitate the controlled release of free energy that was
stored in reduced cofactors during catabolism. Energy is released when electrons are transported
from higher energy NADH/FADH2 to lower energy O2. This energy is used to phsophorylate
ADP. There are 3 sites of the chain that can give enough energy for ATP synthase.
Fig. 4.6: Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation

Mechanism
Mechanism suggests that the transfer of electrons through the electron transport chain causes
protons to be translocated (pumped out) from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane
space at the three sites of ATP production (i.e. it acts as a proton pump) resulting in an
electrochemical potential difference across the inner mitochondrial membrane.
The electrical potential difference is due to the accumulation of the positively charged hydrogen
ions outside the membrane, whereas the chemical potential difference is due to the difference in
pH when it is more acidic outside the membrane. This electrochemical potential difference drives
(forces) ATP synthase to generate ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

Fig. 4.7: The energy budget of one glucose molecule
4.3.2. Energy from non-carbohydrate sources

We obtain most of our energy in the form of fats, proteins, sucrose and other disaccharides, and
starch, a polysaccharide. All these organic molecules in food can be used by cellular respiration to
make ATP
Glycolysis can accept a wide range of carbohydrates for catabolism. In the digestive tract, starch
is hydrolyzed to glucose, which can then be broken down in the cells by glycolysis and the citric
acid cycle. Similarly, glycogen, the polysaccharide that humans and many other animals store in
their liver and musele cells, can be hydrolyzed to glucose between meals as fuel for respiration.
The digestion of disaccharides, including sucrose, provides glucose and other monosaccharides as
fuel for respiration.
Proteins can also be used for fuel, but first they must be digested to their constituent amino acids.
Many of the amino acids are used by the organism to build new proteins.
Amino acids present in excess are converted by enzymes to intermediates of glycolysis and the
citric acid cycle. Before amino acids can feed into glycolysis or the citric acid cycle, their amino
groups must be removed, a process called deamination. The nitrogenous refuse is excreted from
the animal in the form of ammonia (NH3), urea, or other waste products.

Catabolism can also harvest energy stored in fats obtained either from food or from storage cells
in the body. After fats are digested to glycerol and fatty acids, the glycerol is converted to
glyceraldehyde 3- phosphate, an intermediate of glycolysis.
Most of the energy of a fat is stored in the fatty acids. A metabolic sequence called beta
oxidation breaks the fatty acids down to two-carbon fragments, which enter the citric acid cycle
as acetyl CoA NADH and FADH2 are also generated during beta oxidation; they can enter the
electron transport chain, leading to further ATP production. Fats make excellent fuels, in large
part due to their chemical structure and the high energy level of their electrons (equally shared
between carbon and hydrogen) compared to those of carbohydrates. A gram of fat oxidized by
respiration produces more than twice as much ATP as a gram of carbohydrate.
Unfortunately, this also means that a person trying to lose weight must work hard to use up fat
stored in the body because so many kilojoules are stockpiled in each gram of fat.
Nucleic acids are not present in high amounts in foods

and thus aren’t as important in providing cells with
energy
Fig. 4.8: The Catabolism of various molecules from food

4.3.3. Fermentation
In the process of glycolysis, a net profit of two ATP was produced, two NAD+ were reduced to
two NADH + H+, and glucose was split into two pyruvate molecules. When oxygen is not
present, pyruvate will undergo a process called fermentation. In the process of fermentation, the
NADH + H+ from glycolysis will be recycled back to NAD+ so that glycolysis can continue. In
the process of glycolysis, NAD+ is reduced to form NADH + H+. If NAD+ is not present,
glycolysis will not be able to continue. During aerobic respiration, the NADH formed in the
glycolysis will be oxidized to reform NAD+ for use in glycolysis again. When oxygen is not
present or if an organism is not able to undergo aerobic respiration, pyruvate will undergo a
process called fermentation. Fermentation does not require oxygen and is therefore anaerobic.
Fermentation will replenish NAD+ from the NADH+H+ produced in glycolysis.
Ethanol /Alcohol Fermentation

 Alcohol fermentation produces ethanol, CO 2, and NAD+
 Pyruvate is converted to ethanol and CO2 to regenerate NAD+
 Ethanol is a potentially toxic waste product, and is removed from cells
 Yeast (and many bacteria) perform alcoholic fermentation in low oxygen environments
 Used in making alcoholic beverages, baking
Fig. 4.9: Alcohol fermentation

Lactic acid fermentation
Lactic Acid Fermentation is the process by which pyruvate molecules are converted to lactic acid
in the muscle cells of humans, and also in the cells of bacteria. During lactic acid fermentation,
the pyruvate molecules from glycolysis are used to oxidize NADH and convert it back to NAD.
During the process, lactic acid or lactate is produced as a byproduct. Most animals and some

bacteria can carry out lactic acid fermentation. Animals use the process to regenerate NAD+ in
the absence of oxygen.
Anaerobic respiration doesn't produce enough ATP to power the entire organism, but can be used
to supplement the ATP levels in tissues (like muscle) where oxygen levels may drop quickly. The
products of bacterial lactic acid fermentation have been used by humans to produce food products
such as yogurt, sour cream, and buttermilk.
Fig. 4.10: Lactic acid fermentation
4.4. Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a series of chemical reactions that use light energy to assemble CO 2 into glucose
(C6H12O6) and other carbohydrates. The plant uses water in the process and releases oxygen gas
(02) as a byproduct. The reactions of photosynthesis are summarized as follows
6CO2 + 12H2O + Light Energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
This process provides not only food for the plant but also the energy, raw materials, and O 2 that
are used to support most heterotrophs. Oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis. Furthermore,
photosynthesis is important because it is the number one source of oxygen in the atmosphere; it
contributes to the carbon cycle among the earth, the oceans, plants and animals; it contributes to
the symbiotic relationship among plants, humans and animals; it directly or indirectly affects most
living things on earth; it serves as the primary energy process for plants. Plants, multicellular
algae. some protists. Cyanobacteria, and Purple sulfur bacteria are Photoautotrophs.

External and Internal Structure of the Leaf
The outer leaf layer is known as the epidermis. The epidermis secretes a waxy coating called the
cuticle that helps the plant retain water. A leaf has three main parts- Leaf base, leaf lamina, and
petiole.
Epidermis is a continuous layer on the outside of the plant, one cell thick, that provides protection
In stems and leaves it is covered with a waxy cuticle which is waterproof and helps to protect the
organ from drying out and from infection. In leaves, it also has pores called stomata which allow
entry of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. The mesophyll is made up of specialised parenchyma
cells found between the lower and upper epidermis of the leaf. They are specialised for
photosynthesis and therefore contain chloroplasts. They are of two types, palisade mesophyll and
spongy mesophyll. Spongy mesophyll is so-called because in three dimensions it is spongy in
appearance, because it has many large air spaces between the cells. Palisade mesophyll cells are
near the upper surface of the leaf where they receive more sunlight. They therefore contain more
chloroplasts than spongy mesophyll cells
Fig. 4.11: External Structure of a Leaf
Fig. 4.12: Internal structure of leaf
4.4.1. The site of photosynthesis

In plants, the highest density of chloroplasts is found in the mesophyll cells of leaves. A double
membrane surrounds chloroplast, where the outer membrane faces the cytoplasm of the plant cell
on one side and the intermembrane space of the chloroplast on the other.
The inner membrane separates the narrow intermembrane space from the aqueous interior of the
chloroplast, called the stroma. The stroma is a fluid-filled matrix where the light-independent
stage of photosynthesis takes place. Within the stroma are a number of other structures such as
search grains.
Within the stroma, another set of membranes form disk-shaped compartments known as
thylakoids. The interior of a thylakoid is called the thylakoid lumen. In most plant species, the
thylakoids are interconnected to form stacks called grana. The grana are stacks of up to 100 disc-
like structu res called thylakoids where the light-dependent stage of photosynthesis takes place.
Within the thylakoids is the photosynthetic pigment called chlorophyll. Some thylakoids have
tubular extensions that join up with thylakoids in adjacent grana. These are called imergranal
lamellae.
4.4.2. Photosynthetic pigments

Photosynthetic cells contain special pigments that absorb light energy. Different pigments
respond to different wavelengths of visible light. Pigments are chemical compounds which reflect
only certain wavelengths of visible light. This makes them appear "colorful". Flowers, corals, and
even animal skin contain pigments which give them their particular colors. More important than
their reflection of light is the ability of pigments to absorb certain wavelengths.
Because they interact with light to absorb only certain wavelengths, pigments are useful to plants
and other autotrophs. In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, pigments are the means by which the
energy of sunlight is captured for photosynthesis. However, since each pigment reacts with only a
narrow range of the spectrum, there is usually a need to produce several kinds of pigments, each
of a different color, to capture more solar energy. There are three basic classes of pigments.
Chlorophylls are greenish pigments which contain a porphyrin ring. This ring has the potential to
gain or lose electrons easily and whereby providing energized electrons to other molecules. There
are several kinds of chlorophyll, which the most important one is chlorophyll "a".
It is a green pigment found in all plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. The second kind of
chlorophyll, chlorophyll "b" occurs only in "green algae" and in plants. The third form of
chlorophyll called chlorophyll "e", is found only in the photosynthetic members of the Chromista
and dinoflagellates.

Carotenoids are usually red, orange, or yellow pigments, and they include the familiar compound
carotene, which gives carrots their color. Carotenoids cannot transfer sunlight energy directly to
the photosynthetic pathway, but must pass their absorbed energy to chlorophyll. For this reason,
they are called accessory pigments. One very visible accessory pigment is fucoxanthin, the brown
pigment whose colors keep other brown algae as well as the diatoms.
Phycobilins are water-soluble pigments, and are, therefore, found in the cytoplasm, or in the
stroma of the chloroplast they occur only in Cyanobacteria and Rhodophyta.
Absorption spectra of photosynthetic pigments

An absorption spectrum is a graph that shows absorption from a spectrophotometer. Figure 4.13
shows absorption at wavelengths from 400-700 nm by three pigments; Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll
b. and the carotenoids.
Chlorophyll a absorbs violet- blue and reddish orange-red wavelengths.. Chlorophyll b absorbs
mostly blue and yellow light. Both Chlorophyll a and Chlorophyll b also absorb light of other
wavelengths with less intensity. However, none of them absorbs green, so that the leaf looks
green because light is reflected to our eyes instead of being absorbed by the leaf. Carotenoids are
ubiquitous and essential pigments in photosynthesis. They absorb in the blue-green region (Fig.
4.13) of the solar spectrum and transfer the absorbed energy to (bacterio) chlorophylls, and
thereby expanding the wavelength range of light that is able to drive photosynthesis. Only
absorbed light (largely blue and red) is useful in photosynthesis.
Fig. 4.13: absorption spectrum of Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll b. and carotenoids

4.4.3. Light-dependent and light-independent reactions
Inside a chloroplast, photosynthesis occurs in two stages: the light-dependent reactions and the
light-independent (or Calvin Cycle) reactions.
Light-Dependent Reactions (cyclic and non- cyclic photophosphorylation)

The light reactions are the steps of photosynthesis that convert solar energy to chemical energy.
Water is split, providing a source of electrons and protons (hydrogen ions, H+) and giving off O s
as a by-product. Light absorbed by chlorophyll. drives a transfer of the electrons and hydrogen
ions from water to an acceptor called NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate),
where they are temporarily stored. (The electron acceptor NADP is first cousin to NAD, which
functions as an electron carrier in cellular respiration; the two molecules differ only by the
presence of an extra phosphate group in the NADP molecule.) The light reactions use solar
energy to reduce NADP+ to NADPH by adding a pair of electrons along with an H. The light
reactions also generate do not produce sugar.
ATP, using chemiosmosis to power the addition of a phosphate group to ADP, a process called
photophosphorylation. Thus, light energy is initially converted to chemical energy in the form of
two compounds: NADPH and ATP. NADPH, a source of electrons, acts as "reducing power" that
can be passed along to an electron acceptor, reducing it, while ATP is the versatile energy
currency of cells.
a. Non-cyclic photophosphorylation.

b. Non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
Fig. 4.14: Light-Dependent Reactions
Table: 4.3: Comparison of Cyclic and Non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
4.4.4. Photosystem I and photosystem II

1. Electrons (e) in chlorophyll molecules in photosystem II are excited by the energy in
photons of light: they become more energetic. Because of the extra energy, they escape
from the chlorophyll and pass to an electron acceptor (the primary electron acceptor).
2. The conditions created in the chloroplast cause the following reaction to occur:
2H2O  O2+4H+4e-
3. This light-dependent splitting of water is called photolysis. The electrons replace those
lost from the chlorophyll molecule.

4. The primary electron acceptor passes the electrons to the next molecule in an electron
transport chain (plastoquinone or 'Pq"). The electrons then pass along a series of
cytochromes (similar to those in the mitochondrial electron transport chain) and finally to
plastocyanin (Pc) the last carrier in the chain. The electrons lose energy as they are passed
from one carrier to the next.
5. One of the molecules in the cytochromes complex is a proton (hydrogen ion) pump. As
electrons are transferred to and then transferred from this molecule, the energy they lose
powers the pump which moves protons from the stroma of the chloroplast to the space
inside the thylakoid. This leads to an accumulation of protons inside the thylakoid, which
drives the chemiosmotic synthesis of ATP.
6. Electrons in chlorophyll molecules in photosystem 1 are excited (as this photosystem
absorbs photons of light) and escape from the molecule. They are replaced by the
electrons that have passed down the electron transport chain from photosystem II.
7. The electrons then pass along a second electron transport chain involving ferredoxin (Fd)
and NADP reductase. At the end of this electron transport chain, they can react with
protons (hydrogen ions) and NADP in the stroma of the chloroplast to form reduced
NADP.
Products of Photosynthesis: In summary, the steps of the light reactions of photosynthesis
produce three chemical products: O2, NADPH. and ATP:
1. O2 is produced in the thylakoid lumen by the oxidation of water by photosystem II. Two
electrons are removed from water, which produces 2 H and 1/2 O. The two electrons are
transferred to P680 molecules.
2. NADPH is produced in the stroma using high-energy electrons that start in photosystem II
and are boosted a second time in photosystem I. Two high-energy electrons and one H are
transferred to NADP to produce NADPH.
3. ATP is produced in the stroma via ATP synthase that uses an H electrochemical gradient.
4.4.5. Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin cycle)

This is the second step in the mechanism of photosynthesis. The chemical processes of
photosynthesis occurring independent of light are called dark reactions. It takes place in the
stroma of the chloroplast. The dark reaction is purely enzymatic and it is slower than the light
reaction. Dark reaction does not require light. In a dark reaction, the sugars are synthesized from
CO2. The energy-poor CO₂ is fixed to energy-rich carbohydrates using the energy-rich

compound, ATP, and the assimilatory power, NADPH, of light reaction. The process is called
carbon fixation or carbon assimilation.
C3 Plants are plants capable of fixing CO, into 3-Carbon sugar called Phosphoglycerate (PGA).
The energy from ATP and NADPH energy carriers generated by the photosystems is used to
phosphorylate the PGA. In this process, carbon dioxide enters a plant through its stomata, and the
enzyme Rubisco fixes carbon into sugar using the Calvin cycle. This fixation of carbon dioxide
by Rubisco is the first step of the Calvin eyele. The plants that use this mechanism of carbon
fixation are called C3 plants. Approximately 95% of plants on the earth are C3 plants. Some of
the C3 plant examples are wheat, rye, oats, and orchard grass.
The photosynthesis process can take place only when the stomata on leaves are open. C3 plants
exhibit the C3 pathway. It is a three-carbon compound (3-PGA). Here the first carbon compound
produced has three carbon atoms hence the name "C3 pathway"(Figure 3.7). The light-
independent reactions of the Calvin cycle can be organized into three basic stages: fixation,
reduction, and regeneration.
1. Carbon fixation: A molecule of carbon dioxide is combined with a carbon acceptor
molecule containing five atoms known as ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP). This step
gives rise to a compound having six carbon atoms that disintegrate into two molecules of a
compound containing three carbons called 3-phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA). This reaction
is catalyzed by the enzyme RuBP carboxylase, or rubisco.
2. Reduction: In the second stage of the Calvin cycle, ATP and NADPH molecules are
utilized to change the 3-PGA molecules. into a sugar molecule containing three carbon
atoms called glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate (G3P). This stage has derived its name from the
fact that NADPH donates electrons to a three-carbon intermediate to form G3P.
3. Regeneration: Some G3P molecules form glucose, while others need to be recycled so
that they can regenerate the RuBP acceptor. Regeneration needs ATP and involves a
complex series of reactions called the "carbohydrate scramble."
In the dark reaction, CO2 is fixed to carbohydrates and the CO2 acceptor ribulose- diphosphate is
regenerated. In the Calvin cycle, 12NADPH and 18 ATPs are required to fix 6CO 2, molecules
into one hexose sugar molecule (fructose-6-phosphate).
C4 plants: In some plants like maize, sorghum, and sugarcane, the first product of carbondioxide
fixation is not the three carbon molecule phosphoglycerate but the four carbon compound
oxaloacetic acid. Plants that utlize this pathway are commonly called the C4 or four carbon plants.
The oxaloacetic acid is formed when carbondioxide is bound to compound known phophoenol
pyruvate (PEP) in the mesophyll cell. The oxaloacetic acid is reduced to malic acid or converted
to aspartic acid; and the malic acid(aspartic acid) is decarboxylated to yield CO 2 and pyruvic acid
in the bundle sheth cell (Figure 4.15). Then, CO2 enters to Calvin cycle.
Figure 4.15: Calvin cycle (C3 cycle)

The Basic C4 Cycle Consists of four stages:
1. Fixation of CO2 by the carboxylation of phosphoenol-pyruvate (PEP) in the mesophyll
cells to form a C4cid
2. Transport of the C4 acids to the bundle sheath cells
3. Decarboxylation of the C4 acids within the bundle sheath cells and generation of CO 2,
which is then reduced to carbohydrate via the Calvin cycle.
4. Transport of the Cs acid (pyruvate or alanine) that is formed by the decarboxylation step
back to the mesophyll cell and regeneration of the CO 2 acceptor phosphoenol pyruvate
CAM (crassulacean acid metabolism) Plants:
The CAM mechanism enables plants to improve water use efficiency. The CAM mechanism is
similar in many respects to the C4 cycle. In Ca plants, formation of the C acids in the mesophyll
is spatially separated from decarboxylation of the Ca acids and from refixation of the resulting
CO, by the Calvin cycle in the bundle sheath. In CAM plants, formation of the Ce acids is both
temporally and spatially separated.
At night, CO2 is captured by PEP carboxylase in the cytosol, and the malate that forms from the
oxaloacetate product is stored in the vacuole. During the day time, the stored malate is transported
to the chloroplast and decarboxylated by NADP-malic enzyme, the released CO 2, is fixed by the
Calvin cycle, and the NADPH is used for converting the decarboxylated triose phosphate product
to starch.

CAM plants succulent (water-storing) plants such as cacti achieve their high water use efficiency
by opening their stomata during the cool, desert nights and closing them. During the hot, dry
days. Closing the stomata during the day minimizes water loss, but because H2O and CO2 share
the same diffusion pathway, CO2 must then be taken up at night. CO2 is incorporated via
carboxylation of phosphoenol pyruvate to oxaloacetate, which is then reduced to malate. The
malate accumulates and is stored in the large vacuoles that are a typical, but not obligatory,
anatomic feature of the leaf cells of CAM plants.
The accumulation of substantial amounts of malic acid, equivalent to the amount of CO 2

assimilated at night, has long been recognized as a nocturnal acidification of the leaf. With the
onset of day, the stomata. close, preventing loss of water and further uptake of CO 2. The leaf cells
deacidify as the reserves of vacuolar malic acid are consumed. Because the stomata are closed,
the internally released CO2, cannot escape from the leaf and instead is fixed and converted to
carbohydrate by the Calvin cycle.
Photorespiration: Photorespiration is a process which involves oxidation of organic compounds

in plants by oxygen in the presence of light. Like ordinary respiration. this process also releases
carbon from organic compounds in the form of CO2 but does not produce ATP. Thus, apparently
it seerns to be a wasteful process, but it must have some functions which are still unknown. This
process occurs in C3 plants and to some extent in C4. Photorespiratory substrate is glycolate.
RuBisco instead of combining with CO2, it combines with O2. This type of oxidation of Os to
RuBP molecule is known as photosynthetic C- oxidation cycle or glycolate pathway or C4
photorespiratory carbon oxidation cycle. Generally photorespiration is expressed by the term
called CO: compensation point and it is defined as CO 2, concentration at which rate of uptake will
be equal to the rate of photosynthetic respiratory CO2, released. Photorespiration is common in
C3 plants but highly reduced in C4 plants, and absent in CAM plants
4.4.6. Contributions of photosynthesis for the continuity of life, for O 2, and CO2: balance and
global warming
The oxygen in the air comes from photosynthesis. Plants continue to replenish oxygen in the air.
All of our food comes directly or indirectly from photosynthesis. Human beings are also
dependent on ancient products of photosynthesis (fossil fuels, natural gas, coal & petroleum);
needed for modern industrial energy; complex mix of hydrocarbons; represent remains of
organisms that relied on photosynthesis millions of years ago; carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen
atoms are recycled in the environment where a constant input of solar energy is needed for energy

to continue flowing to support life remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (inhibit global
warming).
Unit Summary
Metabolism is the sum of chemical reactions that takes place within each cell of an organism. The
chemical reactions enable cells to produce energy for vital processes and also synthesize new
organic materials. Broadly, these reactions can be divided into catabolic reactions that convert
nutrients to energy and anabolic reactions that lead to the synthesis of larger biomolecules.
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells produce energy from glucose in the form of
energy storing compound called ATP (Adenosine Tri-Phosphate) for various cellular activities.
Cellular respiration can take place in the presence as well as in the absence of oxygen. When it
utilizes oxygen, it referred to as aerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration takes place in the
mitochondria. It is more efficient as it yields about 36-38 ATP per mole gilucose consumed.
During glycolysis, glucose molecules (six-carbon molecules) are split into two pyruvates (three-
carbon molecules) during a sequence of enzyme-controlled reactions. Glycolysis takes place in
the cytosol or cytoplasm.
Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen. Without oxygen, pyruvate is converted to
lactic acid in animals or ethanol in plants and yeast. It produces only about 10% of the energy
released in the complete oxidation of glucose.
Anaerobic respiration in humans takes place when musele undergoes extreme contraction as in
vigorous exercise. When oxygen is limited the oxidation of NADH to NAD by the electron
transport chain is insufficient to maintain glycolysis. Under these conditions NAD is regenerated
by the reduction of pyruvate to lactate.
Photosynthesis is the process by which photosynthetic organisms convert the energy of sunlight
into chemical energy stored in sugars. Inside a chloroplast, photosynthesis occurs in two stages:
the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent (or Calvin Cycle) reactions.
The light dependent reactions, a light- dependent series of reactions which occur in the grana, and
require the direct energy of light to make energy-carrier molecules (NADPH and ATP) that are
used in the light independent phase.
The light-independent reactions, a light- independent series of reactions which occur in the stroma
of the chloroplasts, when the products of the light reaction, ATP and NADPH, are used to make

carbohydrates from carbon dioxide (reduction); initially glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (a 3-carbon
atom molecule) is formed.
Review Questions
1. What do we call the substance upon which and enzyme acts?
A. Product C. Activation energy
B. Substrate D. Enzyme – substrate complex
2. Which factor has a more negative effect on the functions of enzymes than the others?
A. Neutral pH. C. Optimal amount of salt concentration.
B. Very high temperature. D. optimal amount of substrate concentration
3. In which one of the following points does the induced – fit model of enzyme action differ from
the lock – and – key model?
A. Enzymes lower the energy of activation.
B. Substrate bind at the active site of the enzyme.
C. During the reaction, and enzyme – substrate complex is formed.
D. The shapes of the substrate and active site are complementary.
4. Which of the following mechanisms do cells use to regulate enzyme catalyzed reactions in
metabolic pathways?
A. Enzyme denaturation. C. End product inhibition.
B. Irreversible inhibition. D. Competitive inhibition.
5. When an enzyme is denatured by heat or extreme pH, which one of the following does it lose?
A. The peptide bond. C. Secondary structure
B. Primary structure. D. Tertiary structure.
6. In competitive inhibition, which one of the following factors determines the rate of the
inhibition?
A. The reaction temperature. C. The substrate concentration.
B. The enzyme concentration D. The ratio of inhibitor to enzyme concentration.
7. Suppose 25% of the molecules of an enzyme are inhibited by a non – competitive inhibitor,
which one of the following would happen if the amount of the substrate is increased by 50%?
A. The reaction rate would double .
B. More enzyme molecules would get inhibited.
C. The rate of the reaction would decrease by 50%
D. The rate of the reaction would remain unchanged.

8. What are the environmental advantages of using enzymes in industry?
A. It makes high production possible with less input of heat.
B. It makes high production possible with high input of heat.
C. It makes high production possible with emission of more CO2.
D. It helps high production with supply of more heat and emission of more CO 2.
9. Which of the following is a coenzyme?
A. NAD B. Carbohydrate C. Water molecule D. Protein
10. Which of the following processes of photosynthesis does NOT require the presence of light to
take place?
A. The splitting of water C. Reduction of NADP
B. ATP formation D. Carbon fixation
11. When the muscle cells are in short supply of oxygen, which of the following compounds would
be accumulated in them?
A. Ethanol B. Acetic acid C. Lactic acid D. Carbon dioxide
12. Which of the following is NOT one of the stages in cellular respiration?
A. Calvin cycle B. Glycolysis C. Electron transport D. Krebs cycle
13. What is the correct equation for cellular respiration?
A. 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy = 6O2 + C6H12O6 C. 6O2 + C6H12O6 + Energy = 6CO2 + 6H2O
B. 6O2 + C6H12O6 = 6CO2 + Energy D. 6CO2 + 6H2O = 6O2 + C6H12O6 + Energy
14. What amount of net gain in ATP does glycol sis provide to a cell?
A. 2 ATP molecules. C. 18 ATP molecules
B. 4 ATP molecules D. 36 ATP molecules
15. How many moles of ATP will be generated as a result of the oxidation of one mole of FADH2 in
an actively respiring mitochondrion?
A. 0 B. 3 C. 2 D. 6
16. Where does the energy come from to drive photosynthesis?
A. Chloroplast B. ATP C. Sun D. Glucose
17. Which colors light is predominantly absorbed by the chlorophyll?
A. Red B. Green C. Yellow D. Orange
18. Which plant usually opens its stomata during night time?
A. C2 plant. B. C3 plant. C. C4 plant. D. CAM plant,
19. Which of the following processes takes place during the dark reaction of photosynthesis?
A. Photolysis of water C. Production of ATP
B. Fixation of CO2 D. Production of NADPH

20. Where do the enzymatic reactions of the Calvin cycle take place?
A. Stroma of the chloroplast. C. Cytoplasm of plant cell
B. Thylakoid membranes D. Outer membrane of the chloroplast
21. Why are C4 plants able to photosynthesize with no apparent photorespiration?
A. They are capable of excluding oxygen from their tissues.
B. They have a mechanism to use PEP carboxylase to initially fix CO2.
C. They have special adaptations to cold and wet climatic conditions.
D. They are capable of conserving water more efficiently.
22. What is the role of oxygen in cellular respiration?
A. It is directly invoved in the oxidation of glucose during glycolysis.
B. It accepts electrons during oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA.
C. It is directly involved in the oxidation process of the citric acid cycle,
D. It accepts electrons at the end of the electron transport chain.
23. Which metabolic pathway is common to both cellular respiration and fermentation?
A. The citric acid cycle C. The oxidative phosphorylation.
B. The process of glycolysis, D. The oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA.
24. How does photorespiration reduce the efficiency of photosynthesis?
A. By preventing the formation of carbon dioxide molecules.
B. By preventing the formation 3-phosphoglycerate molecules
C. By enhancing the formation of oxygen molecules.
D. By enhancing the formation of RuBP carboxylase molecules.

UNIT FIVE: MICRO-ORGANISMS
Unit Learning Outcomes: After the successful completion of this unit, the learner will be able
to:
 State the characteristics of microorganisms
 Explain different groups of microorganisms
 Discuss the importance of microorganisms in industry and the environment
 Explain diseases caused by microorganisms and viruses
 Describe prevention and treatment mechanisms of diseases caused by microorganisms
5. Micro-Organisms
5.1. What are microorganisms?

Microorganisms are tiny living organisms that are usually too small to be seen with the naked
eye. To see them we need to use a microscope. Most micro-organisms are unicellular, although
some do contain more than one cell. There are five main groups of micro-organisms. These
groups are: protozoa, fungi, bacteria, algae and viruses.

Fig 5:1 types of micro-organisms
5.1.1. Protozoa
Protozoa are eukaryotes and unicellular organisms that lack a cell wall. Most of them are motile
(able to move), and include organisms such as Amoeba, Euglena, Plasmodium and Paramecium.
Fig 5:2 Examples of protozoans

5.1.2. Fungi
They are eukaryotes and have non-cellulose cell wall. They consist of yeasts and moulds. They
obtain their food from other dead or living organisms. They are extremely important as
decomposers, breaking down animal and plant material and returning nutrients to the
environment.
Yeasts are single-celled organisms. Each yeast cell has a nucleus, cytoplasm and a membrane
surrounded by a cell wall. The main way in which yeasts reproduce is by asexual budding –
splitting to form new yeast cells. These include brewer’s yeast and baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces)

as well as the yeast that causes thrush in humans (Candida).
Moulds are fungi that are made up of minute, thread-like structures, producing fruiting bodies
containing spores. They produce a mycelium. Mycelium is the collection of very fine strands that
makes up a fungus. Each strand is called a hypha (plural hyphae). They release enzymes from
these strands that digest whatever the fungus is growing on. The hyphae are not
‘compartmentalized’ into cells; each is ‘multinucleate’ – the cytoplasm contains many nuclei. The
products of digestion are then absorbed into the fungus to help with its growth and reproduction.
Some fungi live on or in living organisms as parasites. Others live on dead material as
probionts.
5.1.3. Algae
Algae are an important group of organisms. Many are large (the sea weeds are all algae), but
some algae are unicellular. They obtain their nutrition using photosynthesis. The unicellular algae
are part of the plankton, providing food for fish and other larger organisms. Some unicellular
algae are motile–they can move. For example, an alga called Chlamydomonas has two flagella.
5.1.4. Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled organisms and prokaryotes. They have no true nucleus. They are much
smaller than the smallest animal and plant cells. All bacteria do have a cell wall made from a
substance called peptidoglycan, which makes it rigid, a cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes
and the genetic information (DNA) but this is not contained in a nucleus. Some bacteria have
additional features like flagella to help them move, protective slime capsules, etc.
Bacteria also come in a variety of different shapes, arrangements and sizes. Bacterial cells are
usually between 1 and 10 µm long, whereas eukaryotic cells are between 10 and 100 µm long.
Bacterial cells are sometimes found singly; sometimes two cells are stuck together; and
sometimes the cells exist in chain. Bacterial cells come in three main shapes:
i. Cocci (singular, coccus) – spherical bacteria
ii. bacilli (singular, bacillus) – rod-shaped bacteria
iii. spirochaetes– spiral or corkscrew-shaped bacteria

Fig 5:3 shapes of bacteria cells
The other way of classifying bacteria is based on their response to Gram stain. It is a test for
classifying bacteria and named after Hans Christian Gram, who developed the technique in 1884.
Because it produces different results with different types of bacteria, it is called a differential
stain. There are four stages to make a Gram stain:
 Firstly, you stain all the bacteria on the slide with crystal violet, the primarystain.
 Then you use Gram’s iodine as a mordant and leave it on the slide for 1 minute. This
combines with the crystal violet in the cell to form a violet-iodine complex.
 Without washing off the Gram’s iodine you now add 95% ethanol, which acts as a
decolouriser. It washes the primary stain out of some types of bacteria but not others.
You then rinse the slide in water until no more colour washes off.
 Finally, you use a secondary or counter stain called safranin. This is a basic dye that
stains the decolourised bacteria red. Leave this on for one minute and then wash off
with distilled water.
 Blot the slide gently dry and observe under the microscope.
This test gives two categories. The bacteria that are easily decolourised and so stain red are
known as Gram-negative bacteria. The bacteria that keep the primary stain and so stain purple
are called Gram- positive bacteria. The difference is due to the structure of the cell wall of the
different bacteria. Gram positive bacteria have thick peptidoglycan in their cell walls. However,
Gram-negative bacteria have much less peptidoglycan in their cell walls. Peptidoglycan is a
complex molecule made from sugars and amino acids. It has a mesh-like structure and is found in
bacterial cell walls. This is the part of the wall that absorbs the stain. Gram-negative bacteria also
have an outer membrane outside the peptidoglycan cell wall, which Gram-positive bacteria do
not have. This outer membrane secretes endotoxins (a type of toxin that is a structural component
of these bacteria) and is also quite resistant to many antibiotics. This makes diseases caused by
Gram-negative bacteria more difficult to treat. Gram-negative bacteria cause more serious
diseases, although there are exceptions – the bacterium that causes tuberculosis is a Gram-positive

bacterium.
Where can we get bacteria?

Bacteria are ubiquitous or omnipresent in their distribution. They are found in all the natural
habitats i.e. soil, water, and air. They occur in all situations except in pits of volcanoes, deep
strata or rock and rainwater, distilled water, in deep wells, blood of normal animals.
They constitute the major part of the soil micro-flora and intestine of animals. Viz. E.coli in the
intestine of human beings. Some species have been found in extreme hot spring as well as
extreme cold condition, these are referred to as thermophilic (survive>40 OC) and psychrophilic
(on-190°C) respectively. They can tolerate and remain alive at a pH lower than1at one end and 13
at another end. Generally, 1gm. Soil contains about 1000-10million bacteria. A bacterium also
occurs in a variety of foods and food products such as fruit, vegetables, milk, butter, and cheese
and milk beverages.
THE ECOLOGY AND USES OF BACTERIA

Whilst some bacteria cause disease, many are harmless and some are actively useful to people.
Bacteria are found in every ecosystem. In fact, you contain millions of bacteria, which live both
on your skin and inside your body. Most of these are found in the large intestine.
Bacteria are important because they:
 Cause diseases
 Are used in many industrial processes
 Recycle mineral elements such as carbon, nitrogen and sulphur through ecosystems
The germ theory of disease

In the 17th century a Dutchman, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, designed the first microscope. Robert
Hooke improved microscopes so much in the 19thcentury that people could see the tiny
organisms. In the mid-19th century, Pasteur showed that micro-organisms in the air caused wine to
go ‘sour’. In the 1860s, Lister showed that carbolic acid (phenol) acted as a disinfectant, and
prevented disease in bones following surgery. In 1880, Robert Koch identified the micro-
organisms that cause tuberculosis and cholera.
The theory that disease can be caused by micro-organisms is called the germ theory. Organisms
that cause disease are called pathogens. Infectious disease is caused by a living organism
entering or infecting another living organism. They are sometimes called communicable diseases
because they can be transmitted or communicated from one person to another.

Koch’s postulates
It is a sequence of experimental steps that describes the germ theory of disease and involves:
1. The micro organism must always be present when the disease is present, and should not
be present if the disease is not present.
2. The micro-organism can be isolated from an infected person and then grown in culture.
3. Introducing such cultured micro-organisms into a healthy host should result in the
disease developing.
4. It should then be possible to isolate the micro-organism from this newly diseased host
and grow it in culture.
Different micro-organisms cause disease in different ways:
Bacteria release toxins as they multiply. Some bacteria invade and grow in the tissues
of organs, causing physical damage. Bacterial diseases can be treated with antibiotics.
Viruses enter living cells and disrupt the metabolic systems of the cell. Viruses cannot
be treated with antibiotics.
Fungi secrete enzymes that digest substances in the tissues where they grow. Growth of
hyphae also physically damages the tissue. Some fungi also secrete toxins. Others can
cause an allergic reaction
Protozoa cause disease in many different ways.
RESERVOIR OF INFECTION
Reservoir of infection is any person, animal, plant, soil or substance in which an infectious agent
normally lives and multiplies. The reservoir typically harbors the infectious agent without
showing symptoms of the disease and serves as a source from which other individuals can be
infected. People acting as the reservoir of infection are sometimes called carriers of the disease.
THE MAIN METHODS OF DISEASE TRANSMISSION

1) Droplet infection: Many of these diseases are ‘respiratory diseases’ – diseases affecting
the airways of the lungs. The organisms are carried in tiny droplets through the air when
an infected person coughs or sneezes. They are inhaled by other people.
2) Drinking contaminated water: They infect regions of the gut.
3) Eating contaminated food: The organisms initially infect a region of the gut.
4) Direct contact: Many skin infections, such as athlete’s foot, are spread by direct contact
with an infected person or contact with a surface carrying the organism.
5) Sexual intercourse: Organisms infecting the sex organs can be passed from one sexual
partner to another during intercourse.
6) Blood-to blood contact: Many of the sexually transmitted diseases can also be
transmitted by blood-to-blood contact. Drug users sharing an infected needle can
transmit AIDS.
7) Animal vectors: Many diseases are spread through the bites of insects. Mosquitoes
spread malaria and tsetse flies spread sleeping sickness. Flies can carry micro-organisms
from faeces on to food.
Other Types of Disease

The WHO’s definition of health is a ‘state of complete physical, mental and social well-being’.
Definition of disease might be a condition with a specific cause in which part or all of a body is
made to function in a non-normal and less efficient manner. Diseases can be categorized into:
Infectious diseases caused by the entry of some organism into the body.
Human induced diseases are diseases that arise as a result of a person’s lifestyle (heart
disease).
Degenerative diseases often result from the ageing process. E.g. arthritis.
Genetic diseases are diseases that result from the action of mutated genes. E.g.
haemophilia
Deficiency diseases are diseases that result from a lack of a nutrient in our diet. E.g.
scurvy
Social diseases are conditions that result from social activities. E.g. alcoholism
Multi-factorial describes condition that is affected by the interaction of many factors. It
does not fit neatly into any one category. E.g. atherosclerosis
Functional disease is ‘malfunction’ of an organ or system, without there being any
obvious damage or physical sign of disease in the organ. E.g. heart disease
The role of bacteria in recycling minerals through ecosystems

Many bacteria are decomposers. When organisms die, these bacteria break down the complex
molecules that are found in the bodies of the dead organisms into much simpler molecules. Many
elements are recycled in this way, including: carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus.
THE NITROGEN CYCLE

The element nitrogen is found in many important organic molecules in all living organisms. These
include: proteins, DNA, RNA, ATP and many others. Here are important microbes in nitrogen
cycle.

 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium): Nitrogen gas is fixed into forms other
organisms can use (e.g. ammonium).
 Ammonifying Bacteria (decomposers): The decomposers break down proteins in dead
organisms and animal waste releasing ammonium ions, which can be converted to
nitrates.
 Nitrifying Bacteria: Nitrification is a two-step process. Ammonia or ammonium ions
are oxidised first to nitrites (Nitrosomonas) and then to nitrates (Nitrobacter) which is
the form most usable by plants.
 Denitrifying Bacteria (Pseudomonas): Nitrates are reduced to nitrogen gas, returning
nitrogen to the air and reducing the amount of nitrogen in the soil.
THE SULPHUR CYCLE

Sulphur is found in fewer types of organic molecule than nitrogen, but it is found in many
proteins. Important processes include:
 Decomposition: Sulphur is released from proteins of dead matter as hydrogen
sulphide by anaerobic Desulphovibrio.
 Oxidation of hydrogen sulphide: Hydrogen sulphide is oxidised to release sulphur by
anaerobic photosynthetic sulphur bacteria.
 Oxidation of sulphur: Sulphur is oxidized to sulphate ions by aerobic non-
photosynthetic sulphur bacteria.
THE USE OF BACTERIA IN INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
Food and beverage fermentation

Many micro-organisms are very useful to us and are used in making foods, such as bread, injera,
ergoo (yoghurt) and ayib, and in producing alcoholic drinks, such as beer, wine and tej and as
well as many other products.
A. Production of vinegar: Vinegar is a dilute solution of ethanoic acid (acetic acid) in water. It
also contains other substances that give the vinegar its flavour. Vinegar is produced by
fermenting beer, wine or cider for a second time. A culture of a special bacterium called
Acetobacteris used. Vinegar is used in two main ways: to flavour foods and to preserve foods.
B. Producing antibiotics: Antibiotic is a drug that kills bacteria. The first antibiotics came from
fungi. Today, they are increasingly being made using genetically modified bacteria in huge
fermenters.

C. Sewage treatment: All types of sewage treatment rely on the action of arrange of
microorganisms to oxidize the organic matter present in sewage. There are two main methods:
the percolating filter method and the activated sludge method
i. In the percolating filter method:
 sewage is screened and allowed to stand in settlement tanks
 it is then allowed to trickle through a bed of stones, each of which is covered in a
layer of micro- organisms (bacteria, fungi and protozoa)
 as the sewage trickles through the filter bed, the microorganisms digest the organic
matter and absorb the products
 by the time the liquid reaches the bottom of the filter bed, the polluting organic
matter has all been removed
ii. In the activated sludge method:
 sewage is screened and allowed to stand in settlement tanks
 it is then pumped into treatment tanks, where:
o activated sludge, rich in micro-organisms, is added
o oxygen is blown through the mixture
 in the oxygenated mixture, the micro-organisms from the added activated sludge
oxidise the polluting organic matter, reproducing as they do so
 some of the sludge formed is recycled to ‘seed’ new tanks.
GENETICALLY MODIFIED BACTERIA (TRANSGENIC BACTERIA)

Genetic engineering is the practice of transferring genes from one organism to another organism
(either belonging to the same species or belonging to a different species). This is done by taking
DNA from the first organism and transferring it to the second organism. Vector is a means of
transferring something. In genetic engineering, viruses and plasmids are used as vectors to
transfer genetic information between different organisms
Bacteria can be genetically modified by transferring a gene from another organism; the newly
formed transgenic bacterium is then able to carry out the process specified by its new gene. The
development of three main techniques made genetic engineering possible.
i. The discovery that genes can be ‘cut’ out of a DNA molecule using enzymes called
restriction endonucleases.
ii. The discovery that genes can be inserted (‘tied’) into another DNA molecule using a
ligase enzyme.
iii. Genes can be transferred into other cells using vectors. These are usually either

plasmids (small pieces of circular DNA found in bacteria), or viruses.
Genetically modified or transgenic bacteria can produce insulin, human growth hormone,
antibiotics, enzymes for washing powders, human vaccines, such as the vaccine against hepatitis
B, etc.
GENETIC ENGINEERING OF PLANTS

Genetic engineering of plants posed problems for biologists, as plant cells will not accept
plasmids in the same way as bacterial cells do. However, they discovered that one particular
bacterium, called Agrobacterium tumefaciens, regularly infects plant cells. This bacterium can act
as a vector to carry genes that have been inserted into a genetically modified Agrobacterium into
plants.
However, Agrobacterium can’t be used to genetically modify all types of plant. It will not infect
cereals such as maize. To solve this problem, biologists developed the gene gun. is literally
shoots the genes into cells of plants, using as ‘bullets’ tiny pellets of gold that are covered in
DNA.
5.1.5. Viruses
Viruses are even smaller than bacteria. The basic virus is not even a cell – it has no nucleus and
no cytoplasm but it does have genetic material surrounded by a protein coat. They usually have
regular geometric shapes. Viruses cannot independently carryout any of the processes common to
all living organisms. They can only reproduce by taking over another living cell. So they are all
parasites. As far as we know, all naturally occurring viruses cause disease.
The particle of a virus is called a virion. All virions contain at least two components: a protein
shell or capsid and DNA or RNA as the genetic material. Some also have: a membrane made
from lipids and proteins outside the capsid and other proteins and enzymes inside the capsid.
Viruses are much smaller than even the smallest bacterium. Most are between 0.01and 0.1 µm in
length or diameter. Nucleus and other cell organelles are absent. Because they do not have the
major organelles that are present in living cells, virus particles can’t carry out any of the normal
metabolic processes of cells, such as: respiration, protein synthesis, DNA replication,
photosynthesis, active transport, facilitated diffusion, and any other process requiring control by
enzymes or the presence of proteins.
As a result, all viruses are parasites. The only way they can reproduce is to invade cells, ‘hijack’
the normal metabolic processes of those cells, and make the cells produce more virus.

Classification of viruses
They can be classified into three main groups, based on the nature of their genetic material and
the way in which it is expressed. These groups are:
o DNA viruses – contain genetic information stored in the form of DNA. For example,
Herpes simplex (causes cold sores)
o RNA viruses – contain genetic information stored in the form of RNA. For example,
H1N1 virus (causes swine flu)
o Retroviruses – contain RNA, but replicate in a different way. When they infect cells, they
release into the cells their RNA and an enzyme that causes it to be ‘reverse-transcribed’
into DNA. For example, HIV (causes AIDS)
DNA is quite a stable molecule, is not very reactive with other molecules, and replicates very
accurately. In contrast, RNA is quite unstable and makes frequent mistakes during copying. The
unstable nature of RNA allows RNA viruses to evolve far more rapidly than DNA viruses,
frequently changing their surface structure.
Viruses can also be classified by the type of organism they infect:
o Animal-infecting viruses
o Plant-infecting viruses
o Bacteria-infecting viruses – these are called bacteriophages
Virus multiplication
There are three different life cycles in viruses:
 Lytic life cycle causes the rupture (lysis) of the host cell. It causes the cell to burst and
release the viruses all at once.
 Lysogenic life cycle infection causes the virus to enter a latent state where its DNA is
reproduced with the host DNA. Each time the cell divides, the DNA is replicated, and
each daughter cell gets a copy of the cell’s DNA, which now includes the virus DNA. No
new viruses are formed.
 Chronic release life cycle infection causes viruses to be released without killing the host
cell. A few at a time are released by exocytosis through the plasma membrane.
Modes of virus transmission

Different viruses enter cells in different ways.
o The bacteriophage injects just its DNA; the rest of the virus remains outside the cell.
o Many (but not all) animal viruses manage to get the whole virus inside the cell. This is
done by using the process of endocytosis.
5.1.6. HIV and AIDS
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the causative agent of AIDS (acquired immune
deficiency syndrome). HIV is one of the retroviruses. It has RNA as its genetic material. This is
transcribed to DNA by the enzyme reverse transcriptase, which HIV contains together with the
RNA. HIV targets cells that form part of the immune system. Its main target is a type of cell
called a CD4 T- lymphocyte. These cells are also called T-helper cells, because they help other
cells in the immune system to mount an immune response to pathogens in the body. Without this
response, pathogenic micro-organisms can multiply in the body and cause disease.
Lymph is fluid containing white blood cell (WBC) which flows through the lymphatic system.
Lymphocytes are WBCs forming antibodies against microbes. There are two main types of white
blood cells in the immune system. T-cells bind to the antigens on the invading micro-organism
and destroy it. B-cells make antibodies which bind to the antigen and destroy it.
HIV has spikes on its surface, the heads of which are made from the glycoprotein known as
gp120. This binds with CD4, a protein that protrudes from various types of human cell. Once the
virus has attached to a cell, it can go on to the next stage and merge with the host cell.
Besides the T-helper cells, there are other types of cell that carry CD4 on their surface – such as
macrophages and some natural killer cells.
Structure of HIV
Fig 5:4 Structure of HIV

How does HIV reproduce and cause AIDS?
After HIV has bound to the CD4 receptors on the surface of the T-helper cell, the following
events occur:
 It fuses with the plasma membrane and then releases its RNA and reverse transcriptase
enzyme into the cell.
 The reverse transcriptase converts the RNA into DNA.
 The viral DNA becomes incorporated into the cell’s own DNA.
 The viral DNA is transcribed to viral RNA, which starts producing viral proteins,
including the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
 The RNA, proteins and reverse transcriptase molecules are assembled by the cell into
new HIV particles that escape by budding from the cell membrane – this is an
example of chronic release.
 The viruses then infect other T-helper cells.
Fig 5:5 HIV replication process
Because of the drastic reduction in the number of T-helper cells, the immune function is severely
reduced and many opportunistic infections may occur. The period when the body keeps replacing
the CD4 lymphocytes as fast as they are destroyed is called the latency period. This can last for
many years. AIDS is a disease that causes its victim’s immune system to degenerate leaving them
vulnerable to infectious diseases and some types of tumour.

Treatment of AIDS
There is no cure for AIDS and, as yet, no vaccine to give immunity against infection. AIDS is
often best treated by HAART (High Activity Anti-Retroviral Therapy) in which several anti-
retroviral drugs are combined to target different stages of the HIV infection process.
The social and economic impact of AIDS

Within families, the infection of family members is often not a subject for discussion. This is
because of:
 Shame associated with admitting to being infected
 Fear of being isolated (or putting the family under pressure)
 Fear of losing a job, etc.
Many affected families find themselves in a vicious circle:
 An increasing amount of money is needed for medical treatment and burials, but
 The number of breadwinners is decreasing.
Nationally, AIDS has a serious economic impact in two main areas:

 Labour supply–the loss of young adults in their most productive years will affect overall
economic output
 costs:
 direct costs including expenditure for medical care, drugs and funeral expenses
 indirect costs including lost time due to illness, recruitment and training costs to
replace workers, and for care of orphans
 if costs are financed out of savings, then the reduction in investment could lead
to a significant reduction in economic growth
Stigma and discrimination: It is important to care for and support people who are living with
HIV/AIDS. If the stigma of having the disease is removed, people will be more willing to have an
HIV test. This means they can look after their health and reduce the risk of spreading the disease
Care and support: If people living with HIV/AIDS can receive plenty of care and support within
their own communities, this will help them to live longer and more healthily. It will also
encourage others to be tested for the virus.
Voluntary counseling and testing services (VCTs) are very important in educating and in
forming people about HIV/AIDS and supporting them both before and after an HIV test.

Responsible sexual behavior and life skills: It is important to develop personal skills such as
assertiveness, decision making and problem solving to help you prevent HIV both personally and
in society. Healthy lifestyle choices, e.g. abstinence, faithfulness to a partner and using a condom
when having sex, all reduce the risk of becoming infected with HIV/AIDS. Male circumcision
also reduces the risk of males acquiring the disease.
The Immune System

Immune system is the system in the body which protects you against invading micro-organisms
and foreign proteins. Antigens are proteins found on the outer surface of all cells or pathogens.
When a pathogen gets into the body the antigens on the surface stimulate a response by the
immune system, and the WBCs (lymphocytes) produce antibodies to disable the pathogen. Other
WBCs (the phagocytes) then engulf and digest the disabled pathogens. Immune is protected from
disease by the body having fought it off successfully previously.
5.1.7. Control of micro-organisms

Sterilisation is the process of killing micro-organisms on an object by making it safe to handle
without fear of contamination. There are a number of different ways we can sterilise things. These
include the use of:
 High temperatures or heat, disinfectants and antiseptics.
Using of Heat to Control Micro-Organisms

o Boiling is the simplest and best known method of sterilising thing, using heat. The
objects are placed in boiling water (at100°C) and kept there for some time. It does not
kill all microorganisms.
o The autoclave is used at 15 pounds per square inch of pressure, which raises the boiling
point of water to 121 °C from 15–45 minutes of ‘cooking’. This temperature is enough
to kill all micro- organisms and sterilise the equipment.
o Ultra high temperature (UHT) is a way of treating food with intense heat to kill all the
micro- organisms on it. The temperatures used range from around 135 °C to 150 °C for
2–6 seconds.
o Pasteurisation is not a method of sterilisation, because it does not kill all the micro-
organisms in the food. It makes the food safe. The food is heated to either71.6°C for at
least 15 seconds or 65.9°C for 30 minutes.
o Dry heat, over a long time, kills all micro-organisms. Special ovens used in
microbiology use temperatures of 171 °C for an hour, or 160 °C for two hours, etc.

o Incineration is burning substances at high temperatures in the air – also kills micro-
organisms.
A chemical approach to controlling micro-organisms

Possible pathogens can be attacked chemically in a number of ways. For example, antiseptics and
disinfectants kill microorganisms on the skin and in the environment around us.
o A disinfectant is a chemical agent that is applied to an inanimate object to kill micro-
organisms. In other words, it is used on floors and surfaces, not on people. Disinfection
means reducing the number of living micro-organisms present in a sample. Bleach and
calcium hypochlorite are common and widely used disinfectants.
o Antiseptics are chemical agents that are applied to living tissue to kill micro-organisms.
They are disinfectants for the skin.
o Antibiotics are chemicals which kill bacteria but do not damage human cells. Penicillin
was the first antibiotic to be discovered, and it is still in use today. Antibiotics have no
effect on diseases caused by viruses.
Many micro-organisms can be grown in the laboratory. They are grown on culture medium.
Culture medium must contain salt he nutrients such as carbohydrate to act as an energy source,
along with various mineral ions and in some cases extra protein and vitamins. The nutrients are
often contained in an agar medium – agar is a substance which dissolves in hot water and sets to
form a jelly.
Acquired immunity
Naturally acquired active immunity: Occurs in response to the exposure of antigens during the
course of daily life.
Naturally acquired passive immunity: The natural transfer of antibodies from mother to her
unborn baby (fetus) via the placenta or infant when mother breastfeeds her baby.
Artificially acquired active immunity: It is use of inactivated microorganisms or antigens to

elicit a specific antibody response. Vaccines allow you to be protected from a disease without
experiencing the serious effects of that illness. The immunity you need can be triggered
artificially by the process known as vaccination (immunization). Vaccination (immunization) is
the use of dead or weakened strains of pathogens to produce immunity to dangerous diseases.
Your WBCs develop the antibodies to the disease. Vaccination is used to give immunity to a
number of dangerous diseases. They include polio, tetanus, tuberculosis, and measles.

Artificially acquired passive immunity: It is the introduction of antibodies into the body. These
antibodies come from an animal or person who is already immune to the disease. If you
steponarusty nail you are at risk of developing tetanus. If you are bitten by a dog, there is a risk of
rabies. You can be given a vaccine which contains the antibodies you need to combat the specific
pathogen.
Vaccines produced can be

o Live vaccines are made from living micro-organisms which have been treated to weaken
them.
o Dead vaccines use micro-organisms which have been killed.
o The surface antigens of the pathogen.
DISEASES
Whereas many diseases are caused by bacteria, viruses and fungi, some of the most damaging
diseases worldwide are caused by a range of quite different organisms – protoctista and
tapeworms. Parasites are organisms that live on or in another and take their nourishment from it.
Tapeworm (Cestoda): They are flatworms. They do not feed off their host, but rather rob them of
their digested food. They do not have a digestive system so they have to absorb nutrients directly
across their skin (cuticle). They are parasites with at least two hosts, which can include human
beings. They often enter the human system when a bladder worm is ingested in under-cooked
meat. They have ahead with fearsome- looking hooks and/or suckers and the worm uses these to
attach firmly to the gut wall. The rest of the body is made up of about 1000 very thin segments,
which contain the reproductive organs. Tapeworms can be treated with anti-worm medicines that
kill them and they are then passed out in the faeces. Good sanitary conditions are recommended in
preventing their spread.
Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial disease usually affecting the lungs, it is known as pulmonary
TB. Other parts of your body can be affected–TB can infect your kidneys, lymphnodes, joints or
bones. The causative agent is the bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is transmitted
through the air. It can be asymptomatic. It may present with a low-grade fever, night sweats,
fatigue, weight loss and a persistent cough. TB can be cured by a long course of antibiotics and
prevented by vaccination. The most important way to stop the spread of tuberculosis is for TB
patients to cover the mouth and nose when coughing.

The role of vectors in disease
A vector is an organism that transmits disease-forming micro-organisms from one host to
another. Some organisms that act as vectors simply transport an infective organism from one host
to another on its body– often the feet or mouth parts. A housefly is a good example. Some
animals are biological vectors. They are needed as part of the life cycle of an infective organism.
Another well-known example is the Anopheles mosquito, which carries the malarial parasite.
Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease caused by single-celled protozoa called Plasmodium

parasites. Plasmodium spends part of its life cycle in a mosquito and part in the human body.
Malaria is spread by the bite of an infected female vector Anopheles mosquito. It causes fevers,
chills and sweating and damage to the liver and red blood cells. Use of insecticide treated
mosquito netting and mosquito repellents, having screens on doors and windows to prevent
mosquitoes getting and reducing the amount of standing water can greatly reduce the numbers of
people infected.
Acute watery diarrhea

Acute watery diarrhea (AWD) is also known as gastroenteritis can be caused by viruses,
bacteria and protoctists. People usually become infected with AWD by taking in contaminated
food or water. The most effective method of treating this disorder is rehydration with copious
fluids containing electrolytes. Good sensible hygiene practices will minimize the spread.
Cholera is a bacterial disease that affects the intestinal tract causing severe diarrhoea, vomiting
and dehydration. It is caused by bacteria called Vibrio cholerae. The cholera germ is passed in the
stool. It is spread by entering or drinking contaminated food or water. Infected people may
experience mild to severe diarrhoea. It can kill very quickly if it is severe. It is a particular risk in
areas of overcrowding with no proper sewage disposal.
Typhoid fever is a bacterial infection of the intestinal tract and sometimes the bloodstream. The
bacterium that causes typhoid is a unique human strain of salmonella called Salmonella typhi. The
germs are spread by eating or drinking contaminated water or foods. Symptoms may be mild or
severe. Antibiotic treatment is recommended. Strict attention to food and water precautions is
important. A vaccine is available.
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are infectious diseases that are spread through sexual
contact. They were previously known as venereal diseases (VD).

Gonorrhoea is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae. It is spread through sexual
contact, whether this is vaginal, anal or oral sex. Infected men will have burning while urinating
and yellowish-white discharge from the penis. Women with symptoms will have a vaginal
discharge and burning while urinating. Antibiotic treatment is prescribed. Responsible sexual
practices are also recommended.
Syphilis is a bacterial infection, caused by the spiral-shaped Treponema pallidum. It is spread is

by sexual contact with someone already infected with the bacteria. The symptoms of syphilis
occur in stages called primary, secondary and late. In the earlier stages it can be treated, but in the
late stages it cannot. It is treated with penicillin or tetracycline. If untreated, it can lead to
destruction of soft tissue and bone, heart failure, blindness and a variety of other conditions. It can
be prevented by healthy sexual practices.
Chancroid is a bacterial sexually transmitted infection. It is caused by the bacterium

Haemophilus ducreyi. It produces painful ulcers in the genital area and in the lymph glands of the
groin. It is treated by antibiotics. It can be prevented by healthy sexual practices. Having
chancroid greatly increases your risk of becoming infected by HIV/AIDS.
MODERN AND TRADITIONAL MEDICINES

Both modern and traditional medicines can be very useful in relieving symptoms and curing
diseases. It is important to use medicines carefully, taking the right dose, keeping them at the right
temperature, keeping them away from children and avoiding self-medication except for the
simplest conditions. If you do not follow the instructions when you are given antibiotics,
antibiotic-resistant bacteria may evolve which can be very serious indeed.
Review Questions
1. Which group of micro – organisms causes the disease known as athlete’s foot?
A. Bacteria B. Fungi C. Protozoa D. Viruses
2. Under which of the following groups can the fungi be more conveniently placed?
A. Autotrophs B. Heterotophs C. Prokaryotes D. plants
3. What is the advantage of using HAART (hightly active anti – retroviral theraphy) for the
treatment of HIV?
A. It gives a lasting immunity to HIV C. It prevents re – infection by HIV
B. It prevents mutation of HIV D. It helps to break the life cycle of HIV

4. Which of the following is the best collective name for all bacteria with spherical shapes?
A. Cocci B. Bacilli C. Sphitochates D. Streptococci
5. On which one of the following principles are most of the anti – HIV drugs currently in use
working?
A. Inhibition of enzyme action C. Digesting of viral particles
B. Degradation of viral RNA D. Phagocytosis of the virus
6. If a new anti – HIV drug is to be developed to prevent the virus from entering the host cell,
which one of the following processes should the drug target?
A. Reverse transcription C. Integration of viral DNA in to host DNA
B. Binding of Gp 120 and CD4 D. Assembly of viral parts into a whole virus
7. Which of the folliwng diseases is correctly matched with its causative agent?
A.Malaria- fungus C. Ringworm- protozoa
B. AIDS- virus D. Syphilis- worm
8. Which tool of the biologist is more suitable for culturing bacteria in the laboratory?
A. Test tubes B. Microscope C. Perti-dishes D. Beakers
9. Which one of the following is NOT one of the roles that microorganisms play in ecosystems?
A. Nutrient recycling C. Nitrogen fixation
B. Carbon fixation D. Energy recycling
10. Which of the following kingdoms of life is consisting of prokaryotic organisms?
A Fungi B. Monera C. Protista D. Plantae
11. What are the most frequent causative agents of food poisoning?
A. Bacteria B. Protozoa C. Viruses D. Worms
12. Which of the following human diseases can be prevented by taking proper diets?
A Degenerative diseases C. Genetic diseases
B Social diseases D. Deficiency diseases
13. Which of the following practices does NOT normally transmit HIV?
A Sexual intercourse through anus C. Blood transfusion
B Sharing injection needles D. Shaking hands
14. Which group of micro–organisms causes the disease known as athlete’s foot?
A. Bacteria B. Fungi C. Protozoa D. Viruses
15. Which of the following is the best collective name for all bacteria with spherical shapes?
A. Spirochaetes B. Bacilli C. Cocci D. Streptococci

16. Which of the following diseases is transmitted by mosquitoes?
A. Diabetes mellitus C. Rabies
B. Kaposi’s cancer D. Malaria
17. Viruses are better characterized as:
A. Decomposers B. producers C. carnivores D. parasites
18. In which part of the cell do Gram – positive and Gram – negative bacteria differ regarding their
staining property with Gram’s stain?
A. Cytoplsm B. Cell membrane C. Cell wall D. Nucleus
19. In DNA cloning technology, which of the following molecules serves as a vector of gene of
interest to be transferred to bacteria host?
A. Bacterial DNA B. Plsmid DNA C. Nuclear DNA D. Mitochondrial DNA
20. To which of the following groups does HIV belong?
A. Plasmids B. Retroviruses C. DNA viruses D. Bacteriophages
21. What is the main mode of transmission of diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever?
A. Sexual intercourse C. Blood – to – blood contact
B. Bites of animal vectors D. Drinking contaminated water
22. What are the individual strands of a fungal mycelium called?
A. Fungus B Spores C. Hyphae D. Hydra
23. To which major area of relevance and applications of biology is the production of transgenic
organism related?
A. Agriculture B. Environment C. Biotechnology D. Medicine
24. On which one of the following principles is most of the anti–HIV drugs currently in use
working?
A. Inhibition of enzyme action C. Digesting of viral particles
B. Degradation of viral RNA D. Phagocytosis of the virus

UNIT SIX: HUMAN BIOLOGY AND HEALTH
Unit learning outcomes

After the successful completion of this unit, the student will be able to:
 Explain the what is food and nutrients
 Explain the structure and function of the digestive, respiratory, circulatory,
nervous, and musculoskeletal systems.
 Identify the structures and functions of the male and female reproductive systems.
 Explain ways to prevent or reduce the spread of STIS/ HIV.
 Explain family planning strategies.
 Identify harmful practices that affect human reproductive health
6. Human Biology and Health
6.1. Food and Nutrition

We are heterotrophs – we cannot make our own energy supply by photosynthesis so we have to
eat other living things. Food is the source of nutrients and energy for the body. Food is a complex
mixture of different chemical substances or nutrients which provides our bodies requirements. It

usually comes from animals or plants and is taken in to the body where it is broken down to
provide the nutrients needed by the body.
We use our food in three main ways:
 To provide energy for our cells to carry out all the functions of life.
 Toprovidetherawmaterialsforthenewbiologicalmaterialneededinourbodiestoandalsotor
epairandreplacedamagedandwornoutcells.
 To provide the resources needed to fight disease and maintain a healthy body.
Some types of food are needed in large amounts – these are known as the macronutrients. There
are six main classes of food needed by the body. The main macronutrients are carbohydrates,
proteins and fats. Other substances are equally important in your diet, but only in tiny amounts.
They are known as the micronutrients and they include minerals and vitamins. Water is another
crucial required for living organisms. Most foods are composed of a number of usable chemical
compounds called nutrients. (SEE UNIT TWO, BIOLOGICL MOLECULES)
Minerals and vitamins yield no energy but are important constituents of certain tissues, besides
playing a major role in the regulation of metabolic activities. However, if some of them are
entirely missing from the diet, certain defect occurs in the body and produce diseases called
deficiency diseases.
Mineral Foods contain them Use in the body Deficiency diseases
Sodium (Na) Table salt, beef, spinach Nerve conduction, Muscle strain
pH value
Potassium Banana, potato, spinach, Nerve conduction,
(K) orange, beans muscle contraction
Calcium (Ca) Milk, cheese, fish, leafy Strong bones and Weakness of bones
vegetables teeth and teeth
Phosphorus Meat, dairy products, whole Strong bones and Rickets
(P) praikns milk teeth with calcium
Chlorine (Cl) Cabbage, table salt ,cheese, HCl formation in the
eggs stomach, water
balance
Iron (Fe) Liver, eggs, legume, teff, Hemoglobin Anemia, low RBC
beef synthesis
Iodine (I) Iodinated table salt, sea Thyroxine hormone Goiter enlarged
foods, onions synthesis thyroid gland
Sulphur (S) Meat, fish, egg, legumes Synthesis of amino
acids and proteins
Table 6.1: Some of the mineral elements needed by the body

Vitamins Foods rich in vitamins Deficiency diseases
A (Retinol) Green pepper, carrots, leafy Night blindness, poor growth,
vegetables xeropthalmia (dryness of cornea of the
eye)
B1(Thiamin) Whole cereals, sprouted beans, Loss of appetite, disease of muscles,
milk, liver nerve and heart called beri-beri
B3 (Niacin) Milk, yeast, meat, fresh vegetables Pellagra, which leads to mental
disorder, memory loss and depression
B2 Meat, milk, green vegetables, Slow growth, eye disease and sour
(Riboflavin) liver, peas mouth, inflammation of tongue
C Vegetables, green peppers, Scurvy- pains in muscles and joints,
(Ascorbic lemons, oranges bleeding gums, slow healing
acid)
D Fish liver oil, eggs, sun shine skin Rickets – distorted legs in children,
(Calciferol) softening of bones in adults
E Cereal oils, milk, egg yolk, lettuce, Sterility in animals such as rat, effect
(Tocopherol) seeds unknown in humans
K Green leafy vegetables Prolonged blood clotting time
(Phylloquino
ne)
Table 6.2: Major vitamins, their source and the deficiency diseases due to their limitations
Fiber in the diet

A final important part of a healthy diet is something that you can’t even digest or absorb.
Roughage or fiber cannot be broken down in the human gut, yet it is an essential part of your diet
because it provides bulk for the intestinal muscles to work on. It also absorbs lots of water. In a
diet low in roughage the movements of the gut which transport the food through it (peristalsis)
are sluggish and the food moves through the gut relatively slowly. This can result in constipation.
What is nutrition?
Nutrition is the sum total of processes by which living organisms receive and utilize the materials
necessary for survival, growth and repair of worn out tissues. Nutrition is obtaining food in order
to carry out life processes. All living organism must take in some raw materials from which they
can obtain energy and synthesis the various organic molecules needs to stay alive.
There are two main kinds of modes of nutrition. Autotrophic Nutrition (Capable of synthesizing
their own food via photosynthesis) and Heterotrophic Nutrition (Animals and non-green plants
which cannot make their own foods).

The right balance of food is of enormous importance to your overall health and well-being. A
balanced diet includes enough of all the major food groups (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
minerals, vitamins and water) to supply the energy and nutrients needed to maintain the cells,
tissues and organs of your body in a healthy state. A balanced diet supports healthy growth and
development of your body when it is needed. If too little food is eaten (under nutrition) or too
much food is taken in (over nutrition), or any one element of the diet is lacking then you will
suffer from malnutrition. Malnutrition results when too much, too little or the wrong kinds of
food is eaten.
If you eat too little food, your body becomes weak and thin. As a result, the growth and repair
processes slow down and the body loses the ability to fight against infection. Too much food
consumption results in a condition called obesity. Therefore, obesity is clearly caused by excess
of food or energy input over energy output. This condition may damage the cardiovascular
system, i.e., the heart and the blood vessels.
6.2. The Digestive System

The digestive system consists of a system of tube called the alimentary canal (gut) and the
associated digestive glands. The link between what comes in and what the body needs is the
digestive system. The food we eat usually arrives in the system as large chunks bitten off by the
teeth, chunks that contain large insoluble molecules such as starch, proteins and fats. These large
molecules cannot be absorbed into the bloodstream and used by your body so they need to be
broken down into smaller, simpler, soluble molecules. This is the main job of the digestive
system (-Food substances are broken down into small soluble molecules as they pass through the
gut). The digestive canal extends from the mouth to the anus, opening to the exterior at both ends.
The wall of the tube is mainly muscular and is made up of layers of involuntary muscles.
The working of your digestive system is based on two things:

1. Physical (or mechanical) breakdown of the food: The food you eat is physically
broken down into smaller pieces in two main ways. Your teeth bite and chew the food
up in your mouth. Then your gut, which is a muscular tube, squeezes the food and
physically breaks it up, while mixing it with various digestive juices to make it easier to
move. By breaking the food up in this way, there is a much larger surface area for the
digestive enzymes to work on.
2. Chemical breakdown of the food: The large insoluble food molecules must be broken
down by hydrolysis reactions into small, soluble molecules so they can be absorbed
into your body. This chemical breakdown is controlled by enzymes. This is called
chemical digestion. Enzymes are proteins that speed up (catalyze) other reactions.
They do not actually take part in the reaction or change it in anyway except to make it
happen faster. Enzymes are biological catalysts that usually work best under very
specific conditions of temperature and pH.
Enzymes are very specific – each type of reaction that takes place in your body is controlled by a
specific enzyme that does not catalyze any other type of reaction. Some enzymes work inside
your cells (intracellular enzymes) and some of them are secreted into organs of your body such
as the gut where they catalyze specific reactions (extracellular enzymes). The digestive enzymes
are extracellular- they work outside your cells in the lumen of your gut. Enzyme names usually
(but not always) end in–ase, e.g. amylase breaks down starch, lipase breaks down fats, catalase
breaks down hydrogen peroxide – but pepsin breaks down proteins!
The working of the gut

Ingestion is the act of taking of in food. The first stage is ingestion, or taking foodstuff into your
body through the mouth. We bite off a chunk of food using our teeth, and then physically chop
the food up into smaller pieces by chewing it. Your teeth play a very important role at the
beginning of the process of digestion, physically breaking down your food and providing a greater
surface area for your digestive enzymes to work on. This process is known as mastication.
Teeth have evolved to be very strong – in fact the enamel that covers them is the strongest
substance made by the human body. Enamel is the hardest structure in the body that resists trauma
and decay. Teeth are needed for a variety of different jobs – gripping food, tearing food and
chewing food, for example. The shape of different teeth means they are ideally suited to their
different functions. Because humans have a very varied diet (we are omnivores so we eat animals
and plants). We also have a variety of different types of teeth. The incisors and canines are used
for biting while the premolars and molars are used for chewing and crushing food.
The top surface is covered by a layer of non-living enamel, and under this is the living dentine. It
looks like a bone but softer than enamel. It contains living tissues. In the center (middle) of the
tooth is the pulp cavity, which contains nerves and blood vessels. It is sensitive to heat, cold and
pain. Your teeth are set into your jaw bone, and they are held in place by a layer of fibrous
cement. This cement keeps your teeth firmly in place but at the same time allows a certain
amount of flexibility as you are chewing.
Your adult teeth should last you all through your life. This doesn’t always happen, because your
teeth can be affected by the bacteria that cause dentalcaries. These bacteria, combined with food

and saliva, form a thin film known as plaque on your teeth. If these bacteria are given a sugar-
rich diet (in other words, if you eat a lot of sweet, sugary food) they produce a lot of acid waste.
This acid attacks and dissolves the tough enamel coating of your teeth. The bacteria will
reproduce and feed, eating away at your tooth until they reach the nerves of the pulp cavity
causing toothache.
The same bacteria can affect your gums, causing periodontal disease. The symptoms include
tender gums, bleeding when you clean your teeth and eventually the possible loss of all your
teeth, not from tooth decay but from gum disease. Taking in lots of acidic food and drink, such as
fruits and cola, can also weaken the enamel on your teeth. Both problems are avoided, especially
if you have good dental care available. Ways to avoid tooth decay include:
 Regular brushing of your teeth and gums twice a day. This removes the plaque from
the teeth, preventing the build-up of a sticky, acidic film over the enamel.
 Avoiding sweet, sugary foods – if the bacteria in your teeth are deprived of sugar, they
cannot make acidic waste and your teeth are safe.
If they are available: Have regular dental check-ups. A dentist can clean your teeth more
thoroughly than you can, and any early signs of decay can be treated. Your teeth won’t heal
themselves, but any tooth decay can be removed and replaced by a filling.
Moving foods in
Food enters the alimentary canal at the mouth or oral cavity. Food is mixed with saliva in the
mouth. There are three major pairs of salivary glands under the tongue and behind the jaws that
send their juices by way of ducts to the mouth. Your food is also coated in saliva from the
salivary glands. Saliva contains a carbohdrase enzyme called amylase. Carbohydrases break
down carbohydrates. The amylase in your saliva begins the digestion of the starch in complex
carbohydrates such as bread or potatoes, turning it into simpler sugars. The saliva coated chunk of
food (known as abolus) moves to the back of your throat to be swallowed. Swallowing is a reflex
action that takes place when food reaches the back of your throat. As you swallow, your epiglottis
closes over the trachea, preventing food going down into your lungs; you can’t swallow and
breathe in at the same time. When your food is swallowed it travels down the oesophagus or
gullet, squeezed along by muscular contractions known as peristalsis. It is responsible for the
movement of the food along the entire digestive tract. Peristalsis is not confined to your
oesophagus–it is important all the way through your gut to move the food through as it is
digested, to mix the food with the digestive enzymes produced in the various parts of the gut and
to continue the physical break-up of the food. The walls of your gut have a layer of circular
muscles forming rings around it and a layer of longitudinal muscles that run the length of the gut.
Waves of alternate contraction and relaxation of the different muscles move food through from
one end of the gut to the other.
Stomach churning activity

At the lower end of the oesophagus your food passes through a ring of muscle called a sphincter
into your stomach.as the swallowed food reaches the stomach, it is gradually mixed with gastric
juice produced by the gastric glands. This is done by a churning movement (alternate contraction
and relaxation of the muscles in the stomach walls). The gastric juice is a solution which consists
of hydrochloric acid, mucus, and few enzymes. The main protease made in the stomach is
pepsin and rennin. The acid kills most of the bacteria that are taken in with our food. The acid
also helps indirectly in the breakdown of the protein in your food, because pepsin works best in
acid conditions. Your stomach also makes a thick layer of mucus, which protects the muscle walls
from being digested by the protease enzymes and attacked by the acid.
Bile
Bile is a greenish-yellow alkaline liquid that is produced in the liver (a large reddish-brown organ
that carries out lots of important jobs in the body). It is made by the liver cells and then stored in
the gall bladder until it is needed. As food comes into the duodenum from the stomach, bile is
squirted onto the stomach contents. The bile does two important jobs:
 It neutralizes the acid from the stomach and makes the semi-digested food alkaline.
This is ideal for the enzymes in the small intestine, which work most effectively in an
alkaline environment.
 Bile also emulsifies the fats in your food – it breaks down large drops of fat into
smaller droplets. This provides a much bigger surface area of fats for the lipase
enzymes to work on to break down the fats completely into fatty acids and glycerol.
As soon as the food leaves the stomach it enters the duodenum, the upper portion of the small
intestine. The first part of the small intestine (the duodenum) cannot make its own enzymes. In
the duodenum the food is acted upon by bile and digestive juices from the pancreas called
pancreatic juice. The rest of the pancreas makes and stores enzymes that digest carbohydrates,
proteins and fats. As food enters the small intestine from the stomach these enzymes are released
to be mixed with the food paste by muscle action. The pancreatic juice contains three important
enzymes, trypsin, lipase and pancreatic amylase which act upon proteins, fats and starch
respectively.

The rest of the small intestine is a long (6–8 m) coiled tube that produces carbohydrase, protease
and lipase enzymes of its own. The tube is coiled up to fit inside the body cavity. Your food,
which is rapidly becoming completely digested in the alkaline environment, is moved along by
peristalsis.
Once the food molecules have been digested, giving glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and
glycerol, they are absorbed by your body (absorption). It is the process by which digested food
passes through the walls of small intestine. They leave the small intestine by diffusion and go into
the blood supply to be carried around the body to the cells that need them. The lining of the small
intestine is specially adapted to allow as much diffusion as possible and as rapidly as possible. It
has many finger-like projections of the lining (called villi) to increase the surface area for
diffusion, and each individual villus in turn is covered in even smaller projections called micro-
villi. The villi also have a rich blood supply that carries away the digested food molecules and
maintains a steep diffusion gradient. The diffusion distances are very small, and the whole
process takes place in a water-based solution. All of these factors make the absorption of the
digested food molecules from the small intestine into the blood supply very efficient.
The glucose molecules and amino acids go directly into the blood. The fatty acids and glycerol
move initially into the lacteals (dense network of blood capillaries in the villi), which are part of
the lymph system. The lymphatic fluid with its load of fatty acids and glycerol then eventually
drains into the blood as well. Once the digested food molecules have all been taken into the blood
they are taken in the hepatic portal vein to the liver, which processes some of the food. The
remaining products of digestion are carried around the body to the cells where they are needed.
They are built up into the molecules required by the cells. This is known as assimilation.
The end of the story

After the digested food molecules have been absorbed into the blood, a watery mixture of
enzymes, undigested food (mainly cellulose), bile pigments, dead cells and mucus is left in the
small intestine and is moved along by muscle contractions into the large intestine. This waste i.e.,
the undigested foods having no nutritive value pass into the large intestine. It is about 1 m long in
man. By the end of the large intestine the thick paste that remains is known as the faeces. The
journey ends as the faeces leave the body through the rectum and the anus as a result of a final
set of muscle contractions. This removal of the faeces from your body is called egestion or
defecation. It is not excretion because excretion involves the removal of the waste products from
the cells, and the final contents of your gut have never been inside your cells.

Constipation
If the faeces remain in your large intestine for too long, too much water is removed from them.
They become compacted, hard and difficult to evacuate from your body. This is constipation and
the most common causes are a lack of fiber in the diet and not drinking enough water. Straining to
pass faeces can cause hemorrhoids (piles) or a tear in the anus. Constipation can usually be
treated relatively easily. This may involve eating more fiber or having a proper roughage in the
diet, drinking plenty (so the faeces remain soft) and sometimes taking laxatives (chemicals which
stimulate the gut to contract and force out the faecal material). If the faeces become completely
compacted (which happens very rarely) they can block the gut. This is a very serious situation
which may have to be relieved by surgery.
Diarrhea
On the other hand, if an infection causes the gut to contract more strongly or more rapidly than
usual, the faeces that are produced may be very loose and watery. This is known as diarrhea.
Often this condition clears up within 24 hours, but in the very young and the very old – and
anyone if it persists–diarrhea can be fatal as it causes dehydration of the tissues. It can be treated
very simply by giving the sufferer frequent drinks of water with rehydration salts (mainly salt and
sugar). These replace the fluids that are being lost and keep the body tissues hydrated until the
immune system overcomes the infection. Millions of people around the world, particularly
children and old people, die from untreated diarrhea every year.
Food hygiene
It is not only the balance of food in your diet that can affect your health. There are a number of
food-borne diseases. Bacteria growing on food that you eat can make you very ill and even kill
you. For example, raw meat and raw eggs can contain bacteria such as salmonella that cause
diarrhea and sickness (vomiting). In most people food-borne diseases are not too serious, but
young children, the elderly and anyone who has other health problems can be very seriously
affected. You need to maintain very strict food hygiene when you are preparing food to avoid
these diseases. Store raw meat and eggs separately from salad vegetables and fruit; wash the
knives used to cut meat and the work surfaces on which it is prepared before preparing salads or
cutting cheese. Disinfect work surfaces regularly. And most important of all, anyone preparing
food must wash their hands between handling different types of food and when they have been to
the toilet. Gut bacteria from the faeces can be transferred from the hands to the food very easily
and cause stomach upsets to spread around a family or a community.

6.3. The Respiratory System
Breathing is the mechanical process of taking oxygen into the body and giving off carbon
dioxide as a waste product. All mammals have lungs as a breathing organ. Your respiratory
system is beautifully adapted for the job it has to do. Human breathing system consists of the
nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi bronchioles and alveoli within the lungs. Your nose
contains the nasal cavity (passages), which have a large surface area, a good blood supply, lots of
hairs and a lining that secretes mucus. The hairs and mucus filter out much of the dust and small
particles such as bacteria and pollen that we breathe in, whilst moist surfaces increase the
humidity of the air we breathe into our bodies and the rich blood supply warms it. All this means
that the air we take in is already warm, clean and moist before it gets into the delicate tissue of our
lungs.
Air leaving the nasal cavity goes into the pharynx, the space behind the nasal cavity and the
mouth. From here air goes into the trachea or wind pipe. As the air leaves the pharynx, it enters
the trachea or wind pipe. The wall of the trachea contains rings of cartilage that keep the tube
open for the passage of air, air can – and does – make its way down into your gut, this doesn’t
matter as you can simply bring it back up in the form of a burp. However, it is very important that
food does not get into your lungs. It can block the airways or cause a fatal infection and so the
epiglottis closes off your trachea every time you swallow in a reflex action. Since pharynx is the
common passage for both food and air, epiglottis closes the opening of trachea during
swallowing.
At the top of your trachea sits your larynx or voice box which contains the vocal cords. By
directing air leaving the lungs over the vocal cords (flaps of muscle) in the larynx, the vibration of
this cords produce the sounds that you use in speech. The trachea itself has a series of incomplete
rings of cartilage (shaped like the letter C) that support it and hold it open. They are incomplete so
that you can swallow your food. The cells that line the trachea are also covered in hair-like cilia
that beat to move the mucus with any trapped micro-organisms and dirt away from your lungs and
towards your mouth. This mucus is then either swallowed and digested or coughed up.
The trachea splits into two tubes; the left and right bronchi (singular bronchus), one leading to
each lung. The bronchi are also supported by rings of cartilage. Inside your lungs, the bronchi
divide into smaller tubes known as the bronchioles. The bronchioles are much smaller than the
bronchi, dividing into ever smaller tubes until they reach the main structures of the lungs – the
alveoli (singular alveolus). There are millions of these tiny air sacs, giving a massive surface area

for the main exchange of gases in the lungs to take place.
The exchange of gases between the lungs and the blood occurs at alveoli. For your respiratory
system to work you need to move air into your lungs and then move it out again. This is brought
about by movements of the ribcage. Breathing is the movement of air into and out of the lungs. It
is caused by the action of muscles between the ribs known as inter-coastal muscles and the
diaphragm. The movement of oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide out of the blood takes
place at exactly the same time – there is a swap or exchange between the two and so this process
is known as gaseous exchange.
The mechanism of gas exchange in the alveoli depends on:

a) Large surface area
b) Moist surfaces
c) Short diffusion distances, and
d) Rich blood supply maintaining steep concentration gradients.
There are two types of breathing movements. These are inspiration (the act of inhaling or taking
in air into the lungs) and expiration (the act of exhaling or expelling air from the lungs). If we
analyze the gases in inhaled and exhaled air, we can compare their composition and show the
levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide change.
Atmospheric gas Air breathed in Air breathed out
Nitrogen About 80% About 80%
Oxygen 21% 16%
Carbon dioxide 0.04% 4%
Water vapor Less More
Table 6.3: approximate composition of air inhaled and exhaled air
What affects your breathing rate?

The average resting breathing rate for an adult human being is around 12–14 breaths per minute.
This supply the oxygen needed for all of the normal activities of your cells, but it do not use up all
of the capacity of your lungs. When you are breathing normally at rest, you take about 500 cm3 of
air in and out each time you breathe – this is only about 15% of your possible maximum. This is
known as your tidal volume of air. The vital capacity of your lungs is the absolute maximum
amount of air you can take into or breathe out of your lungs. Anything that increases the oxygen
requirements of your body will tend to increase your breathing rate. The main factors known to
have an effect are exercise, anxiety, drugs, environmental factors, altitude, weight and smoking.

When breathing fails
Sometimes breathing fails. This can be the result of a number of different things, including an
accident, drowning or a heart attack. Once breathing stops, death will result in a matter of minutes
as the brain in particular is starved of oxygen. However, it is possible to take over breathing for a
casualty in this situation, and this may be enough to keep them alive until medical support arrives.
It is very important that mouth-to-mouth resuscitation should ONLY be given when the casualty
has stopped breathing, not just when they are unconscious. The procedure for this is as follows:
1. Call for help loudly. Use a phone to get help if you can.
2. Check to see if the casualty is conscious – use their name if you know it, ask their name
and ask if they can hear you. NEVER use artificial respiration on a conscious patient. Call
for help. If you are sure the patient is unconscious.
3. Open the airway. Remove any obstacles from the mouth which might block the airway,
e.g. water weed, vomit. Tilt the head back and lift the chin. This opens the air ways and
may be enough to start breathing again. Call for help again.
4. Check for breathing. Put your head near the casualty’s nose and mouth. Observe for at
least5 seconds before you decide the person is not breathing. Call for help. NEVER use
artificial respiration on a casualty who is breathing.
5. Make sure the airway is open and the head is tilted back. Pinch the casualty’s nostrils
closed with one hand. Keep the chin lifted with the other hand.
6. Use a clean piece of cloth over the mouth to avoid the transfer of HIV through contact and
other infections. Take a deep breath and then seal your mouth around the person’s mouth.
Breathe out firmly into the person’s mouth until you see the chest rise. This will show you
that you are getting air into their lungs.
7. Remove your lips and let the chest fall naturally.
8. Repeat these steps at about 12 breaths per minute – a steady rate. The colour should return
and the person may begin breathing for themselves. If not, continue until medical help
arrives.
6.4. The Circulatory System

Small, single-celled organisms rely on simple diffusion to exchange materials between the outside
world and the inside of their cells. The diffusion distances are short, so diffusion works really
well. The bigger the organism, the less effective simple diffusion becomes as a means of
transport, because our surface area to volume ratio is such that diffusion simply cannot cope.

The human transport system is the blood circulation system. The circulatory system of the
human body consists of tubes of various sizes called blood vessels (the pipes), fluid tissues called
blood (the medium), and a pumping organ, the heart (the pump). Human beings are made up of
billions of cells, most of them a very long way from a direct source of food or oxygen, so a more
complex transport system is required to supply the needs of the body cells and remove the waste
material they produce.
A double circulation
We have a double circulation, one carrying blood from the heart to the lungs and back again to
exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with the air, the other carrying blood all around the rest of
the body and back again. This gives us a very effective way of getting oxygen into the blood and
then supplying it to all the body cells. In the pulmonary circulation, blood flows from the heart
to the lungs and back again. In the systemic circulation blood is pumped from the heart all
around the body and back to the heart again.
A double circulation like this is very important in warm-blooded, active animals like us because it
is very efficient. It lets our blood get fully oxygenated in the lungs before it is sent off to the
different parts of the body. In animals like fish that have a single circulation, as soon as the blood
has picked up oxygen it starts to lose it again to the tissues, so very few parts of the body receive
fully oxygenated blood.
The blood vessels

A very important element of any transport system is the pathways along which the transport takes
place. The three main types of blood vessels, arteries, veins and capillaries, which are adapted to
carry out particular functions within the body, although they are all carrying the same blood.
The arteries carry blood away from the heart so they have to be able to withstand the pumping of
the heart forcing the blood out into the circulation. This is usually oxygenated bloods and it is
bright red. Most arteries carry blood that is rich in O2 and food. Arteries have thick walls that
contain muscle and elastic fibers, so that they can stretch as the blood is forced through them and
go back into shape afterwards. Because the blood in the arteries is under pressure, it is very
dangerous if an artery is cut because the blood spurts out rapidly every time the heart beats. This
means blood is lost very rapidly and the bleeding is difficult to stop. The pulmonary artery
carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs. The largest artery is aorta and
the smallest arteries are called arterioles.

The veins carry blood towards your heart–it is usually low in oxygen and so is a deep purple-red
colour. The veins return blood to the heart. They have much thinner walls than arteries and the
blood in them is under much lower pressure because it is a long way away from the thrust of the
heart. They do not have a pulse, but they often have valves to prevent the back-flow of blood as it
moves from the various parts of the body back to the heart. The only veins that carry bright red
blood are the pulmonary veins, which carry oxygenated blood back from your lungs to the left-
hand side of your heart, and the umbilical vein, which carries oxygenated blood from the placenta
back to the developing foetus to supply it with the food and oxygen it needs to grow. The smallest
veins are called venules and vena cava is the largest veins.
Capillaries are blood vessels that connect the smallest arteries with the smallest veins. Between
the arteries, that bring blood from the heart, and the veins, that take it back to the heart, are very
narrow, thin-walled blood vessels called capillaries. The capillaries link the other two types of
blood vessels. These take the blood into all the organs and tissues of the body. The capillaries are
the site of the exchange of substances within the body, blood from the arteries passes into the
capillaries, which have very thin walls and a massive surface area.
The human heart
The contraction of the powerful muscles of the heart provides most of the force required to keep
blood in circulation. The human heart is a bag of reddish-brown muscle that beats right from the
early days of our development in the uterus until the end of our life, sending blood around the
body. The heart is made up of two pumps that beat at the same time so that bloods can be
delivered to the body about 70 times each minute. The heart is made up of a unique type of
muscle known as cardiac muscle, which can contract and relax more or less continuously without
fatiguing. The contraction is stimulated in heart itself by specialized tissue called the pacemaker.
The walls of the heart are almost entirely muscle. These muscular walls are supplied with blood
by the coronary arteries, so that they have a constant supply of glucose and oxygen and the
carbon dioxide produced is not allowed to build up in the tissue. The deoxygenated blood is
carried away in the coronary veins, which feed back into the right atrium.
The walls of the atria are relatively thin, so they can stretch to contain a lot of blood. The walls of
the ventricles are much thicker, as they have to pump the blood out through the major blood
vessels. The muscle walls of the left-hand side of the heart are thicker than on the right. This is
because the left hand side of the heart has to pump blood around the whole body whilst the right-
hand side pumps only to the lungs.

The working of the hear
The two sides of the heart fill and empty at the same time to give a strong, coordinated beat, but
to understand what happens it is easier to follow a single volume of blood around the heart.
 Deoxygenated blood, which has supplied oxygen to the cells of the body and is loaded
with carbon dioxide, comes into the right atrium of the heart from the veins of the
body.
 The atrium contracts and forces blood into the right ventricle.
 The right ventricle contracts and forces blood out of the heart and into the lungs where
it is oxygenated – it picks up oxygen.
 Oxygenated blood returns to the left-hand side of the heart from the lungs and the
left atrium fills up.
 The left atrium contracts forcing blood into the left ventricle.
 The left ventricle contracts forcing oxygenated blood out of the heart and around
the body.
Inside the heart there are many different valves. Their names describe their appearance–bicuspid
(two parts) tricuspid (three parts) and semilunar (half-moon). Each time the muscular walls of the
heart contract and force blood out, some of these valves open to allow the blood to flow in the
right direction, and other valves close to make sure that the blood does not flow backwards. The
noise of the heartbeat we can hear through a stethoscope is actually the sound of these valves
transporting the surging blood.
Diastole is when the heart muscles relax and it fills with blood. Systole is when the heart muscles
contract and force the blood out of the heart. It is the contraction of auricle or ventricles of the
heart. A heart beat constitutes a complete cardiac cycle made up of systole followed by diastole.
A normal blood pressure is 120 mmHg/80 mmHg – usually quoted as 120 over 80 or 120/80.
Blood pressure is used as a measure of the health of both the heart and the blood vessels.
The flexible heart

When we are resting our heart beats steadily at around 70 beats every minute, supplying all the
needs of the cells. However, physical exercise means that muscles need more food and oxygen to
work, and so the heart needs to supply more blood. It does this in two ways. The heart beats faster
- the pulse rate can easily go up from rest to 120 or even 140 beats a minute, increasing the
amount of blood flowing around the body. The heart can also increase the amount of blood
pumped out at each heartbeat. Age, exercise, anger, disease and drugs affect the rate of the
heartbeat.

The blood
The heart and the blood vessels are there to carry the transport medium around your body – and
the transport medium is your blood. Your blood is a complex mixture of cells and liquid that
carries a huge range of substances around the body. The blood carries nutrients, respiratory gases
(CO2 and O2), metabolic wastes, and other substances. It consists of a liquid called the plasma,
which carries red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
The plasma is a pale yellow liquid that transports all the blood cells that contain about 90%
water. The remaining10% consists of dissolved and suspended substances such as digestive end
products, vitamins, mineral salts, antibodies, hormones nitrogenous wastes (urea) and plasma
protein. Carbon dioxide produced in the organs of the body is carried in the plasma back to the
lungs. Similarly, urea, a waste product from the breakdown of excess proteins formed in the liver,
is carried in the plasma to the kidneys where it is removed from the blood to form urine.
One of the main components of your blood is the red blood cell = RBC (erythrocytes). There are
more red blood cells than any other type of blood cell. They are superbly adapted to their role in
carrying oxygen around your body and supplying it to the cells where it is needed. They are disk-
shaped structure and their shape increases their surface area. They are formed in the bone
marrow ribs and vertebrae and they lose their nucleus. This means that there is more room to
carry extra haemoglobin – another adaptation to their all-important function. Each RBC contains
a pigmented molecule called hemoglobin, which picks up oxygen. RBCs are small, about 7.5
microns in diameter.
Hemoglobin is a very special red pigment; a large protein molecule folded around four iron
atoms. In a high concentration of oxygen, such as in the lungs, the hemoglobin reacts with oxygen
to form oxyhemoglobin. This is bright scarlet, which is why most arterial blood is bright red. In
areas where the concentration of oxygen is lower, such as the cells and organs of the body, the
reaction reverses. The oxyhemoglobin splits to give purple-red haemoglobin (the colour of venous
blood) and oxygen. The oxygen then passes into the cells where it is needed by diffusion. This
reversible reaction makes active life as we know it possible by carrying oxygen to all the places
where it is really needed.
There are about 5 million RBCs per cubic millimeter of human blood. The life span of RBCs is
120 days in males’ and110 days in females after which they are destroyed and removed in the
liver and the spleen. Because the haemoglobin in your red blood cells is based on iron, it is
important to eat enough iron in your diet. Without it, the body cannot make enough red blood
cells and you suffer from anemia. People who are anemic are pale and lack energy, because they
cannot carry enough oxygen around the body for their needs.
Another important component of your blood is the white blood cells = WBCs (leukocytes). They
are much bigger than the red cells and there are fewer of them. WBCs are irregularly shaped
colorless cells that have nuclei. They produced in bone marrow, lymph nodes and spleen. There
are only 8000 WBCs per cubic millimeter (mm 3) of human blood. Their number increased when
the body is infected and form part of the body’s defense system against microbes. Some white
blood cells – the lymphocytes form antibodies against microbes whilst others – the phagocytes
and lymphocytes engulf (eat) invading bacteria.
Blood Platelets (thrombocytes) are another component of your blood. They are small fragments
of cells and they are very important in helping your blood to clot at the site of a wound. They are
non-nucleated and colorless bodies produced in the red bone marrow. When platelets arrive at a
wound site they are involved in the formation of a network of protein threads. Then as more
platelets and red blood cells pour out of the wound they become entangled in the mesh of threads
forming a jelly-like clot. This soon dries and hardens to form as cab. The clotting of the blood is a
very important process activated by thromboplastin in the presence of calcium. It prevents you
from bleeding to death from a simple cut. It also protects your body from the entry of bacteria and
other pathogens (disease-causing micro-organisms) through an open wound, and protects the new
skin from damage as it grows.
Human blood groups

One way of typing blood is the A-B-O system. Using this system, the four blood types are A, B,
AB and O. these four types of blood are called blood groups. A number of special proteins called
antigens are found on the surface of all cells. They allow cells to recognize each other and also to
recognize cells from different organisms. If the cells of your immune system recognize a foreign
antigen on a cell in your body, they will produce antibodies. These antibodies will join on to the
antigen and destroy the foreign cells. This is how your immune system recognizes and fights the
organisms which cause disease.
A number of different antigens are found specifically on the surface of the red blood cells. This
gives us the different human blood groups. In this system there are two possible antigens on the
red blood cells – antigen A and antigen B. There are also two possible antibodies in the plasma,
known as antibody A and antibody B. Unlike most other antibodies, these antibodies are present
in your body all the time. They are not made in response to a particular antigen.

Blood group Antigen on red blood cells Antibody in the plasma
A A B
B B A
AB AB None
O none AB
Table 6.4: Antigens and antibodies of different blood groups
Blood transfusion – is the transfer of blood, parts of blood or solution in to a person’s blood. If
the blood from different blood groups is mixed together, there may be a reaction between the
antigen and the complementary antibody which makes the red blood cells stick together
(agglutinate). This means they cannot work properly. They block the capillaries and even larger
blood vessels. Most of the time this is not important since everyone keeps their own blood in their
own circulatory system. Before a transfusion it is vital to know the blood groups of both the
person giving the blood (the donor) and the person receiving the blood (the recipient). This
means the right type of blood can be given to prevent agglutination. The blood groups must be
compatible. For example, blood group O has no antigens so it can be given to anyone, but
someone who has blood group O has both antibodies so they can only receive group O blood! On
the other hand, someone with blood group AB which has no antibodies can receive any type of
blood!
Blood group Can be transfused into Can be receive blood from

A A and AB A and O
B B and AB B and O
AB AB only All groups
O All groups O only
Table 6.5: Transfusion of blood groups
Two common problems of the circulatory system

One common problem of the circulatory system is a condition called anemia. If you are anemic
you have too few red blood cells in the body, or the levels of the oxygen-carrying red pigment
haemoglobin in your blood are too low. There are a number of causes of anemia. The most
common is a lack of iron in the diet.
Hypertension is another common complaint of the circulatory system. Hypertension is the

medical name for high blood pressure. Blood pressure is considered high if the systolic pressure is
greater than140 mmHg or the diastolic pressure is greater than 90mmHg. For 90 % of the cases of

hypertension, the cause is unknown. For the other 10%, hypertension is a symptom of another
disease, such as chronic kidney diseases or diseases in the arteries supplying the kidneys, chronic
alcohol abuse, hormonal disturbances or tumors. There are many factors mean that your blood
vessels are likely to be getting narrower, or becoming more rigid, both of which increase your
blood pressure. These factors include: increasing age, being overweight, excessive salt intake,
excessive consumption of alcohol, sedentary (inactive) lifestyle, smoking, kidney diseases,
diabetes and certain medicines, such as steroids. There is also evidence to suggest that
hypertension may be genetic (i.e. run in the family).
Treatment of hypertension
For many people hypertensions can be managed through lifestyle adjustments. Losing weight,
lowering the salt levels in the diet becoming more active will lower the blood pressure back
within normal level for some people. Some common medication ones include diuretics, which
increase the frequency of urination. These remove water from the body, which reduces the blood
volume and so lowers the blood pressure. There are other drugs that block the nerves which
narrow the arteries. These are known as beta blockers, while there are other drugs which act
directly on the brain. Once people start using medication for hypertension, they will usually need
it for many years or life. Because of the long timescale for treating hypertension, cost is an
important consideration in the choice of drugs.
6.5. The Nervous System

In the simplest form, the nervous system is an organ system specifically designed to sense the
environment and to produce a response to changing conditions. The nervous system is very
important in helping to maintain the homeostasis (balance) of the human body. A series of
sensory receptors work with the nervous system to provide information about changes in both the
internal and external environments. The human nervous system is a complex of interconnected
systems in which larger systems are comprised of smaller subsystems each of which have specific
structures with specific functions.
The nervous system has a number of receptors designed to accumulate information about the
environment. Examples of these receptors include: taste buds, rods and cones on the retina,
pressure sensors in the skin. The nervous system transmits signals from one part of the body to
another (taste to brain) by using neurons. The brain acts as the main filter for information coming
from all over the body. The brain then has to prioritize information that is more important than
others. The brain has to then decide upon a set of actions to respond the environment. The brain
can cause a multitude of reactions to respond to the environment such as: the movement of a
muscle to avoid a moving object the increase of heart rate to escape from a bear the increase in
pupil sight to see in the dark. Electrochemical impulses transmit signals to other parts of the
nervous system. There is an all or none response to stimulus (either the nerve cell decides to send
a message, or it remains inactive). There is no difference in the strength of the impulse. Once it
decides to send a message, the message cannot be recalled.
The nervous system in man and in other higher animals is composed of 2 major components:
 Central nervous system (CNS)
o Central nervous system consists of brain and spinal cord. CNS = brain + spinal
cord.
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
o Peripheral nervous system consists of nerves that arise from brain and spinal cord
(CNS) and spread in different parts of body. PNS = nerves.
All these components are made of neurons, it means CNS (brain & spinal cord) and PNS (nerves)
all are made of neurons. A neuron is the smallest unit of the nervous system. Every part of the
nervous system is composed of specialized neurons. There are different parts of the neuron.
Neuron or nerve cell and it is the unit of nervous system. The human nervous system consists of
billions of neurons plus supporting cells called neuroglial cells. Human nervous system =
neurons + neuroglial cells. Neurons are cells, just like other cells of the body, but they are
specialized cells because they transmit information from one part of the body to the other in the
form of electrical impulses. In this way they communicate with each other and with other types of
body cells. This means that neuron communicates with other neurons in nervous system and
neuron also communicates with other cells of body such as heart cells, muscle cells etc. This
communication occurs through junctions called synapses.
Neurons have 3 distinct parts:

1) Cell body(soma)
The Cell Body is the center of the cell. Here most chemical reactions occur, DNA is
in the nucleus, most of the organelles are located here. Nucleus and most of the
cytoplasm of the neuron is located in its cell body.
2) Axon
The axon transmits the message along the rest of the neuron to the next neuron.
Axons conduct impulses away from the cell body.
3) Dendrites
Dendrites receive information. This can come from two sources, other neurons or

specialized receptors (like taste buds). Dendrites conduct impulses toward cell body
Schwann cells are special neuroglial cells located at regular intervals along axons.
Myelin sheath; in some neurons schwann cells secrete a fatty layer over axons called
myelin sheath.
Types of neurons
There are three basic types of neurons. These are:
o Sensory Neurons = they conduct sensory information from receptors towards CNS. They
have one dendrite and one axon.
o Interneurons = Form brain and spinal cord. They receive information, interpret them and
stimulate motor neurons. They have many dendrites and axons.
o Motor Neurons = Carry information to muscles or glands (effectors). They have many
dendrites but only one axon.
Nerve is a union of several axons that are enveloped by a covering made of lipid. Based on the
property of axons, nerves are classified into 3 types.
 Sensory nerves: contains the axons of sensory neurons only.
 Motor nerves: contain the axons of motor neurons only.
 Mixed nerves; contain the axons of both sensory and motor neurons.
A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of nerve fibers called axons, in the peripheral nervous
system. A nerve transmits electrical impulses and is the basic unit of the peripheral nervous
system.
Peripheral nervous system is composed of nerves and ganglia. A ganglion is a group of neuron
cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system. In certain parts of body, the cell bodies of many
neurons form a group enveloped by a membrane, this is called ganglion. Ganglia are ovoid
structures containing cell bodies of neurons and glial cells supported by connective tissue.
Ganglia function like relay stations - one nerve enters and another exit. A ganglion (pl. ganglia) is
a mass of nerve cell bodies found outside of the central nervous system (CNS) along with some
glial cells and connective tissue.
Nerves arise or lead to brain and spinal cord, so they are named as cranial and spinal nerves.
There are12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves. Some cranial nerves are sensory,
some are motor and some are mixed. All spinal nerves are mixed nerves.

6.5.1. Sense Organs
The human sense organs contain receptors that relay information through sensory neurons to the
appropriate places within the nervous system. Each sense organ contains different receptors.
Sensory organs have special receptors that allow us to smell, taste, see, hear, and maintain
equilibrium or balance. Information conveyed from these receptors to the central nervous system
is used to help maintain homeostasis. The organs used for these functions are eye, ear, tongue and
skin. General receptors are found throughout the body because they are present in skin, visceral
organs, muscles, and joints. Special receptors include chemical receptors found in the mouth and
nose, photoreceptors (light receptors) found in the eyes, and mechanoreceptors found in the ears.
The Eye
The eye is a slightly asymmetrical globe, about an inch in diameter. The front part of the eye
includes:
o Iris (the pigmented part) - The iris regulates the size of the pupil.
o Cornea (a clear dome over the iris).transparent covering of the front of the eye. Allows
for the passage of light into the eye and functions as a fixed lens.
o Pupil (the black circular opening in the iris that lets light in)
o Sclera (the white part) - a tough white layer of connective tissue that covers the entire
eyeball except the cornea.
o Conjunctiva (an invisible, clear layer of tissue covering the front of the eye, except the
cornea). External cover of the sclera — keeps the eye moist
o Choroid: thin, pigmented layer lining the interior surface of the sclera. – Prevents light
rays from scattering and distorting the image. Anteriorly it forms the iris.
o Retina: lines the interior surface of the choroid. – Contains photoreceptors. Except at the
optic disk (where the optic nerve attaches).
Embedded in the retina are millions of light sensitive cells, which come in two main varieties:
rods and cones. Rods are good for monochrome vision in poor light, while cones are used for
color and for the detection of fine detail. Cones are packed into a part of the retina directly behind
the retina called the fovea. When light strikes either the rods or the cones of the retina, it's
converted into an electric signal that is relayed to the brain via the optic nerve. The brain then
translates the electrical signals into the images we see.
Structure and Function of the Human Eye

Vertebrates have single-lens eyes.
Focusing Light
The lens and ciliary body divide the eye into two cavities. The anterior cavity is filled with
aqueous humor produced by the ciliary body. The posterior cavity is filled with vitreous humor.
The lens, the aqueous humor, and the vitreous humor all play a role in focusing light onto the
retina. Accommodation is the focusing of light in the retina. Mammals focus by changing the
shape of the lens. The lens is flattened for distant objects. The lens is rounded for near objects.
 Vision -Rhodopsin (retinal + opsin) is the visual pigment of rods. The absorption of light
by rhodopsin initiates a signal-transduction pathway Receptor potential is hyper-
polization.
 Color reception is more complex than the rhodopsin mechanism.
Three types of cone cells each with unique photopsin (green cones, red cones, blue cones).
Brain’s analysis of color depends on relative responses of each type of cone. Colorblindness is
due to a deficiency, or absence, of one or more photopsins.
The Ear
The ear consists of three basic parts - the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. Each part of
the ear serves a specific purpose in the task of detecting and interpreting sound. The outer ear
serves to collect and channel sound to the middle ear. The middle ear serves to transform the
energy of a sound wave into the internal vibrations of the bone structure of the middle ear and
ultimately transform these vibrations into a compressional wave in the inner ear. The inner ear
serves to transform the energy of a compressional wave within the inner ear fluid into nerve
impulses that can be transmitted to the brain.
The three parts of the ear are shown below.

A. The outer ear consists of an earflap and an approximately 2-cm long ear canal. The
earflap provides protection for the middle ear in order to prevent damage to the eardrum.
The outer ear also channels sound waves that reach the ear through the ear canal to the
eardrum of the middle ear. Because of the length of the ear canal, it is capable of
amplifying sounds with frequencies of approximately 3000 Hz. As sound travels through
the outer ear, the sound is still in the form of a pressure wave with an alternating pattern of
high and low pressure regions. It is not until the sound reaches the eardrum at the interface
of the outer and the middle ear that the energy of the mechanical wave becomes converted
into vibrations of the inner bone structure of the ear.
B. The middle ear is an air-filled cavity that consists of an eardrum and three tiny,
interconnected bones - the hammer, anvil, and stirrup. The eardrum is a very durable and
tightly stretched membrane that vibrates as the incoming pressure waves reach it. As

shown below, a compression forces the eardrum inward and a rarefaction forces the
eardrum outward, thus vibrating the eardrum at the same frequency of the sound wave.
Being connected to the hammer, the movements of the eardrum will set the hammer, anvil,
and stirrup into motion at the same frequency of the sound wave. The stirrup is connected
to the inner ear; and thus the vibrations of the stirrup are transmitted to the fluid of the
inner ear and create a compression wave within the fluid. The three tiny bones of the
middle ear act as levers to amplify the vibrations of the sound wave. Due to a mechanical
advantage, the displacements of the stirrup are greater than that of the hammer.
C. The inner ear consists of a cochlea, the semicircular canals, and the auditory nerve. The
cochlea and the semicircular canals are filled with a water-like fluid. The fluid and nerve
cells of the semicircular canals provide no role in the task of hearing; they merely serve as
accelerometers for detecting accelerated movements and assisting in the task of
maintaining balance. The cochlea is a snail-shaped organ that would stretch to
approximately 3 cm. In addition to being filled with fluid, the inner surface of the cochlea
is lined with over 20 000 hair-like nerve cells that perform one of the most critical roles in
our ability to hear. These nerve cells differ in length by minuscule amounts; they also have
different degrees of resiliency to the fluid that passes over them.
As a compressional wave moves from the interface between the hammer of the middle ear and the
oval window of the inner ear through the cochlea, the small hair-like nerve cells will be set in
motion. Each hair cell has a natural sensitivity to a particular frequency of vibration. When the
frequency of the compressional wave matches the natural frequency of the nerve cell, that nerve
cell will resonate with larger amplitude of vibration. This increased vibrational amplitude induces
the cell to release an electrical impulse that passes along the auditory nerve towards the brain. In a
process that is not clearly understood, the brain is capable of interpreting the qualities of the
sound upon reception of these electric nerve impulses.
The Tongue
The receptors for taste, called taste buds, are situated chiefly in the tongue, but they are also
located in the roof of the mouth and near the pharynx. They are able to detect four basic tastes:
salty, sweet, bitter, and sour. The tongue also can detect a sensation called "umami" from taste
receptors sensitive to amino acids. Generally, the taste buds close to the tip of the tongue are
sensitive to sweet tastes, whereas those in the back of the tongue are sensitive to bitter tastes. The
taste buds on top and on the side of the tongue are sensitive to salty and sour tastes.
At the base of each taste bud there is a nerve that sends the sensations to the brain. The sense of

taste functions in coordination with the sense of smell. The number of taste buds varies
substantially from individual to individual, but greater numbers increase sensitivity. Women, in
general, have a greater number of taste buds than men. As in the case of color blindness, some
people are insensitive to some tastes.
The Nose
The nose is the organ responsible for the sense of smell. The cavity of the nose is lined with
mucous membranes that have smell receptors connected to the olfactory nerve. The smells
themselves consist of vapors of various substances. The smell receptors interact with the
molecules of these vapors and transmit the sensations to the brain. The nose also has a structure
called the vomeronasal organ whose function has not been determined, but which is suspected of
being sensitive to pheromones that influence the reproductive cycle. The smell receptors are
sensitive to seven types of sensations that can be characterized as camphor, musk, flower, mint,
ether, acrid, orputrid. The sense of smell is sometimes temporarily lost when a person has a cold.
Dogs have a sense of smell that is many times more sensitive than man's.
Like the sense of taste, it's a chemical sense. They are called chemical senses because they detect
chemicals in the environment, with the difference being that smell works at dramatically larger
distances than that of taste. The process of smelling goes more or less like this:
 Vaporized odor molecules (chemicals) floating in the air reach the nostrils and dissolve
in the mucus (which is on the roof of each nostril).
 Underneath the mucus, in the olfactory epithelium, specialized receptor cells called
olfactory receptor neurons detect the odor. These neurons are capable of detecting
thousands of different odors.
 The olfactory receptor neurons transmit the information to the olfactory bulbs, which
are located at the back of the nose.
 The olfactory bulbs have sensory receptors that are actually part of the brain which
send messages directly to: The most primitive brain centers where they influence
emotions and memories (limbic system structures), and "Higher" centers where they
modify conscious thought (neo-cortex).
 These brain centers perceive odors and access memories to remind us about people,
places, or events associated with these olfactory sensations.
The Integumentary System (Skin)

The integument as an organ, and is an alternative name for skin. The integumentary system
includes the skin and the skin derivatives hair, nails, and glands. The integument is the body’s
largest organ and accounts for 15% of body weight. The derivatives of the integument:
 Hair: functions include protection & sensing light touch. Hair is composed of columns of
dead, keratinized cells bound together by extracellular proteins. Hair has two main
sections: The shaft- superficial portion that extends out of the skin and the root-portion
that penetrates into the dermis. Surrounding the root of the hair is the hair follicle. At the
base of the hair follicle is an onion- shaped structure called the bulb Papilla of the hair and
the matrix within the bulb produce new hair.
 Nails: participate in the grasp & handling of small things. Nails are plates of tightly
packed, hard, keratinized epidermal cells. The nail consists of: nail root: -the portion of the
nail under the skin, nail body:-the visible pink portion of the nail, the white crescent at the
base of the nail is the lunula, the hyponychium secures the nail to the finger, the cuticle
oreponychiumisa narrow band around the proximal edge of the nail and free edge:-the
white end that may extend past the finger.
Glands participate in regulating body temperature. There are three main types of glands
associated with the integument:
 Sebaceous - Oil glands. Located in the dermis, and secrete sebum.
 Sudoriferous - Sweat glands. Divided into two main types: – Eccrine - Most common,
main function is regulation of body temperature by evaporation, and–Apocrine-
Responsible for “cold sweat” associated with stress.
 Ceruminous – Lie in subcutaneous tissue below the dermis, secrete cerumen (ear wax)
into ear canal or sebaceous glands.
Functions of the Skin

Thermoregulation - Evaporation of sweat & Regulation of blood flow to the dermis.
Cutaneous sensation - Sensations like touch, pressure, vibration, pain, warmth or
coolness.
Vitamin D production - UV sunlight & precursor molecule in skin make vitamin
D.
Protection – The sin acts as a physical barrier.
Absorption & secretion – The skin is involved in the absorption of water – soluble
and excretion of water and sweat.
Wound healing - When a minor burn or abrasion occurs basal cells of the epidermis
away from the basement membrane and migrate across the wound. They migrate as a

sheet, when the sides meet the growth stops and this is called ‘contact inhibition’.
 In deep wound healing - A clot forms in the wound, blood flow increases and
many move to the wound. The clot becomes a scab; granulation tissue fills the
wound and intense growth of epithelial cells beneath the scab. The scab falls off
and the skin returns to normal thickness.
Sensory Receptors = the skin contains numerous sensory receptors which receive information
from the outside environment. The sensory receptors of the skin are concerned with at least five
different senses: pain, heat, cold, touch, and pressure. The five are usually grouped together as
the single sense of touch in the classification of the five senses of the whole human body. The
sensory receptors vary greatly in terms of structure. For example, while pain receptors are simply
unmyelinated terminal branches of neurons, touch receptors form neuronal fiber nets around the
base of hairs and deep pressure receptors consist of nerve endings encapsulated by specialized
connective tissues.
Receptors also vary in terms of abundance relative to each other. For example, there are far more
pain receptors than cold receptors in the body. Finally, receptors vary in terms of the
concentration of their distribution over the surface of the body, the fingertips having far more
touch receptors than the skin of the back. Nerve fibers that are attached to different types of skin
receptors either continues to discharge during a stimulus "slowly-adapting" or respond only when
the stimulus starts and sometimes when a stimulus ends "rapidly-adapting". In other words,
slowly-adapting nerve fibers send information about ongoing stimulation; rapidly- adapting nerve
fibers send information related to changing stimuli. The Pacinian corpuscle receptor is a classic
example of a rapidly- adapting type receptor. The Ruffini nerve ending is a slowly- adapting type
receptor.
6.6. Endocrine Glands

A structure which makes hormones in the body is called endocrine glands. They are also called
ductless glands because they do not have ducts to secrete their hormones. A group of endocrine
glands which produces various hormones is called an endocrine system. It is also called
hormonal system. Endocrine system helps in coordinating the activities of our body.
o Hypothalamus
o Pituitary gland
o Thyroid gland
o Parathyroid

o Thymus
o Pancreas
o Adrenal gland
o Testes & Ovaries
The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety
of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous
system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus is responsible for
certain metabolic processes and other activities of the autonomic nervous system. It synthesizes
and secretes certain neuro-hormones, often called releasing hormones or hypothalamic
hormones, and these in turn stimulate or inhibit the secretion of pituitary hormones. The
hypothalamus controls body temperature, hunger, fatigue, sleep, etc.
The pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing
0.5 grams in humans. It is composed of three lobes: anterior, intermediate, and posterior. It
involves in the growth, blood pressure in some aspects of pregnancy and childbirth including
stimulation of uterine contractions during childbirth, breast milk production, sex organ functions
in both males and females, thyroid gland function, the conversion of food into energy
(metabolism), water and osmolarity regulation in the body, water balance via the control of
reabsorption of water by the kidneys, temperature regulation and pain relief.
The thyroid gland or just thyroid is one of the largest endocrine glands and consists of two
connected lobes. Each lobe is about 5 cm long, 3 cm wide and 2 cm thick. The thyroid gland is a
butterfly-shaped organ. The thyroid gland is found in the neck, below the thyroid cartilage (which
forms “Adam’s apple”). It secretes throxine hormone also called T4. The thyroid also produces
calcitonin, which plays a role in calcium homeostasis. The thyroid gland controls how quickly the
body uses energy, makes proteins, and control show sensitive the body is to other hormones.
These hormones regulate the growth and rate of function of many other systems in the body.
Thyroid hormones act throughout the body, influencing metabolism, growth and development,
and body temperature. During infancy and childhood, adequate thyroid hormone is crucial for
brain development.
There are four parathyroid glands, and they are each about the size of a grain of rice. Though
they’re located near each other, the parathyroid glands are not related to the thyroid gland.
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) has a very powerful influence on the cells of your bones by causing
them to release their calcium into the bloodstream. Parathyroid hormone regulates the body’s
calcium levels. The parathyroid essentially helps the nervous and muscular systems function
properly. Calcium is the primary element that causes muscles to contract, and calcium levels are
very important to the normal conduction of electrical currents along nerves. The most common
disease of parathyroid glands is hyperparathyroidism, which is characterized by excess PTH
hormone.
The thymus is a specialized organ of the immune system. The thymus is composed of two
identical lobes and is located anatomically in the anterior superior mediastinum, in front of the
heart and behind the sternum. Each lobe of the thymus can be divided into a central medulla and a
peripheral cortex which is surrounded by an outer capsule. The thymus is largest and most active
during the neonatal and pre-adolescent periods. The thymus produces and secretes thymosin.
Helping the body protect itself against autoimmunity, this occurs when the immune system turns
against itself. The thymus plays a vital role in the lymphatic system (your body’s defense
network) and endocrine system. Protects the body from certain threats, including viruses and
infections.
The adrenal glands are two glands that sit on top of your kidneys that are made-up of two
distinct parts - The adrenal cortex and The adrenal medulla. They are also known as suprarenal
glands. The adrenal glands are two, triangular-shaped organs that measure about 1.5 inches in
height and 3 inches in length. The adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla have very different
functions. One of the main distinctions between them is that the hormones released by the adrenal
cortex are necessary for life; those secreted by the adrenal medulla are not.
The pancreas is unique in that it’s both an endocrine and exocrine gland. In other words, the
pancreas has the dual function of secreting hormones into blood (endocrine) and secreting
enzymes through ducts (exocrine). The pancreas is a 6-inch-long flattened gland that lies deep
within the abdomen, between the stomach and the spine. It is connected to the duodenum, which
is part of the small intestine. It secretes insulin. The pancreas maintains the body’s blood glucose
(sugar) balance. Primary hormones of the pancreas include insulin and glucagon, and both
regulate blood glucose. Diabetes is the most common disorder associated with the pancreas.
The testes (or testicles) are a pair of sperm-producing organs that maintain the health of the male
reproductive system. The testes are twin oval-shaped organs about the size of a large grape. They
are located within the scrotum, which is the loose pouch of skin that hangs outside the body
behind the penis. The testes secrete testosterone, which is necessary for proper physical
development in boys. In adulthood, testosterone maintains libido, muscle strength, and bone
density. Disorders of the testes are caused by too little testosterone production.

The ovaries are oval shaped and about the size of a large grape. They are located on opposite
ends of the pelvic wall, on either side of the uterus. The ovaries are each attached to the fimbria
(tissue that connects the ovaries to the fallopian tube). Ovaries produce and release two groups of
sex hormones—progesterone and estrogen. The ovaries maintain the health of the female
reproductive system. Diseases associated with the ovaries include ovarian cysts, ovarian cancer,
menstrual cycle disorders, and polycystic ovarian syndrome.
6.7. The Reproductive System

The human reproductive system involves separate male and female reproductive systems. In
many ways, the female system is more complicated than that of the male. Gonads are organs such
as the testes (male), which produce sperm, and ovaries (females) that produce eggs(ova). These
reproductive cells are known as gametes.
Why do we need to reproduce?

1. To ensure survival of the species
2. To produce egg and sperm cells
3. To transport and sustain these cells
4. To nurture the developing offspring
5. To produce hormones
Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system contains the external genital organs (penis, testes, and the scrotum)
and internal parts (prostate gland, vas deferens, and urethra) that work together to produce sperm
(male gametes), male sex hormones, and other components of the semen.

Fig. 6.1: Male reproductive system
Structure Function
Testes • Produce sperm cells
• Produce the hormone testosterone
Seminiferous tubules • Produce immature sperm cells
Epididymis • Matures and stores sperm cells in coiled tubules
Vas deferens • Carries sperm from the epididymis to its junction with the urethra
Seminal vesicle • Secretes fructose into the semen, which provides energy for the
sperm
Prostate gland • Secretes an alkaline buffer into the semen to protect the sperm
from the acidic environment of the vagina
Cowper’s gland • Secretes mucus rich fluids into the semen that may protect the
sperm from acids in the urethra
Urethra • Carries semen during ejaculation
• Carries urine from the bladder to the exterior of the body
Penis • Deposits sperm into the vagina during ejaculation
• Contains the urethra
Table 6.6: Summary of male reproductive structures and their function

Female Reproductive System
The female reproductive system includes the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, accessory
glands, and external genital organs. Its functions include producing gametes called eggs, secreting
sex hormones (such as estrogen), providing a site for fertilization, gestating a fetus if fertilization
occurs, and giving birth to a baby.

Structure Function
Ovaries  Produce the hormones estrogen and progesterone.
 Site of ova (egg cell) development and ovulation
Fallopian tubes  Carry the ovum from the ovary to the uterus
(oviducts)  Usually the site of fertilization
Fimbria  Sweep the ovum into the oviduct following ovulation

uterus(womb)  Pear-shaped organ in which the embryo and fetus develop
 Involved in menstruation
 Separates the vagina from the uterus
Cervix  Holds the fetus in place during pregnancy
 Dilates during birth to allow the fetus to leave the uterus
 Extends from the cervix to the external environment
Vagina  Provides a passageway for sperm and menstrual flow
 Functions as the birth canal
Table 6.7: Summary of female reproductive structures and their function

Types of sexually transmitted infections and preventions
More than 20 types of sexually transmitted infections or diseases spread through unprotected
sexual intercourses. The major causative agents or pathogens are bacteria, viruses, and parasites.
Bacterial infections include chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis. Viral infections include human
papillomavirus (HPV), herpes (HSV or herpes simplex virus), human immunodeficiency
virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) and Hepatitis B. Infection by parasite
includes Trichomoniasis.
Review Questions
1. Which part of the human alimentary canal contains digestive enzymes that function at acidic pH?
A. Stomach B. Mouth
C. Esophagus D. Small intestine
2. Which one of the following functions best at higher optimum pH than all the rest?
A. Pepsin B. Salivary amylase C. Trypsin D. Enzymes in stomach
3. Which of the following industries can reduce more CO 2 emission by shifting to the use of enzymes
in the manufacturing process?
A.Bread making B. Cheese making C. Leather making D. Manufacturing cosmetics
4. Which of the following is made of globular proteins ?
A. Enzyme B. Keratin C.Collagen D. Glycogen
5. Which of the following human diseases can be prevented by taking proper diets?
A. Degenerative diseases C. Genetic diseases
B. Social diseases. D. Deficiency diseases
6. Vitamin A is also known as:
A Tocopherol B. Retinol C. Ascorbic acid D. calciferol
7. Which of the following will NOT cause obesity, even if you eat very large amounts of it in
your diet?
A Fat B. Fibre C. Carbohydrate D. Protein
8. Which part of a tooth contains the living nerves?
A Enamel B. Dentine C. Cement D. Pulp Cavity
9. The finger-like projections in the small intestine are known as:
A Bilirubin B. Microvilli C. Sphincters D Villi
10. The organ of your body where gas exchange takes place is the:
A. Liver B. Lungs C. Trachea D. Heart

11. The role of the cilia on the epithelium of the trachea is to:
A. Move dirt and mucus away from the lungs
B. Move dirt and mucus down the trachea into the lungs
C. To produce mucus
D. To prevent food getting into the lungs
12. Which of the following is not part of the respiratory response to exercise?
A. Breathing faster C. Producing more oxygen
B. Breathing deeper D. Producing more carbon dioxide
13. Which of the following is NOT a constituent of cigarette smoke?
A Oxygen C Nicotine
B Carbon monoxide D Tar
13. What are the main parts of the human transport system?
A. The heart, the blood vessels and the blood
B. The heart, the blood and the lymph
C. The heart, the arteries and the veins
D. The arteries, the veins and the capillaries
14. The main job of the arteries is:
A. To carry deoxygenated blood away from the heart
B. To carry oxygenated blood away from the heart
C. To carry deoxygenated blood to the heart
D. To carry oxygenated blood to the heart
15 Which type of vessels have a pulse?
A Capillaries B lymph vessels C veins D arteries
16. Which chamber of the heart has the thickest walls?
A Right atrium B left atrium C right ventricle D left ventricle
17.. The main role of the platelets in your blood is in:
A. The clotting mechanism
B. The carriage of oxygen
C. The carriage of carbon dioxide
D. The production of antibodies against invading organisms

UNIT SEVEN: THE SCIENCE OF BIOLOGY
Explain fundamental genetic concepts.

Describe the structure and replication of the genetic material and
basic aspects of the flow of genetic information from DNA to
proteins.
Understand mechanisms of flow of genetic information from
DNA to proteins ( transcription, translation and the genetic code)
Understand the principles of Mendelian inheritance and their
extensions (one- and two-locus traits with two or more alleles, gene
interactions, sex linkage and linkage) by analyzing inheritance
patterns from crosses.
Understand the principle of blood grouping and their applications
7. Genetics
Genetics is the study of heredity, or the passing of traits from parents to offspring. Whenever an
infant is born in a family, the relatives begin to wonder about the resemblance of the infant’s eyes,
facial features, complexion, colour of hair with those of the parents, siblings and grandparents.
The source of such resemblances and differences are in the “genes” that are passed down form
parents to children and so on generation after generation. This inheritance of genes is termed
‘heredity’ the study of reasons of heredity is ‘Genetics’. New individuals develop features
according to the genes inherited by them from their parents. It is further observed that siblings
from same parents are unique and differ from each other except the identical twins. Such
differences are termed variations.
Variation in a population is very important. It has survival value for the population. This is
because if the environment changes, some individuals (variants) may be able to adapt to new
situations and save the population from dying out. Variation arises due to mutation or sudden
change in the genes. Variation also arises because genes get shifted and exchanged during meiosis
at the time of formation of gametes, giving rise to new gene combinations.

At fertilization, there is random mixing of paternal and maternal chromosomes with different gene
combinations. Such a source of variation which is most common is called genetic
recombination.
7.1. Introduction to Mendelian Inheritance

Gregor Johann Mendel set the framework for genetics long before chromosomes or genes had
been identified, at a time when meiosis was not well understood. For his work, Mendel is often
referred to as the “father of modern genetics.”
Mendel selected a simple biological system, garden peas (Pisum sativum), for his plant breeding
experiments. He selected garden peas because of three reasons:
1. Easy to cultivate.
2. Naturally self-pollinating plant but it is easy for artificial cross-pollination.
3. Having characters which show pair of contrasting traits (no intermediates).
Mendel carefully focus on 7 characters (14 varieties or contrasting traits) (Fig. 7.1), and for each
contrasting traits he conducted his experiment as follow. (Ex. Steam length: Tall and Short)
Mendel designed his experiments in such a way that a pure tall variety of pea plants could be
crossed to a pure dwarf variety. The anthers from flowers of tall plants were removed and their
stigmas dusted with pollen from flowers of dwarf (short) plants. The reverse experiment was also
carried out.
In the following spring, seeds from the new plants were collected and sown. Mendel found that all
the plants of this generation called first filial generation (filius is Latin for “son”) or F1 grew to be
tall plants. He allowed them to self-pollinate. Again he collected the seeds. The following year,
after the seeds had been sown, he found that three quarters of these plants were tall and the rest
dwarf. He repeated the experiment several times and found that the ratio of tall to dwarf plants
(second filial generation or F2) was 3:1 (Fig. 7.1).
In this way he tried to cross pea plants differing in seven such contrasting characters or traits and
he found the same pattern and ratio of F1 and F2. Crosses involving plants differing in the
inheritance of one contrasting feature only are called mono-hybrid crosses. Mendel also tried
crosses involving two contrasting features, such as tall and red flowered plants crossed with dwarf
and white flowered plants. Such crosses are termed di-hybrid crosses.

Fig. 7.1: Mendel’s experimental results. This table illustrates the seven characters Mendel studied
in his crosses of the garden pea and presents the data he obtained from these crosses. Each pair of
traits appeared in the F2 generation in very close to a 3:1 ratio.
Mendel’s Conclusions after his experiment

From his experiments, Mendel was able to understand the following about the nature of heredity.
1. Heredity is determined by a particulate body called factors (that we now call genes) that are
passed from one generation to the next.
The plants he crossed did not produce progeny of intermediate appearance, as a theory of
blending inheritance would have predicted. Instead, different plants inherited each
alternative intact, as a discrete characteristic that either was or was not visible in a
particular generation.
2. Each character is determined by a pair of factors.
Each trait is controlled by one gene occurring in two contrasting forms – the different
forms of each gene are called alleles
For each trait, an organism inherits two alleles (pair of factors), one from each parent.

3. Law of Dominance-
When the two factors of a pair are different only one is fully expressed/ shows in a hybrid
individual
Mendel learned that for each pair of alternative forms of a character, one alternative was
not expressed in the F1 hybrids, although it reappeared in some F2 individuals. The trait
that “disappeared” must therefore be latent (present but not expressed) in the F1
individuals.
The expressed one is dominant allele and the masked one is recessive allele
Example
 A cross between a pure tall and a pure short will give 100% tall offspring.
 Therefore, the tall allele is dominant and the short allele is recessive.
 Thus, if the allelic combination in an organism is Tt, and T (tallness) expresses
itself but t (dwarfness) cannot, so T is the dominant allele, and tallness is dominant
on dwarfness represented by “t’
 Recessive alleles will be shown ONLY if no dominant allele is present.
4. Law of Segregation
Alleles (found in homologous pairs) are segregated (separated) from each other during
meiosis so that each gamete (egg, sperm) carries only a single copy of each gene
5. Law of Independent Assortment
in the inheritance of two features (each feature controlled by a pair of genes), genes for
the two different features are passed down into the offspring independently i.e. the
segregation of one pair of factors is independent of the segregation of the factors
belonging to any other pair of factors or allelic pair.
“Members of one gene pair segregate independently from other gene pairs during
gamete formation”.
Genes get shuffled – these many combinations are one of the advantages of sexual
reproduction.
6. During fertilization, factors of a pair will recombine so that factors / alleles are always
found in pairs.
New pairs form during fertilization

Important Terms In Genetics
Factor: The unit of inheritance and expression of a particular character is
controlled by inheritable units called factor (gene) which are present in pairs in
parental cells and singly in the gametes.
Gene: A segment of DNA molecule which determines the unit of inheritance and
expression of a particular character.
Alleles: Two or more alternative forms of a gene are called alleles. For example
in pea plant, the gene for producing seed shape may occur in two alternative
forms: smooth (S) and wrinkled (s). Genes for smooth wrinkled seeds are alleles
of each other, and occupy same locus on homologous chromosomes.
Trait: is the morphologically or physiologically visible character, e.g. colour of
flower, and shape of seed.
Dominant trait : Out of the two alleles or allelorrorphs of a trait, the one which
expresses itself in a heterogygous organism in the F1 hybrid is called the
dominant trait (dominant allele) and the one that remains masked in F1 individual
but gets expressed in the next generation (F2), is called recessive. Thus, if the
allelic combination in an organism is Tt, and T (tallness) expresses itself but t
(dwarfness) cannot, so T is the dominant allele, and tallness is dominant on
dwarfness represented by “t’.
Recessive trait: Out of the two alleles for a trait, the one which is suppressed
(does not express) in the F1 hybrid is called the recessive trait (recessive allele).
But the Recessive allele does express itself only in the homozygous state (e.g. tt).

Important Terms In Genetics
Genotype: A class of individuals recognised based on its genetic constitution and breeding
behaviour is called the genotype, e.g., the genotype of pure smooth seeded parent pea plant
is SS and it will always breed true for smooth-seeded character, but plants having Ss on
selfing would give rise to a population represented by 3: 1 ratio for smooth seeded plants
and wrinkled seeded plants.
Phenotype: A class of individuals recognised based on outward appearance

of a trait in an individual is the phenotype, e.g. Smooth-seeded shape or wrinkled
shape of seeds represent two different phenotypes.
Homozygous: An individual possessing identical alleles for a trait is termed
homozygous e.g. SS is homozygous condition for smooth seeded character in
garden-pea.
Heterozygous: An individual with dissimilar alleles for a trait is termed
heterozygous for e.g. Ss represent the heterozygous condition for smooth
seeded character in garden pea.
Hybridisation : Crossing organisms belonging to different species for getting
desirable qualities in the offspring.
Test cross: is the Crossing of the F1 progeny with the homozygous recessive
parent. If F1 progeny is heterozygous, then test cross always yields the ratio
of 1: 1 between its different genotypes and phenotypes.
Reciprocal cross: Is the cross in which the sex of the parents is reversed. That
is if in the first cross father was dwarf and mother tall, then in the reciprocal
Test Mendelian mono-hybrid and di-hybrid crosses with

example and find the following using punnett square
a. Genotypic ratio =?
b. Phenotypic Ratio =?
c. Genotypic Class (Total no of different genotype) =?
d. Phenotypic Class (Total no of different phenotype) =?

7.2. Non-Mendelian Inheritance
Not all traits are inherited following the patterns found by Mendel in pea plants. The non-
Mendelian Inheritance is a form of genetic Inheritance that is not in accordance with Mendel’s
law. Therefore, Non-Mendelian genetics are, therefore, any inheritance patterns that don’t follow
one or more laws of the Mendelian genetics. Gregor Mendel explained that gene might exist in
different forms (alleles) that are either dominant or recessive. However, there are other conditions
in which alleles show different dominance relationships (e.g. Co-dominance and Incomplete
dominance) and modes of inheritance (Gene linkage and multiple allelism).
Some examples of non-Mendelian inheritance:-
7.2.1. Co-dominance
Co-dominance is a condition in which both alleles are expressed equally rather than a dominant
allele taking complete control over a recessive allele. This means that when an organism has two
different alleles (heterozygote), it will express both alleles at the same time.
Coat color is an example of codominance in short-horned cattle. The following example shows
the cross between red and white cattle that produce ratio 1 red: 2 roans: 1 white coat colour
because of codominance. Heterozygous individuals (RW) show roan coat colour as both the
alleles express themselves equally.
Cattle can be:

 Red (RR – all red hairs)
 White (WW – all white hairs)
 Roan (RW – red and white hairs
together)
7.2.2. Incomplete dominance:

Similar to co-dominance, in incomplete dominance, Mendel’s principle of dominance is not
applicable. In incomplete dominance, the mix of genetic traits that produce an intermediate
phenotype result in heterozygotes in terms of physical traits. The pink rose is a great example in
which the white and red varieties of rose are hybridized resulting pink rose offspring.

 In the following example –Phenotype = white flower; genotype = rr; phenotype = red
flower; genotype = RR
7.2.3. Multiple Alleles:

Gregor Mendel suggested that each gene would have pair of factors (alleles), which are inherited
from two parents (one from each parent). However, some genes exist in more than two alleles. In
addition to co-dominance, the ABO blood group system in humans is an example of a trait with
multiple alleles because it exists in three allelic forms: A, B, and O.
ABO blood group system is the classification of human blood based on the presence or absence of
the antigens A and B on the surface of the red blood cells. As a result, people may have type A, B,
O, or AB blood. This blood type classification refers to which of the certain proteins called
antigens are found on the red blood cells. As shown in the table below, there are six possible
ABO genotypes because the three alleles, which are taken two at a time, result in six possible
combinations.
Table 7.1: The genotype and phenotype of ABO blood groups

The A and B blood types are also co-dominant. Thus, if two people with AA and BB blood type
alleles have children, every single child (male or female) from this couple would be heterozygotes
(AB) with AB blood type.
7.2.4. Sex-linked inheritance in humans:

Sex in human is determined by two sex chromosomes. Females have two copies of the X
chromosome (XX), whereas males have one copy of the X chromosome and one copy of the Y
chromosome (XY). Because males have only one X chromosome, genes that are on the
chromosome are expressed because there is no similar gene on the corresponding Y chromosome
that masks them. Hence, men are far more likely to get sex-linked genetic diseases than women
are. Men also have their own special Y chromosome that women do not possess. Hence, any gene
on the X chromosome of male will be expressed regardless of whether it is dominant or recessive.
Hemophilia is an example of a sex-linked genetic disease in humans. This gene is carried on the
X chromosome and can only be passed on to males through their mother. The crosses and
offspring of sex-linked trait hemophilia can be shown as follows.
In this case, the mother is a carrier of the sex-linked trait. She does not have the diseases because
her normal X chromosome masks them. But her son gets the disease because there is no
corresponding X chromosome on Y that masks it.
7.2.5. Environmental effects on phenotype

Various organisms live in different environmental conditions, ranging from the hottest to the
coldest areas, from watery to dry areas and from areas with ample food to those where there is a
scarcity of food. The environment can affect the phenotype of these organisms. A phenocopy is
an environmentally induced phenotype of an individual, which is identical to the phenotype of
another individual determined by genotype. In other words, the phenocopy induced by the
environmental conditions mimics the phenotype produced by a gene.
Most of the time phenocopies can result from exposure to radiation, chemicals poisons,
temperature shocks etc. An example of phenocopy due to temperature variation is observed in
Himalayan rabbits. Himalayan rabbits have a white colored coat along with a black tail, nose, and
ears when raised in moderate temperatures. However, they also show black coloration of their
coats when raised in cold temperatures, resembling the genetically black rabbits.
Fig. 7.2 a: Effect of Temperature in Himalayan rabbits
Fig. 7.2 b: Effect of Sex in Human (Baldness)
7.3. Genes and chromosomes

The speculation that chromosomes might be the key to understanding heredity led several
scientists to examine. Mendel’s publications and reevaluate his model in terms of chromosome
behavior during mitosis and meiosis. These observations led to the Chromosomal Theory of
Inheritance, which identified chromosomes as the genetic material responsible for Mendelian
inheritance.
The Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance was consistent with Mendel’s laws, which the following
observations supported:
 During meiosis, homologous chromosome pairs migrate as discrete structures that are
independent of other chromosome pairs.
 Chromosome sorting from each homologous pair into pre-gametes appears to be random.
 Each parent synthesizes gametes that contain only half their chromosomal complement.

 Even though male and female gametes (sperm and egg) differ in size and morphology,
they have the same number of chromosomes, suggesting equal genetic contributions from
each parent.
 The gametic chromosomes combine during fertilization to produce offspring with the
same chromosome number as their parents.
Sections of the DNA structure that contain the set of instructions that determine the characteristics
of an organism are called genes. Genes are the basic structural and functional units of inheritance
in nature. Genes pass from parents to offspring during both sexual and asexual reproduction
through cell division.
Genes are located on chromosomes. Chromosomes are threadlike structures made of a protein
called histone and DNA molecule. Each chromosome may contain hundreds to thousands of
genes that are arranged linearly along the length of each chromosome (like beads on a string),
with each gene having its own unique position on to chromosomes called locus / loci (plural).
Chromosomes exist in pair in diploid organisms in which one chromosome is always inherited
from the mother and the other from the father. For example a human cell contains 46
chromosomes which exist in 23 pairs of chromosomes.
7.4. The genetic materials

The genetic material of an organism refers to material that carries genetic information and passes
it from one generation to the next generation to perpetuate life. The genetic material in almost all
organisms is DNA. RNA is also a genetic material in some viruses like HIV, COVID-19.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the hereditary material in humans and other organisms. It exists
in a double helix formed by base pairs attached to a sugar-phosphate backbone. RNA
(ribonucleic acid) serves as the genetic codes in some viruses. It is involved in protein synthesis in
cells.
7.4.1. The structure and function of DNA

Both DNA and RNA have their own structures and important role in determining the
characteristics of organisms.
The structure of DNA

The structure of DNA is a ladder-like double helix twisted into a spiral shape, in which the sugar
and phosphate groups form the two vertical ladder and the nitrogenous bases form the ladder’s

rungs. It consists of two long chains of chemicals called polynucleotide (Figure 7.3) that twist
around each other to form a double helix, is the basic building blocks of a DNA molecule.
Fig. 7.3: The structures of a single nucleotide
Each nucleotide is composed of a sugar, phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. There are four
types of nitrogenous bases. These are: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G)
and Cytosine (C). The nitrogen bases belong to the two large chemical families called purine and
pyramidine. The A and G are purines and the C and T are pyrimidines. A pairs with T and C pairs
with G to form units called base pairs. Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a
phosphate molecule to form a nucleotide, the building blocks of the DNA called nucleotide.

The Function of DNA
The function of DNA is to store all of the genetic information that an organism needs to grow,
develop, reproduce, control the cell and survive. While DNA determines the characteristics of an
organism, it is also responsible for carrying and transmitting the hereditary materials or the
genetic instructions from parents to the offspring. The transmission of this information from the
mother to daughter cells occurs through the process of DNA replication during cell division.
7.4.2. The structure and function of RNA

The structure of RNA:
RNA has single strand structure. RNA contains the sugar ribose, phosphates, and the nitrogenous
bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and uracil (U) which replaces thymine in DNA
(Figure 4.7). There are three most well-known types of RNA in all organisms. These are
messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). All types of RNAs
are formed on DNA strands by transcription process. In the next section, we shall see the role of
each type of RNA in protein synthesis.

The function of RNA:
RNA is the most important molecule in all lives. RNA is involved in a variety of functions within
the cell and is found in all living organisms. RNA functions in protein synthesis and used as a
storage of genetic information in some viruses. RNA facilitates the translation of the DNA into
different proteins required by organisms. For example, it serves as a messenger in conveying
instructions between the DNA and the ribosome during proteins synthesis.
7.4.3. DNA Replication and Cell Division

DNA Replication
DNA replication is the process by which DNA makes a copy of itself during cell division. DNA
has a unique property of replication or production of carbon copies. This is essential for transfer
of genetic information from one cell to its daughters and from one generation to the next. DNA
gives rise to RNAs through the process of transcription.
DNA replication is a semi-conservative, which means that each strand in the DNA double helix
acts as a template for the synthesis of a new, complementary strand. In other words, the two
original DNA strands separate during replication; each strand then serves as a template for a new
DNA strand. Each newly synthesized double helix is a combination of one old and one new DNA
strand.

Cell Division
Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells. Cell
division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle. In eukaryotes, there are two distinct types of
cell division: a vegetative division, whereby each daughter cell is genetically identical to the
parent cell (mitosis), and a reproductive cell division, whereby the number of chromosomes in the
daughter cells is reduced by half to produce haploid gametes (meiosis).
Meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells by undergoing one round of DNA replication
followed by two divisions. Homologous chromosomes are separated in the first division, and
sister chromatids are separated in the second division. Both of these cell division cycles are used
in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in their life cycle. Both are believed to be
present in the last eukaryotic common ancestor.
Prokaryotes (bacteria) undergo a vegetative cell division known as binary fission, where their
genetic material is segregated equally into two daughter cells. While binary fission may be the
means of division by most prokaryotes, there are alternative manners of division, such as budding,
that have been observed. All cell divisions, regardless of organism, are preceded by a single round
of DNA replication. For simple unicellular microorganisms such as amoeba, one cell division is
equivalent to reproduction; an entire new organism is created. On a larger scale, mitotic cell
division can create progeny from multicellular organisms, such as plants that grow from cuttings.
Mitotic cell division enables sexually reproducing organisms to develop from the one-celled
zygote, which itself was produced by meiotic cell division from gametes. After growth, cell
division by mitosis allows for continual construction and repair of the organism.
The human body experiences about 10 quadrillion cell divisions in a lifetime. The primary
concern of cell division is the maintenance of the original cell's genome. Before division can
occur, the genomic information that is stored in chromosomes must be replicated, and the
duplicated genome must be separated cleanly between cells. A great deal of cellular infrastructure
is involved in keeping genomic information consistent between generations.
7.5. Protein Synthesis

Proteins are organic compound made of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds. There are
essential for the maintenance of structural attributes and the functioning of all living cells and
viruses. There are 20 different naturally occurring amino acids but each protein is different in
structure and function due to the sequence in which these amino acids are arranged.

Protein synthesis is the stepwise process of the production of different types of proteins from
amino acids. It involves DNA, RNA (mRNA, tRNA and rRNA), amino acids, various enzymes
and ribosome.
DNA stores genetic information used to produce different proteins.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) transcribes genetic information from DNA in the nucleus with
the help of enzyme RNA polymerase.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosome and it
translates the message within the nucleotide sequence of mRNA to a specific amino acid
sequence.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a molecule in cells that forms part of the ribosome that help
translate the information in messenger RNA (mRNA) into protein.
Ribosomes are cytoplasmic organelle that translates the mRNA template into a
polypeptide chain.
The process of protein synthesis involves the conversation of instructions in DNA into a
functional product (proteins) through transcription and translation. Reverse transcription is
a process in which a DNA molecule is synthesized from an RNA template. These all process
of biological information flow is called central dogma. This can be shown diagrammatically
as follows.
Fig. 7.4: The central dogma of life

Transcription
Transcription is the synthesis of mRNA molecules within the cell nucleus with the code for a
protein copied from the genetic information contained in the DNA. In other words, transcription
produces an exact copy of a section of DNA known as messenger RNA (mRNA). It carries
complementary genetic code copied from DNA during transcription, in the form of triplets of
nucleotides called codons.

A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides and four nitrogenous bases on an mRNA strand
derived from the DNA that encodes a specific amino acid. Each codon specifies a particular
amino acid. For example, amino acid tryptophan is coded by a codon TAG, alanine by GCA,
GCC, glycine by GGA, AGG, etc for each 20 amino acids. There are only 20 naturally existing
amino acids but the number of possible amino acids combination is 43 = 64 triplets.
Out of the 64 codons, three are stop codons, which stop the process of protein synthesis (UAG,
UAA, and UGA) and one of the codons is an initiator codon or start codons that initiates protein
synthesis (AUG). Use the following figure to identify the triplets for all amino acids.
Fig. 7.5: The genetic code

During Transcription:
Inside the nucleus a small portion of the DNA separates
Free RNA nucleotides attach to appropriate base pairs on the DNA template and mRNA is
formed with code (triplets of nucleotides called codons) for protein synthesis. Similarly,
tRNA and rRNA also transcribed from DNA.
mRNA detaches from the DNA
mRNA leaves the nucleus to go out into the cytoplasm and binds to ribosomes.
Translation
Translation is the synthesis of protein from the building blocks of protein /amino acids/ based on
the genetic information instructed on mRNA with the help of rRNA, tRNA and enzymes.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) carries a specific amino acid from cytoplasm. This tRNA contains an
anticodon which is three nucleotides long that is complementary to the three nucleotides long
genetic codon on the mRNA.
The anticodon on tRNA enables to recognize the codon of mRNA through complementary base
pairing. For example, the genetic codon GUG (guanine-uracine- guanine) specifies particular
amino acid valine. By binding its anticodon (CAC) that is complementary with mRNA codon
/GUG/, the tRNA acts as an adapter, bringing the specific amino acid based on base
complementarily.
The complementary bases on the codon and anticodon held together by hydrogen bonds to from
peptides bond in growing protein chain. The ribosome guides the tRNA to bind to the mRNA if it
is carrying an amino acid.
During Translation:
mRNA carries the information from DNA align on the ribosome in the cytoplasm
The ribosomes attach on to mRNA and let the tRNA loaded with specific amino acid to
enter
tRNA with anti-codon brings amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosomes
The anti-codon of tRNA pairs with the codon of mRNA on the ribosome
The information in messenger RNA (mRNA) translated into protein with the help of
rRNA
A polypeptide chain of amino acids will then form a protein
Fig. 7.6: Transcription and translation in protein synthesis.

Review Questions
1. An individual's ABO blood type is normally determined by:
A. Genetic inheritance and environmental influences during life
B. Environmental influences alone
C. The inheritance of 1 of 3 possible alleles (A, B, or O) from each parent
D. All of the above
2. If one of your parents is blood type A and the other is type B, which of the following
blood types would you likely be?
A. Type A B. Type O C. Type AB D. Any of the above
3. What is the difference between a monohybrid cross and a dihybrid cross?
A. Monohybrid cross involves a one parent, whereas a dihybrid cross involves two parents.
B. Monohybrid cross produces a single progeny, whereas a dihybrid cross produces two
progeny.
C. Dihybrid cross involves organisms that are heterozygous for two characters and a
monohybrid only one.
D. Monohybrids cross results in a 9:3:3:1 ratio whereas dihybrids cross gives a 3:1 ratio.
4. A cross between homozygous purple-flowered and homozygous white-flowered pea plants
results in offspring with purple flowers. This demonstrates
A. The blending model of genetics. C. Dominance.
B. True-breeding. D. A dihybrid crosses.
5. The F1 offspring of Mendelʹs classic pea cross always looked like one of the two parental
varieties because
A. One phenotype was completely dominant over another.
B. Each allele affected phenotypic expression.
C. The traits blended together during fertilization.
D. No genes interacted to produce the parental phenotype.
6. Mendel was able to draw his ideas of segregation and independent assortment because of the
influence of which of the following?
A. His reading and discussion of Darwinʹs Origin of Species
B. The understanding of particulate inheritance he learned from renowned scientists of
his time
C. His reading of the scientific literature current in the field
D. His experiments with the breeding of plants such as peas

7. Black fur in mice (B) is dominant to brown fur (b). Short tails (T) are dominant to long tails (t).
What fraction of the progeny of the cross BbTt × BBtt will have black fur and long tails?
A. 1/16 B. 3/16 C. 3/8 D) ½
8. In certain plants, tall is dominant to short. If a heterozygous plant is crossed with a homozygous
tall plant, what is the probability that the offspring will be short?
1. 1 B. 1/2 C. 1/4 D. 1/6
9. Which of the following terms best describes when the phenotype of the heterozygote differs
from the phenotypes of both homozygotes?
A. Incomplete dominance C. Pleiotropy
B. Multiple alleles D. Epistasis
10. A recessive trait will be observed in individuals that are ________ for that trait.
A. Heterozygous C. Homozygous
B. Homozygous or heterozygous D. Diploid
11. Thirty percent (30%) of the nucleotide bases in human DNA are adenine (A).
What is the percentage of guanine (G) bases in human DNA?
A. 20% B. 30% C. 40% D. 70%
12. Which one of the following NOT a mutation?
A. DNA replication to form tow daughter DNAs.
B. Gain of an extra chromosome by a cell.
C. Deletion of a base pair from DNA.
D. Loss of a chromosome by a cell.
13. As was shown by Gregore Mendel in garden pea, what percentage of the F2 generation of a
monohybrid cross has the recessive phenotype?
A. 75% B. 50% C. 25% D. 12.5%
14. What do geneticists call the genotype in which the two alleles of a pair are identical?
A. Dominant B. Recessive C. Homozygous D. Hetrozygous
15. Which one of the following is referred to as the first law of Mendel?
A. The occurrence of alleles in pairs
B. The equal contribution of alleles by both parents
C. The dominance of one allele over the other
D. The separation of alleles during gamete formation
16. Which of the following is the best way to check whether an individual having a dominant
phenotype is homozygous or heterozygous for the trait?
A. To self the individual
B. To cross it to homozygous recessive individual
C. To cross it to a heterozygous individual
D. To cross it to a homozygous dominant individual

17. A genetic cross between to F1 – hybrid pea plants having yellow seeds (dominant) will yield
what percent green – seeded (recessive) plants in the F2 generation?
A. 0% B. 25% C. 50% D. 75%
18. What would most likely result is mitosis fails to be accompanied by cytoplasmic division?
A. Two cells without nuclei
B. Two cells each with one nucleus
C. One cell without a nucleus
D. One cell with two identical nuclei
19. Among the following couples whose ABO blood genotypes are shown, which one can produce
children of A,B,AB and O blood types?
A. OO and AB
B. B. BO and AA
C. BO and AO
D. BB and AO
20. Which parts of the angiosperm flower are both essential for the success of hybridization
experiments?
A. Sepal and petal C. Pollen and filament
B. Stamen and petal D. Gynoecium and andoecium

UNIT EIGHT: ENVIRONMRT, NATURAL RESOURCES AND CLIMATE CHANGE
Unit learning outcomes

After the successful completion of this unit, the student will be able to:
 Define natural resources.
 Explain the importance of conserving biodiversity
 .Explain pyramids of biomass using diagrams.
 Explain pyramids of energy using diagrams
 Explore key concepts of climate change
 Analyze the cause of climate change and how human activities affect the climate
 Discuss the effects of climate change on living things
 Elaborate the measures to combat climate change
8. Environment, Natural Resources & Climate Change
8.1. Ecosystems
o all the animals and plants that live in an area along with the things that affect them

o The many different species of living things interact with the physical world of rocks, soil
and rivers and these interactions make up the ecology of the world
o It is simply the interaction of living things with their non-living environment
o An ecosystem is a life-supporting environment.
o It includes all the living organisms, the nutrients which cycle through the system and the
physical and chemical environment in which the organisms are living.
o Ecosystems are huge – the whole world is an ecosystem – but we break them down to
look at smaller ecosystems
Ecology is the study of the relationships between organisms and their environment, including how
these relationships affect the distribution and abundance of organisms. An ecosystem is the home
or habitat of the living organisms within it. They are affected by both the abiotic components and
the biotic components of the ecosystem.
1. Abiotic Components
 The abiotic components or factors are the non-living elements of an ecosystem, such as
sunlight, temperature, water, and soil
 The climate and weather produce several important abiotic components.
 They include the amount of sunlight, and the amount of rainfall.
 Each of these factors will affect which living organisms can survive there.
 Temperature is an important abiotic component which often affects whether animals
and plants can survive in an ecosystem. Other abiotic factors include the type of soil
and rocks, the drainage of the soil and the pH (acidity)
 The level of wind is also an important abiotic component of an ecosystem – too much
wind can make life very difficult for living organisms.
2. Biotic Components
 Biotic factors are living things, such as plants, animals, and fungi
 The biotic components (factors) of an ecosystem are the living organisms within an
ecosystem which affect the ability of an organism to survive there.
 The number of predators in an ecosystem is one biotic component that has a big effect
on the numbers of other organisms in the area.
 A pride of lions in an area will affect the numbers of prey animals that survive, and the
number of caterpillars will make a difference to the number of plants that survive and
reproduce.

 The amount of food available is another important biotic factor, which particularly
affects animals. The food might be the number of plants growing as food for a plant-
eater or the number of prey animals available for a carnivore to eat
 Biotic components of an ecosystem also include the numbers of parasites and diseases.
High levels of parasites or a serious disease will reduce the numbers of animals or
plants in an ecosystem.
Both biotic and abiotic factors influence the distribution and abundance of organisms.
 The final biotic component which has a big effect on ecosystems is competition.
 There can be competition between different species all trying to get the same food, water,
territory and mates.
 Competition for food is very common.
 Herbivores (animals that eat plants) sometimes feed on many types of plant, and sometimes
on only one or two different sorts. Many different species of herbivores will all eat the
same plants
 Competition is common among carnivores (animals that eat meat) – they compete for prey.
Wildebeest are hunted by several different predators,
 Animals often avoid direct competition with members of other species when they can. It is
the competition between members of the same species which is most intense! Prey animals
compete with each other too.
 Competition for mates can be fierce. In many species the male animal puts a lot of effort
into impressing the females, because it is often the female who chooses her mate. The
males compete in different ways to win the privilege of mating with her. In some species –
like deer and lions – the males fight between themselves and the winner gets the females.
Sometimes the fights are mainly ‘mock battles’ but in some species the fights can be life-
threatening.
 Plants might look like peaceful organisms, but in fact the world of plants is full of fierce
competition – just like animals! Plants compete with each other for light, for water and for
nutrients (minerals) from the soil.
 They need light for photosynthesis, when they make food using energy from the sun. They
need water for photosynthesis and to keep their tissues rigid and supported. And plants
need minerals so they can make all the chemicals they need in their cells.

8.1.1. Food Relationships
Plants are vitally important in any ecosystem, because they harness the energy of the sun by
photosynthesis and make it available to other organisms in the form of food.They make food from
simple inorganic molecules – and without them little else could survive for long. Plants are
phototrophs (light feeders). Because of their role in making carbohydrates, plants are known as
the producers.
What is more, they absorb carbon dioxide and produce oxygen in the process, maintaining the
balance of gases in the atmosphere and providing us all with the oxygen which we need to live.
Plants are the main source of food for many thousands of different species of animals, from the
aphids which feed on houseplants to the great herds of wildebeest, zebras and elephants of Africa.
Animals that eat plants are known as herbivores. Not all animals eat plants. Many of them feed on
other animals and they are known as carnivores. And some types of animals, we included, eat a
diet that contains both plants and animals. These animals are known as omnivores. All animals
and fungi are heterotrophs – they rely on eating other living organisms.
There are a small number of organisms that can get energy from the breakdown of sulphur-
containing chemicals. They are known as chemotrophs. It is not only human beings that are
dependent on plants and the process of photosynthesis. Almost all living organisms depend on
plants as the producers of food from the raw materials of carbon dioxide and water. The way in
which living things are linked to each other and to plants can be described by looking at food
chains.
Food chains
A food chain is a simplified model of the feeding relationships between different organisms in an
ecosystem. It shows how energy and nutrients pass from one organism to another through a series
of steps. The first stage of the chain involves converting light energy from the sun into stored
chemical energy in plants by photosynthesis. This is always done by plants which are known as
producers. Then all of the animals that eat plants or other animals are known as consumers.
Components of a food chain:

Producers: These are the organisms that make their own food, usually through
photosynthesis. Plants, algae, and some bacteria are all producers.
Consumers: These are the organisms that cannot make their own food and must eat other
organisms to survive. Consumers can be herbivores (eat plants), carnivores (eat other
animals), or omnivores (eat both plants and animals).

Decomposers: These are the organisms that break down dead organisms and waste
products. Decomposers include bacteria, fungi, and some invertebrates.
Each level in a food chain is called a trophic level. The different levels within a food chain – the
producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, etc. are known as the trophic levels. The
producers are at the first trophic level, the herbivores are at the second trophic level, the carnivores
are at the third trophic level, and so on. The herbivore (or omnivore) is known as a primary
consumer, because it eats plants. Some of the energy within the herbivore is, in turn, passed on to
the animal which eats it. Again, this will usually be a carnivore but could be an omnivore. The
carnivore (or omnivore) is known as a secondary consumer because it eats the plant eater. This
naming continues along the chain. At the end of every food chain are the decomposers – the
bacteria and fungi which break down the remains of animals and plants and return the mineral
nutrients to the soil. They are often not shown in food chains.
Energy flow:
Energy flows through a food chain from the producers to the top predators. At each trophic level,
some energy is lost as heat or is not used by the organism. This means that there is less energy
available at each higher trophic level.
Examples of food chains:
 Grass  grasshopper  frog snake  hawk
 Phytoplankton zooplankton small fish  large fish  seal
Fig 8.1: Food Chain.

Food web
Food web is a complex network of interconnecting and overlapping food chain showing feeding
relationships within a community. A food chain shows how matter and energy from food are
transferred from one organism to another, whereas a food web illustrates how food
chains intertwines in an ecosystems. Food webs also demonstrate that most organisms consume
or are consumed by more than one species , which food chains often do not show. All of the
interconnected and overlapping food chains in an ecosystem make up a food web.
Communities: A community is a group of populations of different species that live in the same
area at the same time. Communities are shaped by the interactions between different species, such
as competition, predation, and mutualism. Grass is eaten by insects, by rodents and by many
large herbivores. Antelope may be prey for lions, leopards or hyenas. The many interactions
between living organisms cannot be shown in simple food chains
Fig 8.2: This food web of organisms on the savannah only includes a small number of the
organisms that are involved – but already you can see how complicated it is.
Importance:
Understanding food webs is essential for ecological studies, conservation efforts, and
managing environmental impacts.
They reveal the delicate balance of ecosystems and highlight the interconnectedness of all
living things.
Energy for life

As you have seen, radiation from the sun is the source of energy for all communities of living
organisms. Solar energy pours out continually onto the surface of the earth and a small part of it is
captured by the chlorophyll in plants. It is used in photosynthesis and the energy from the sun is
stored in the substances which make up the cells of the plant. This new plant material adds to the

biomass. Biomass is a term that describes all the organic material produced by living organisms. It
all comes originally from plants as they photosynthesis at the beginning of all food chains.
This biomass is then passed on through a food chain or web into the animals which eat the plants
and then on into the animals which eat other animals. However long the food chain, the original
source of all the energy and hence the biomass involved is the sun.
To represent what is happening in food chains more accurately we can use biomass. Biomass is the
mass of living material in an animal or plant and ultimately all biomass is built up using energy
from the sun. The total amount of biomass in the living organisms at each stage of the food chain
can be drawn to scale and shown as a pyramid of biomass.
Fig 8.3: No matter what the numbers of organisms involved in a food chain, when the biomass of
the different feeding levels is considered, a pyramid of biomass always results.
The biomass, and so the energy available at each trophic level of a food chain is less than it was at
the previous stage. This is because:
 Not the whole organism at one stage is eaten by the stage above.
 When an herbivore eats a plant, it turns some of the plant material into new herbivore. But
much of the biomass from the plant is used by the herbivore to release energy for living
and so does not get passed on to the carnivore when the herbivore is eaten.
Pyramid of biomass: Measures the total dry mass of all living organisms at each trophic
level. This includes the weight of all individuals at a given level, not just their numbers.
Pyramid of numbers: Tracks the number of individual organisms at each trophic level. It
doesn't consider the size or mass of those organisms.
Pyramid of Energy Focuses on Amount of energy at each trophic level, always upright due to
energy loss.

Energy reduction between trophic levels and pyramids of energy
An animal like a zebra eats grass and other small plants. It takes in a large amount of plant
biomass, and converts it into a smaller amount of zebra biomass. What happens to the rest? Firstly,
not all of the plant material can be digested by the animal, so it is passed out of the body in the
faeces. Excess protein which is eaten but not needed in the body is broken down and passed out as
urea in the urine. The same is true for carnivores; they often cannot digest hooves, claws and teeth,
so some of the biomass that is eaten is always lost in their waste.
Part of the biomass which is eaten by an animal is used for cellular respiration. This supplies all
the energy needs for the living processes taking place within the body, including movement which
uses a great deal of energy. The muscles use energy to contract, and the more an animal moves
about, the more energy (and biomass) it uses from its food.
Much of the energy produced in cellular respiration is eventually lost as heat to the surroundings.
These losses are particularly large in mammals and birds, because they are warm-blooded. This
means their bodies are kept at a constant temperature regardless of the temperature of the
surroundings. They use up energy all the time to keep warm when it’s cold or to cool down when
it’s hot. Because of this warm-blooded animals need to eat far more food than coldblooded animals
like fish and reptiles to get the same increase in Biomass.
Fig 8.4: Only between 2 and 10% of the biomass eaten by an animal such as this dog will get
turned into new dog biomass, the rest will be used or lost in other ways.
If we represent the energy held in each trophic level we get the best possible representation of what
is happening in a food chain. A pyramid of energy represents the energy in the producers and how

much of that energy is passed on at each stage along the food chain. However, pyramids of energy
are very difficult to measure so practically we usually use biomass.
Fig 8.5: This diagram shows you how pyramids of numbers, biomass and energy compare for two
different food chains.
8.1.2. Recycling in Nature

Living things are constantly removing materials from the environment. Plants take minerals from
the soil and these minerals are then passed on into animals through the food chains and food webs
which link all living organisms. If this was a one-way process then the resources of the Earth would
have been exhausted long ago. Fortunately the materials are returned to the environment from the
waste products of animals and the dead bodies of plants and animals.
The nutrients held in the bodies of dead animals and plants, and in animal droppings, are released
back into the soil by the action of a group of organisms known as the decomposers. These are
microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. They feed on waste droppings and dead organisms.
They digest them and use some of the nutrients. They also release waste products, and these are
nutrients broken down into a form which plants can use.
The chemical reactions which take place in micro-organisms, like those in most other living things,
work faster in warm conditions. But as in other organisms, these reactions are controlled by
enzymes, and if the temperature gets too hot, the reactions stop altogether as the enzymes denature.
They also stop if conditions are too cold.
Most micro-organisms also grow better in moist conditions which make it easier to dissolve their
food and also prevent them from drying out. So the decay of dead plants and animals – and dung –
takes place far more rapidly in warm, moist conditions than it does in cold, dry ones.
The majority of decomposers respire like any other organism to release energy to feed and
reproduce as rapidly as possible. This means that decay takes place more rapidly when there is
plenty of oxygen available.
Benefits of Nature's Recycling:
1. Sustainability:
2. Increased Biodiversity:
3. Enhanced Resilience:
4. Reduced Pollution:
5. Increased Efficiency:
The nitrogen cycle
The nitrogen cycle is a fascinating biogeochemical process that transforms this abundant but inert
atmospheric gas into a usable form for life. Green plants absorb nitrogen in the form of nitrates
dissolved in the soil water. They use these nitrates to make proteins, and then this protein is passed
along the food chain as herbivores eat plants and are then eaten themselves by carnivores. In this
way the nitrogen taken from the soil becomes incorporated into the bodies of all types of living
organisms. But almost 80% of the air we breathe is made up of nitrogen – so why don’t plants use
that? Although it is vital to the formation of proteins and healthy growth, plants cannot use the
nitrogen which is in the air around them. It is an inert gas and in that form it is so unreactive that it
is no use to them at all.
There is one group of plants which plays a particularly important role in the nitrogen cycle. The
legumes – that is plants such as peas, beans and clover – have nodules on their roots which are full
of nitrogen-fixing bacteria. This is an example of mutualism, where two organisms live together
and both benefit. The bacteria get protection and a supply of organic food from the plant, whereas
the plant gets ammonia that it can use to form amino acids. The bacteria produce far more ammonia
than their host plant needs – and the excess passes into the soil to be used and turned into nitrates
by the nitrifying bacteria. Not all the bacteria in the soil are helpful in the nitrogen cycle. One
group, known as the denitrifying bacteria, actually uses nitrates as an energy source and breaks
them down again into nitrogen gas. Denitrifying bacteria reduce the amount of nitrates in the soil
Here are some key points to remember:

Stages:
1. Nitrogen Fixation: Converting atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3) is the crucial
first step. This requires specialized bacteria or blue-green algae and a significant amount of
energy.
2. Nitrification: Ammonia can be directly absorbed by some plants, but most needs to be
converted by different bacteria into nitrates (NO3-) and nitrites (NO2-). These forms are
readily available for plant uptake.

3. Assimilation: Plants incorporate nitrates into their tissues, building amino acids and
proteins, the building blocks of life. Animals then consume these organic nitrogen
compounds through the food chain.
4. Ammonification: When organisms die and decompose, bacteria and fungi break down their
organic matter, releasing ammonia back into the soil.
5. Denitrification: Under specific conditions, other bacteria convert nitrates back into
atmospheric nitrogen, completing the cycle.
Fig 8.6: The nitrogen cycle in nature
The Carbon Cycle

The element carbon is vital for living organisms because all of the main molecules of life are based
on carbon atoms. There is a vast pool of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide in the air and
dissolved in the water of rivers, lakes and seas. At the same time carbon is constantly recycled
between living things and the environment. This is known as the carbon cycle.
Carbon dioxide is removed from the air by green plants in the process of photosynthesis. It is used
to make the carbohydrates, proteins and fats which make up the body of the plant. Then when the
plants are eaten by animals, and those animals are eaten by predators, the carbon is passed on and
becomes part of the animal bodies. This is how carbon is taken out of the environment.
When green plants themselves respire, some carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere. Similarly
when animals respire they release carbon dioxide as a waste product into the air. Finally when both
plants and animals die, their bodies are broken down by the action of decomposers and when these
microbes respire, they release carbon into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, ready to be taken up
again by plants in photosynthesis.

Fig 8.7: The carbon cycle in nature
Processes:
 Photosynthesis: Plants and some algae perform this sunlight-powered magic, fixing
atmospheric CO2 into organic molecules like glucose, storing carbon in the biosphere.
 Cellular respiration: All organisms (including plants) release CO2 back into the atmosphere
as they use energy from organic molecules.
 Ocean absorption: CO2 dissolves in surface water, contributing to the dissolved inorganic
carbon pool.
 Decomposition: Dead organisms decay, releasing their stored carbon back into the
atmosphere or soil.
 Geological processes: Over millions of years, organic matter buried deep in the earth
transforms into fossil fuels or gets locked away in rocks.
Significance:
 Climate regulation: CO2 acts as a greenhouse gas, trapping heat and influencing global
temperatures. Understanding the carbon cycle is crucial for predicting and mitigating climate
change.
 Energy source: Photosynthesis forms the base of the food chain, providing energy for all
living things. Fossil fuels, another carbon source, power many human activities.
 Balancing act: The delicate balance between carbon sinks and sources determines the
atmospheric CO2 concentration and, consequently, global temperature.
8.2. Conservation of Natural Resources

o Definition of natural f resources
 A natural resource is anything natural that is useful
 Anything that is found naturally in the country which is useful to human beings.

 resources (actual and potential) supplied by nature examples; gold, platinum, potash,
limestone, natural gas, coal and hydropower. We may have some deposits of oil as well. We
have timber and many different crop plants, particularly our coffee plantations. We have
many different species of animals and plants which make up rich ecosystems.
 Types of Natural Resources and their Conservation Strategies:
 Natural resources can be classified as either renewable or nonrenewable
A. Renewable Resources: These resources like sunlight, wind, water, and forests , crop plants,
trees, cattle and chickens have the natural ability to replenish themselves. Conservation efforts
here focus on sustainable use, efficient management, and minimizing waste.
Managed carefully, they can be used, reused and replaced.
o Sunlight: The ultimate source of energy for most life on Earth, powering
photosynthesis and driving our weather patterns.
o Wind: A dynamic force, harnessed for clean energy generation and powering
sailing vessels.
o Water: Essential for all living things, used for drinking, sanitation, irrigation, and
hydropower.
o Forests: Renewable sources of timber, food, medicine, and vital ecosystem
services like carbon sequestration and water purification.
o Soil: Fertile ground for agriculture, teeming with microorganisms and nutrients
that support plant growth.
B. Non-Renewable Resources: These resources exist in finite quantities and when they are used
they cannot be replaced or cannot be replaced within a human lifetime. Some crucial examples
include:
 Fossil fuels: Coal, oil, and natural gas, formed over millions of years from
decomposed organic matter, used for energy generation and various industrial
processes.
 Minerals: Metals like iron, copper, and gold, formed through geological
processes, used for construction, manufacturing, and electronics.
 Groundwater: Stored deep underground, often a non-renewable resource on a
human timescale, used for drinking water and irrigation.
Importance of Natural Resources: Natural resources play a vital role in:

 Supporting life: From air and water to food and medicine, natural resources provide the
basic necessities for survival and well-being for all living organisms.

 Fueling civilization: Construction materials, energy sources, and industrial inputs derived
from natural resources drive economic development and technological advancements.
 Maintaining ecosystems: Natural resources like forests and wetlands provide habitats for
diverse species, regulate climate, and purify water, keeping our ecosystems healthy and
functional.
Challenges and Conservation: Our dependence on natural resources comes with several
challenges:
 Overexploitation: Unsustainable use of resources like deforestation, overfishing, and
excessive groundwater extraction can lead to depletion and environmental degradation.
 Pollution: Improper waste disposal and industrial activities contaminate air, water, and
soil, impacting ecosystems and human health.
 Climate change: The burning of fossil fuels contributes to greenhouse gas
emissions, driving climate change and its devastating consequences like extreme weather
events and rising sea levels.
Conservation efforts are crucial to address these challenges and ensure the sustainable use of
natural resources: Conservation here prioritizes efficient extraction, exploring alternative sources,
and promoting recycling and reuse. Conservation is the protection and preservation of our natural
environment, or the act of preserving, guarding or protecting part of the natural world or It is a
means of keeping and protecting a living environment. so that non-renewable resources are used
sparingly and renewable resources are managed so that they can last for the foreseeable future.
8.2.1. Conservation of biodiversity

Biodiversity is a measure of the wealth of species in a given place. It includes everything from the
smallest microbe to the largest animal. Biodiversity: is the variety of life on Earth. It includes the
number of species, the genetic diversity within species, and the variety of ecosystems. Biodiversity
is important for the health of ecosystems and for the provision of ecosystem services, such as clean
air, water, and food. Sometimes biodiversity is measured just as the number of species in a given
area at a particular time. Sometimes it is measured as the number of species breeding in an area at
a particular time. This second measure is more accurate.
Why is biodiversity so important?
 Biodiversity also gives us the genetic diversity we need to develop crops to grow in
different conditions.
 A wide range of biodiversity means we can breed the cattle, sheep, goats and other
livestock that are best suited to our climate.

 We can also bring in new genes as climate conditions change. Biodiversity also means that
there are many different types of plants and animals which can act as a source of
medicines, clothing, food and other useful things for people.
 Healthy ecosystems: Biodiversity provides the foundation for healthy ecosystems, which
are essential for clean air, water, and food. For example, plants release oxygen, filter
pollutants, and provide habitat for animals. Animals, in turn, pollinate plants, disperse
seeds, and control pests.
 Food security: We rely on biodiversity for our food. Over 75% of the world's food crops
rely on animals and insects for pollination. Additionally, many people around the world
depend on wild fish and game for their food security.
 Medicine: Many medicines come from plants and animals. For example, aspirin was
originally derived from willow bark, and penicillin from a mold. Biodiversity also provides
us with the genetic resources we need to develop new medicines in the future.
 Climate change: Biodiversity plays a role in regulating the climate. For example, forests
absorb carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change.
 Cultural values: Biodiversity has cultural and spiritual significance for many people around
the world. For example, some cultures believe that certain species are sacred or have
special powers.
 Economic benefits: Biodiversity provides economic benefits through tourism, recreation,
and the food and medicine industries. For example, ecotourism generates billions of dollars
in revenue each year.
Vegetation
Plants are of great importance to human beings all around the world. We use them in many
different ways. We use them for food, for example, teff, sorghum, anchote and beans. Plants are
used to make drinks such as tella, and coffee (bunna). The coffee plant is not only used in our
homes for drinks, it is very important in our economy as coffee is one of our main exports too.
Plants are used for building materials – wood is used to build our homes and plants are used to
thatch the roofs. We also export timber such as blue gum (bahir zaf) logs as construction material.
We use vegetation to make clothing – cotton and hemp are just two examples of plants that are
used to make fabrics for clothing. Plants are also a source of medicines; both herbal medicines and
many western medicines are originally based on chemicals from plants. For example, the root bark
of the tree known locally as ‘waginos’ (in Ge’ez) or ‘yedega abalo’ has been used for centuries to
treat dysentery and koso is a medicinal plant that gets rid of worms. Trees provide the building
material for many boats.

Human effect on vegetation
Deforestation: Imagine a clear-cut scar on a once-lush rainforest. Deforestation, the permanent
removal of trees, is one of the most visible and devastating impacts of humans on vegetation.
Driven by agriculture, logging, and urban expansion, it claims vast swathes of forests each year,
leaving behind barren landscapes.
Consequences:
 Habitat loss: Deforestation destroys the homes of countless species, leading to biodiversity
loss and ecosystem disruption.
 Soil erosion: Without the stabilizing force of tree roots, soil washes away, reducing fertility
and increasing the risk of landslides.
 Climate change: Forests act as carbon sinks, storing greenhouse gases. Deforestation
releases this stored carbon into the atmosphere, accelerating climate change.
 Water cycle disruption: Forests regulate water flow, releasing moisture into the air and
preventing floods. Deforestation disrupts this cycle, leading to water scarcity and
unpredictable weather patterns.
Wildlife
The wildlife of Ethiopia is some of the richest in the world. We have 242 listed mammalian
species, which range from huge elephants to tiny elephant shrews. There are around 862 species of
birds as well. Insects are another important aspect of Ethiopian wildlife too. This variety of
wildlife is useful to people in a number of ways. A rich diversity of animal life is important to
maintain our many ecosystems. The wildlife acts as pollinators for our flowering plants and helps
to disperse the seeds.
Our bees provide the honey for a thriving export business and for the production of tej. The
balance of wildlife in different regions helps to maintain the natural balance of the plants as well,
with predators keeping down the numbers of herbivores so that they do not destroy all the
vegetation. one of the most important uses of wildlife in Ethiopia is to generate income from
tourism. People from all over the world want to see our amazing wildlife
Endemic species
We have a high number of endemic species of different types of wildlife. For example, there are 28
species of mammals, which include the Gelada Baboon, the Walia ibex, Menelik’s Bushbuck, the
Mountain Nyala, Swayne’s Hartebeest and the Ethiopian wolf.
Endemic bird species; include the heavy-headed, thick-billed raven, the wattled ibis, the
blackwinged lovebird, the white-collared pigeon and the Prince Ruspolis Turaco. We also have six

endemic reptiles and around 33 endemic amphibians. These animals and many others are found
only within the boundaries of Ethiopia.
Setting the national parks and sanctuaries is the best means of conserving biodiversity of
vegetation and wild life
A. National Park: is a relatively large area of land which is owned by the Government and is set
aside for the protection of vegetation and wildlife and for their appreciation by human beings.
A National Park should contain several ecosystems which are not affected by human activities.
It is protected legally and there should be staff (rangers) who manage and protect the
environment. Visitors can enter the National Parks under carefully controlled conditions for
educational, cultural and leisure reasons.
Any natural resources within a National Park should not be exploited. By careful management
in National Parks, many animals and plants are conserved in Ethiopia and the work is
continuing, with local populations becoming more and more involved in protecting our great
wildlife diversity. There are some problems – it is not always easy for people to live within a
National Park, and some people continue to poach and kill animals even when they are
protected. But on the whole, we are making good progress.
B. Sanctuary: The word "Sanctuary" can have several different meanings depending on the
context. But in general term it is Place of Refuge and Protection and It refers to any place that
provides safety and security from danger or harm. Examples include: A wildlife
sanctuary where animals are protected from hunting and habitat destruction. A domestic
violence shelter where victims can find safety from their abuser.
Below are listed many of the main National Parks of Ethiopia along with some of the wildlife
sanctuaries that have been set up to protect specific species.
a) Abijatta-Shalla Lakes National Park is 200 km south of Addis Ababa and it is 887 km2 in
size. More than half of the area is under water in Lake Abijatta and Lake Shalla, but it also
includes peaks like Mount Fike, which is 2075 m above sea level. Animals which are found in
this beautiful park include flamingos, Great White Pelicans, Grant’s Gazelle, Oribi Warthog
and Golden Jackals.
b) Awash National Park is found about 225 km east of Addis Ababa and its southern boundary
is formed by the Awash river. Much of it is at an altitude of around 900 m, but it contains a
dormant volcano called Fantale which is over 2000 m high. The park is relatively dry, with lots
of grassland and acacia woodland. The wildlife supported by this terrain is very varied. There
are Beisa oryx, Soemmerrings Gazelle and of course wild pigs. Zebra, dik-dik, Anubis and
Hamadryas Baboons, cheetahs, serval and leopards can all be found in this area. The birdlife is
also extravagant and varied, including ostriches, Secretary Birds, Carmine Bee-eaters and the
Abyssinian Roller
c) Bale Mountain National Park is not always easy to get to but it contains a mixture of forest
and moorland, and some very rare animals such as the Gelada Baboon, Mountain Nyala and
Ethiopian wolves. Other species found there include the Giant Mole Rat, Klipspringer,
Menelik’s Bushbuck and warthogs.
d) Gambela National Park is one of our newest National Parks. It is big – over 5000 km2 – with
massive grassland plains and it includes the Baro river. The wildlife that can be seen in this
park includes enormous Nile perch, crocodiles and hippos as well as waterbuck, Roan
Antelope, hyena, lions, elephants, buffalo, zebra, Vervet Monkeys and black-and-white
colobus monkeys.
e) Rift Valley Lakes National Park is in a chain of seven lakes which run from Debre Zeit
towards Kenya. This National Park does have some mammals, including Grant’s Gazelle and
warthogs, but the wildlife for which it is famous is the birdlife, which includes Greater and
Lesser Flamingos, a huge colony of Great White Pelicans, fish eagles, spoonbills, Abdim’s
Storks and ibises.
f) Mago National Park has an area of over 2000 km2. Almost 800 km south-west of Addis
Ababa on the east bank of the Omo river, this National Park is largely grassland with some
forest around the rivers. It is home to 56 species of our famous plains animals, including
giraffe, elephants, lions, buffalo, cheetah, zebra, leopard and oryx.
This is one of the remaining places where rare Black Rhinos may be found. Vultures are one of
the well-known bird species in this area.
g) Omo National Park is very big indeed, covering over 4000 km2. Over 300 species of birds
alone are found here. Animal life includes kudu, hartebeest, oryx, Anubis Baboons, lions,
cheetahs, buffalo, giraffes and elephants.
h) Nechisar National Park is between two lakes, Abaya and Chamo. The habitats include dry
bush, savannah and a groundwater forest and, although it is only about 500 km2, almost 200
species of birds have been recorded here, including Red-billed Hornbills, fish eagles, the
Abyssinian Ground-hornbill and the Kori Bustard! Animals which can be seen include
crocodiles, Burchell’s Zebra, bushbucks, Grey Duiker, Grant’s Gazelle and the Greater Kudu.
This National Park is very important for the conservation of the rare, endemic Swayne’s
Hartebeest.

i) Simien Mountains National Park is home to both spectacular scenery and spectacular and
rare wildlife. This major mountain range has been declared a World Heritage Site, and it has
many peaks above 4000 m. This is not a hot area, and night temperatures are often cold. This is
the area of Ethiopia where a number of our endemic species are protected and conserved. You
can find Walia ibex, Ethiopian wolves and Gelada Baboons in this amazing and protected
region of our country.
j) Yangudi Rassa National Park is big and is found in the arid northern Rift lowlands. There is
a wide variety of vegetation, from semi-desert and scrubland to savannah and even open
woodlands. In this conservation area you can find the wild-ass ancestor of our domestic
donkeys, and Greater and Lesser Kudu, Grevy’s Zebra and cheetah. We also have a number of
wildlife sanctuaries which are similar to National Parks but focus on the conservation of
particular species. Some examples of these include:
k) Harar Wildlife Sanctuary is an area of almost 7000 km2 in the Misraq Hararghe Zone of the
Oromia region, which was set up to conserve and protect our native elephant sub-species,
Loxodonta Africana oleansie. The area is also home to the black-maned lion.
l) Kuni-Muktar Mountain Nyala Sanctuary is a protected area which has been set up to
protect the Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus nyala), an extremely rare endemic animal in
Ethiopia. There are fears that there are only between 70 and 200 of these animals left in
Ethiopia, and so it is vital to conserve them. Sadly, there are still people in our country who
want to hunt these animals for trophies, and so they need a great deal of protection.
m) Senkelle Swayne’s Hartebeest Sanctuary is close to the Lake Rift Valley National Park and
it is dedicated to the protection of this rare hartebeest. There are over a thousand of these
protected animals in the sanctuary
8.2.2. Air and Global Warming

Air: Air is a mixture of gases, primarily consisting of:
 Nitrogen (78.09%): Essential for plant growth and balances the reactivity of oxygen.
 Oxygen (20.95%): Crucial for respiration in living organisms.
 Argon (0.93%): Inert gas with no known biological role.
 Carbon dioxide (0.04%): Important greenhouse gas involved in photosynthesis and climate
regulation.
Trace amounts of other gases like neon, helium, methane, and water vapor are also present, with
their concentrations varying depending on altitude, location, and weather conditions.

Important of air
Air plays a vital role in supporting life on Earth:
 Provides oxygen for respiration: All animals and many plants require oxygen for
cellular respiration, the process by which they generate energy.
 Protects from harmful radiation: The ozone layer in the stratosphere absorbs harmful
ultraviolet radiation from the sun, preventing it from reaching the Earth's surface and
damaging living organisms.
 Regulates temperature: The atmosphere acts as an insulating blanket, trapping heat
from the sun and preventing Earth from becoming too cold at night.
 Supports weather and climate: Air circulation patterns drive weather systems like
clouds, rain, and wind, shaping Earth's diverse climates.
 Essential for plant growth: Nitrogen in the air is essential for plant growth, as it is a
key component of chlorophyll and amino acids.
Clean air is essential for our bodies to live as it supplies the oxygen for cellular respiration. We
breathe air into and out of our lungs all the time from our birth to our death. Unfortunately,
some of our other activities release substances that pollute the air and are harmful to humans,
plants and animals
Pollution is the contamination of the natural environment by harmful substances as a result of

human activities. Pollution can happen on a very small, local scale – every time you drop litter, or
a dog fouls the street, the local environment is polluted. On the other hand, pollution happens on a
very large scale too, affecting whole countries – acid rain, global warming and the ozone hole are
all examples of the effects of large-scale air pollution A pollutant can be defined as something
that contaminates the air, soil and water. In this section we will be concentrating on substances
which pollute the air
What is air pollution?

Air pollution comes in various forms, each of which has serious implications for our health and
well-being as well as for the whole environment.
One type of air pollution is smoke produced by burning fuel for energy. Much of the fuel we
use is fossil fuel – coal, oil or gas, or electricity produced by burning them. Fossil fuels contain
chemicals known as hydrocarbons. When these fuels are burnt, tiny particles of un-burnt
hydrocarbons are released into the air. Diesel smoke is a good example of this. The particles
are very small pieces of matter. This type of pollution is sometimes referred to as ‘black
carbon’ pollution. The exhaust from burning fuels in cars, homes and industries is a major

source of pollution in the air. Even the burning of wood on our fires can release significant
quantities of soot into the air causing local air pollution. Smoke pollution worldwide is thought
to be causing global dimming, blocking out some of the light from the sun.
Another major cause of air pollution is the production of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is
produced by living organisms as a waste product of respiration. It is used by plants in the
process of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is also produced as a result of burning wood and
fossil fuels.
Human activities release pollutants into the air, which can have negative impacts on human
health, the environment, and climate:
Reducing air pollution through cleaner energy sources, stricter emission regulations, and
individual actions like using public transportation is crucial for protecting public health and the
environment.
Global warming: So as a result of human activities the amount of carbon dioxide (and methane) in
the air is continuing to increase. This build-up acts like a blanket and traps heat close to the surface
of our Earth. This causes the temperature at the surface of the Earth to rise. This in turn may have
many effects on our climate and health – and it is also thought to contribute to the increased
hurricane activity which has affected some areas of the world in recent times.
Another air pollutant is carbon monoxide, also produced by the burning of fossil fuels. It is
produced by cars as well as by home water heaters, paraffin lamps and fires if they are not
functioning properly. Carbon monoxide is very dangerous because it combines irreversibly with
haemoglobin in your blood, reducing the oxygen carrying capacity. There is carbon monoxide in
cigarette smoke, which is why it is so dangerous to smoke if you are pregnant because you can
deprive your unborn baby of oxygen
Acid rain
Acid rain is the result of another form of air pollution. When fossil fuels are burned carbon dioxide
is released into the atmosphere as a waste product. However, carbon dioxide is not the only waste
gas produced. Fossil fuels often contain sulphur impurities. When these burn they react with oxygen
to form sulphur dioxide gas. At high temperatures, for example, in car engines, nitrogen oxides are
also released into the atmosphere.
Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides pollute the air and can cause serious breathing problems for
people if the concentration gets too high. They form a haze of pollution known as smog, which can
be a real problem in big cities where there are millions of motor vehicles. They are also involved in
the formation of acid rain. This pollutes land and water over a wide area.

The sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides dissolve in the rain and react with oxygen in the air to
form dilute sulphuric acid and nitric acid. This makes the rain more acidic – it is known as acid
rain.
The effect of acid rain
If it falls onto trees, the acid rain can cause direct damage. It may kill the leaves and, as it soaks into
the soil, even the roots of the tree may be destroyed. In some parts of the world, huge areas of
woodland are dying as a result of acid rain
Acid rain has an indirect effect on our environment as well as its very direct effect on plants such as
trees. As acid rain falls into lakes, rivers and streams the water in them becomes acidic. If the
concentration of acid gets too high, plants and animals can no longer survive. Many lakes and
streams have become dead, no longer able to support life
Fig 8.8: Air pollution in one place can cause acid rain – and serious pollution problems – somewhere
else entirely. Depending on the prevailing winds, it can even be in another country!
Air pollution in our homes

Air pollution can affect our health in many ways with both shortterm and long-term effects.
 Short-term effects include irritation to the eyes, nose and throat, and upper respiratory
infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia. Other symptoms can include headaches,
nausea and allergic reactions.
 Long-term health effects of air pollution can include chronic respiratory disease, lung
cancer, heart disease and even damage to the brain, nerves, liver or kidneys. Young
children are particularly vulnerable. In some cases the pollution of the air in our homes can
lead to death. In some places people are using solar power to store electricity during the
day, which can then be used at night. This is a safe and pollution free way of lighting our
homes.
 Another form of air pollution has led to the depletion of the ozone layer in the
atmosphere. Ozone is a gas which is found in the atmosphere of the Earth. It absorbs some
of the ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Ultraviolet radiation damages and burns the skin
and can cause the development of skin cancers. The ozone layer protects life on Earth from
the worst of this damage. For over 50 years people, particularly in the more economically
developed countries, used chemicals called CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) in fridges and
freezers as a refrigerant, and in aerosol sprays as the propellant. They did not realise that
CFCs can damage the ozone layer. By the time scientists made this discovery, it was too
late. Air pollution by CFCs had caused the ozone layer around the Earth to get thinner,
particularly over the Antarctic at certain times of the year
 This thin area is often referred to as the ‘ozone hole’. Levels of ultraviolet light reaching
the surface of the Earth have increased as a result and levels of skin cancers and eye
problems caused by ultraviolet light have also increased. However, once people realised the
damage this was doing, the use of CFCs has been banned and fridges and freezers
containing these compounds are disposed of very carefully. Within about 50 years the
ozone hole will heal itself – already levels of atmospheric ozone are higher again. This is
one form of air pollution that has been overcome.
 One of the biggest causes of air pollution is cars and other vehicles. Car exhausts contain
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen. All of these
gases have both a direct and an indirect effect on human health. Around the world people
are working hard to reduce the levels of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in car
exhausts. More and more cars are being fitted with catalytic converters. Once hot, these
remove the acidic gases before they are released into the air.
8.3. Climate Change
8.3.1. Cause and Effect of Climate Change
Global phenomena of climate transformation characterized by the change in the changes in the
usual climate of the planet (temperature, precipitation, and wind) that are caused by human
activities. Climate change is long term change in Earth’s climate. Especially a change due to an
increase in average atmospheric temperature.
Cause of Climate Change: The Earth's climate has always changed throughout history,
influenced by natural factors like volcanic eruptions, solar activity, and variations in Earth's orbit.

However, the rapid warming we're experiencing today is primarily driven by human activities,
mainly the burning of fossil fuels. Here's a breakdown of the key human-caused contributors to
climate change:
1. Fossil Fuels:
Burning coal, oil, and gas releases greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), the most
significant contributor to global warming. These gases trap heat in the atmosphere, causing the
planet to warm. Electricity and heat generation: Burning fossil fuels for these purposes accounts
for a significant portion of global emissions.
Transportation: Cars, trucks, airplanes, and other vehicles powered by gasoline and diesel are
major sources of CO2 emissions.
2. Deforestation:
Trees absorb CO2 from the atmosphere, storing it in their biomass and helping to regulate Earth's
temperature. Cutting down trees (deforestation) releases stored CO2 back into the
atmosphere, contributing to warming which leads to increase concentration of atmospheric CO2
more than 40% with over half of increase occurring since 1970. This adds enormous amounts of
greenhouse gas to the atmosphere ,increasing the greenhouse effect and global warming.
Agriculture: Clearing land for agriculture and livestock grazing also leads to deforestation and soil
degradation, reducing the Earth's ability to absorb CO2.
3. Industrial Processes:
Manufacturing and industrial processes emit various greenhouse gases, including methane, nitrous
oxide, and fluorinated gases.
Cement production, for example, releases significant amounts of CO2.
Industrial waste and wastewater treatment can also contribute to greenhouse gas emissions.
4. Livestock Farming:
Cows and sheep release methane, a potent greenhouse gas, as part of their digestive process.
Intensive livestock farming contributes to deforestation for grazing land and feed
production, further amplifying the climate impact.
It's important to remember that these factors are interconnected. For instance, deforestation can
lead to soil erosion, which reduces the land's ability to absorb CO2, further exacerbating warming.
What are greenhouse gases?
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are any gases in the Earth's atmosphere that absorb and trap infrared
radiation (heat), here are some of the most important greenhouse gases:
 Carbon dioxide (CO2): The most significant GHG, primarily released from burning fossil
fuels and deforestation.

 Methane (CH4): Comes from sources like livestock farming, landfills, and leaks from
natural gas infrastructure.
 Nitrous oxide (N2O): Emitted from agricultural activities and industrial processes.
 Water vapour (H2O): The most abundant GHG, but its role is complex due to its
interactions with temperature and other factors.
In the Earth’s atmosphere like carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, Hydro fluorocarbons
(HFCs) act as greenhouse, preventing a certain amount of heat radiation from escaping back to the
space. Hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs) are a group of man-made organic compounds made up of
hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon. They primarily find use as refrigerants in air conditioners,
refrigerators, and freezers. But their impact on climate change is a complex story with both
positive and negative sides.
On the positive side:
 Ozone-friendly: HFCs were developed as replacements for chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), which were banned under the Montreal Protocol due to their role in depleting the
ozone layer. Unlike CFCs, HFCs have no negative impact on ozone and played a crucial
role in its recovery.
 Low toxicity and flammability: Compared to other refrigerants, HFCs are generally non-
toxic and non-flammable, making them safer for use in enclosed spaces.
On the negative side:
Powerful greenhouse gases: The flip side of their ozone-friendliness is their potent greenhouse
effect. HFCs can trap heat in the atmosphere thousands of times more effectively than carbon
dioxide (CO2) per unit mass. While their atmospheric concentrations are much lower than
CO2, their rapid growth and high warming potential raise concerns.
Leakage and emissions: HFCs leak from equipment during operation and disposal, contributing to
their increasing atmospheric concentration and warming impact.
Types of greenhouse gases and their major sources

 1.Carbon Dioxide (CO2) ; Its primary source is the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and
natural gas for electricity, heat, and transportation. deforestation
 Methane (CH4): Its main sources include livestock farming (burps and manure), landfills,
and leaks from natural gas infrastructure.
 Nitrous Oxide (N2O): Laughing gas, as it's sometimes called, It comes from agricultural
activities like fertilizer use and manure, as well as animal waste

 Fluorinated Gases (F-gases): These include a variety of human-made chemicals like hydro
fluorocarbons (HFCs), per fluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). They're
used in refrigerants, air conditioners, and industrial applications. While their concentrations
are lower than other GHGs, they have extremely high warming potential.
8.3.2. Effects of Climate Change

1. Warming Temperatures:
Global average temperature has risen by about 1 degree Celsius since the pre-industrial era, and
it's projected to keep rising if we don't curb greenhouse gas emissions.
This warming disrupts natural temperature patterns, leading to more extreme weather events like
heat waves, droughts, and floods.
2. Melting Ice and Snow:
Glaciers, ice sheets, and snow cover are melting at an alarming rate, contributing to sea level rise
and disrupting water availability in many regions.
Polar ecosystems are particularly vulnerable, with species like polar bears losing their sea ice
habitat.
3. Changing Precipitation Patterns:
Climate change is altering rainfall patterns, leading to more intense droughts in some areas and
increased flooding in others.
This disrupts agricultural production, water supplies, and ecosystems, impacting food security and
livelihoods.
4. Rising Sea Levels:
As the oceans warm, they expand, and melting ice adds to the volume of water, causing sea levels
to rise. This threatens coastal communities, infrastructure, and ecosystems, with low-lying islands
and countries facing potential submergence.
5. Ocean Acidification:
The oceans absorb about a quarter of the carbon dioxide we emit, making them more acidic.
This harms marine life, impacting shell-building organisms like coral reefs and
shellfish, disrupting ocean food webs.
6. Threats to Biodiversity:
Climate change is pushing many species towards extinction as their habitats change or disappear.
This disrupts ecosystems, reduces biodiversity, and threatens the natural services that ecosystems
provide.
7. Impacts on Human Health:

Heat waves, air pollution from wildfires, and other extreme weather events can lead to
heatstroke, respiratory problems, and other health issues.
Climate change also increases the spread of vector-borne diseases like malaria and dengue fever.
8. Displacement and Migration:
Climate change is forcing people to leave their homes due to sea level rise, droughts, and other
extreme events.
This creates humanitarian crises and challenges for receiving communities.
9. Economic Impacts:
Climate change damages infrastructure, disrupts food production, and affects tourism and other
industries.
Effects of Climate Change on Biodiversity

 Habitat Shift and Loss:
 Disrupted Food Webs:
 Ocean Acidification:
 Increased Vulnerability to Disease:.
 Mass Extinctions:
Effects of Climate Change On Agriculture
Climate change is casting a long shadow over agriculture, threatening the very systems that
nourish us. Rising temperatures, shifting weather patterns, and extreme events are disrupting crop
yields, straining water resources, and creating a precarious future for food security.
 Scorching Temperatures and Heat Stress:
 Droughts and Water Scarcity:
 Floods and Soil Erosion:
 Pests and Diseases:
 Sea Level Rise and Saltwater Intrusion:

Fig 8.9: Climate Change and its potential effects On Agriculture
Effects of Climate Change on Forest Productivity

The impact of climate change on forest productivity is a complex tapestry woven with threads of
both opportunity and threat.
Positive effects
Longer growing seasons: In areas with historically cold winters, warming temperatures can extend
the growing season, allowing trees to photosynthesize for longer and potentially increase biomass
production.
Increased CO2 fertilization: Higher levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide can directly act as a
fertilizer for some plants, potentially boosting growth in certain conditions.
Expansion of suitable range: For some species, rising temperatures may open up new areas
suitable for colonization, potentially expanding their range and increasing overall forest cover.
Negative effects
Heat stress and drought: Extreme heat and prolonged droughts can directly damage trees,
hindering photosynthesis and reducing growth. Water scarcity can limit nutrient uptake and lead to
stunted growth or even mortality.
Increased pest outbreaks and diseases: Warmer temperatures and altered weather patterns create
favorable conditions for insect outbreaks and the spread of diseases, damaging trees and reducing
productivity.
Wildfires: Climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of wildfires, devastating large
areas of forest and releasing significant amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere, further exacerbating
the problem.

Disruptions to ecological balance: Changes in climate and forest composition can disrupt delicate
ecological relationships, impacting pollination, nutrient cycling, and the ability of forests to
function as healthy ecosystems.
The Net Effect: While forests have some adaptive capacity, the negative impacts of climate change
are often outweighing the positives, leading to:
Reduced overall forest productivity: Studies suggest that global forest productivity will likely
decline in the coming decades, with significant regional variations.
Loss of biodiversity: Changing conditions can threaten vulnerable species and disrupt food webs,
leading to a decline in overall forest biodiversity.
Economic and social impacts: Reduced forest productivity can impact timber production, food
security, livelihoods, and the vital ecosystem services forests provide.
The Need for Action:
Mitigating climate change and adapting forest management practices are crucial to protect forest
productivity and the services they provide. This includes:
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions: Global action to curb CO2 emissions is essential to slow
climate change and minimize its impact on forests.
Sustainable forest management: Implementing practices that promote resilience, such as
diversifying tree species, protecting old-growth forests, and fostering fire-resistant species.
Investing in research and development: Supporting research on climate-resilient tree varieties,
adaptation strategies, and improved forest management techniques.
Protecting forest productivity is not just about trees; it's about safeguarding the health of our
planet, the diversity of life, and the future of our communities. By acting now, we can help ensure
that forests continue to thrive and provide their vital benefits for generations to come.
8.3.3. Climate Change and Natural Disasters:

Natural Disaster is any of natural phenomenon that causes great damage and loss of life. Earth
quakes, tsunamis, cyclones and floods are best examples of Natural Disaster. As the Earth's climate
changes, a disturbing trend is emerging: extreme weather events and natural disasters are becoming
more frequent, intense, and destructive. :
1. Melting ice and rising sea levels: When water warms up it expands.at the same time
global warming causes polar ices sheets and glaciers to melt. The combination of these
changes causing sea levels to rise resulting in flooding and erosion of coastal and low
lying areas.

2. Extreme shifting weather, rainfall: Heavy rain and other extreme weather events are
becoming more frequent. This can lead not only to floods and decreasing water quality but
also to decrease availability of water resources in some region.
3. Risk of climate change for human health: Climate change is already having an impact on
human health. There has been increase in number of heat- related deaths in some regions
of the Earth and decrease in cold-related deaths in other parts of the world.
Safety rules /precautions during natural disaster

Disaster risk management: is a comprehensive approach involving through the implementation
of the proposal measures. Natural disasters are catastrophic events that often occur without
warning and disrupt the ecosystem damage to personal lives, property, transportation and
livelihoods. While it is never possible to prevent a disaster, the damage can be minimized through
timely preparation.
Earth quakes; shifting of tectonic plate under the Earth’s crust causes earth quakes, which are
responsible for mass destruction. When faced with an earth quake, you should
 Stand in open ground until shaking stops
 Stay away from buildings, utility wires and street light if you are out doors.
Tsunamis: a series of enormous ocean waves caused by earth quakes, under water landslides,
volcanic eruption
Fig 8.10: elements of comprehensive risk management

Cyclones: Tropical storm caused by atmospheric disturbance around a low pressure area.
Cyclones are accompanied strong winds, moving at a speed of sixty two kmph or more.
Floods; is a common and dangerous natural hazard formed due to a flow of water on area of land
that are usually dry. Excessive rain can damage nearby dams where tsunamis are some of its
causes. When faced with flooding you should
 Do not attempt to walk, swim, drive through the flood.
 Move to higher ground and stay clear of bridges over fast-moving water.
8.3.4. International Conventions

o The United Nations Framework Convention
o Kyoto Protocol On Climate Change
The United Nations Framework Convention

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), agreed on 1992 is
the main international treaty to combat ‘’ dangerous human interference with the climate system’’
in part by stabilizing greenhouse gas concentration in the atmospheres. Its objective is to prevent
dangerous man-made interference with the global climate system. The UNFCCC is an
international environmental treaty. Ethiopia is one of member of 197 parties of the convention.
Kyoto Protocol On Climate Change

Kyoto Protocol (1997)
 The first legally binding agreement under the UNFCCC.
 Sets binding targets for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by an
average of 5% below 1990 levels by 2012.
 A landmark agreement adopted at the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21) to the
UNFCCC in Paris, France.
 Aim: To limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius, preferably to 1.5 degrees
Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels.
 Requires all countries to set and communicate ambitious national climate action plans known
as Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
 196 countries have ratified the agreement.
 The UNFCCC and its related agreements are reviewed regularly at the Conference of the
Parties (COP), which is an annual meeting of the countries that have ratified the agreements.

Unit Summary
o An ecosystem is a life-supporting environment which includes all the living organisms, the
nutrients which cycle through the system and the physical and chemical environment in which
the organisms are living.
o The abiotic components of an ecosystem are the non-living components of the environment.
They include the amount of sunlight, the amount of rainfall, temperature, the type of soil and
rocks, the drainage of the soil and the pH (acidity), the levels of oxygen dissolved in the
water, the current and the levels of wind.
o Radiation from the sun is the source of energy for all communities of living organisms. It is
captured by green plants in photosynthesis. Green plants are known as phototrophs
o Heterotrophs get their energy by feeding off other organisms and chemotrophs get their
energy from chemical reactions which are not related to photosynthesis.
o The mass of living material (the biomass) at each stage of a food chain is less than it was at
the previous stage because some material is always lost in waste materials and much is used
for respiration to supply energy for movement and maintaining the body temperature.
o The biomass at each stage of a food chain can be drawn to scale and shown as a pyramid of
biomass.
o Measuring the flow of energy through a system takes place over time. It can be shown in an
energy pyramid..
o Producers (autotrophs): The base of the web, organisms like plants and algae that can make
their own food from sunlight or inorganic sources.
o Consumers (heterotrophs): Cannot produce their own food and rely on other organisms for
energy. Herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores fall under this category.
o Decomposers: The final level, organisms like bacteria and fungi that break down dead matter
and return nutrients to the ecosystem.
o Energy flow: Solar energy captured by producers flows through the web as organisms
consume each other. Only about 10% of energy is transferred at each trophic level, leading to
a pyramid-like structure with fewer organisms at higher levels.
o Global phenomena of climate transformation characterized by the change in the changes in the
usual climate of the planet (temperature, precipitation, and wind) that are caused by human
activities
o Scorching Temperatures and Heat Stress, Droughts and Water Scarcity, Floods and Soil
Erosion are Effects Of Climate Change On Agriculture

o Natural Disaster is any of natural phenomenon that causes great damage and loss of life. Earth
quakes, tsunamis, cyclones and floods are best examples of Natural Disaster
o Climate Change and Natural Disasters resulted in the melting ice and rising sea levels
,Extreme shifting weather , rainfall , and Risk of climate change for human health
o A natural resource is anything natural that is useful Some natural resources are renewable –
they are mainly living things and their products, and with management they can be used,
reused and replaced.
o Air pollution has a number of effects on both the environment and on individuals. These
include global dimming, global warming, acid rain as well as problems such as asthma, lung
infections and cancer for individuals.
o Global warming is an increase in the temperature at the surface of the earth as a result of an
increased greenhouse effect.
o Global warming is caused by an increase in the levels of greenhouse gases such as carbon
dioxide and methane in the atmosphere. As a result more heat is trapped by the atmosphere
and the temperature at the surface of the earth increases.
o Methods of preventing global warming include reducing the use of fossil fuels and managing
the farming of cattle and rice. Stopping deforestation and replanting trees can also help by
using up some of the carbon dioxide.
Review Questions.
1. Which of the following organisms are NOT directly involved in nitrogen fixation?
a) Rhizobia bacteria (living in legume root nodules)
b) Cyanobacteria (photosynthetic bacteria in soil and water)
c) Fungi (decomposers in soil) d) Lightning strikes
2. What form of nitrogen is readily available for most plants to absorb?
a) Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) c) Nitrates (NO3-)
b) Ammonia (NH3) d) Nitrites (NO2-)
3. Which stage of the nitrogen cycle releases ammonia back into the soil?
a) Nitrogen fixation b) Nitrification c) Ammonification d) Denitrification
4. Which of the following is a non-renewable resource?
A. timber B. gold C. coffee D. khat
5. Which of the following is a renewable resource?
A. oil B. coal C. gas D. wood

6. A monoculture is:
A. a field containing a single crop C. a country with only one type of person in it
B. a clone D. an environment with a rich diversity of species
7. Which of the following is not an endemic Ethiopian plant?
A tid B. zigba C. teff D. maize
8. Which of the following is not a use of vegetation in Ethiopia?
a. building material B. fuel C. car building D. medicines
9. Which of the following is a sanctuary rather than a National Park in Ethiopia?
A. Bale B. Gambala C. Senkelle D . Simien
10. Which of these chemicals has caused the formation of the ‘ozone hole’?
A. sulphur dioxide B. carbon dioxide C. CFCs D. nitrogen oxides
11. Which of these is not an example of how humans can affect the natural vegetation?
A. classification B. deforestation C, burning D. farming
15. What damage has been caused by CFCs?
A. global warming B. thinning of the ozone layer C. acid rain D. All
16. Which of the following is NOT recycled between organisms and the environment in an
ecosystem?
A. Energy B. Carbon C. Nitrogen D. phosphorus
17. What is the term that refers to all parts of the earth where living things are found?
A. Population B. Ecosystem C. Biosphere D. Environment
18. Which one of the following demographic factors affects the number of human population
globally?
A. Natality B. Migration C. Emigration D. Immigration
19. Which one of the following is the main source of the greenhouse gases that are concrntrating in
the atmosphere of the earth?
A. Burning of fossil fuels C. Photosynthesis by aquatic plants
B. Plants growing in greenhouses D. Respiration by animals and plants
21. Which of the following statements is true about the nitrogen cycle?
A. Plants fix nitrates from atmospheric nitrogen
B. The nitrogen used by animals largely comes from plants
C. Nitrogen is consumed by bacteria and removed from the soil
D. Nitrogen – fixing bacteria reduce the total amount of available nitrogen

22. How do human beings increase biodiversity?
A. By reducing species richness C. By promoting habitat uniformity
B. By increasing genetic variability D. By narrowing ecological variability
23. Which factors are involved in the determination of climax vegetation?
A. Temperature and preciptitation C. Radiation and reflection
B. Grazing and browsing animals D. Predators and preys
24. The tropical rainforest largely found in South America and Africa can be best characterized by a
combination of which environmental features?
A. Low rainfall and low temperature C. Low rainfall and high temperature
B. High rainfall and high temperature D. High rainfall and low temperature

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Jigjiga University in Collaboration with Somali

Regional Education Bureau

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By the end of this section you should be able to :

1. The Science of Biology

1.1. Introduction to Biology

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Forming of a hypothesis: A hypothesis is proposed scientific explanations

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Making conclusions about the findings: Scientists consider their original

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1.3. The relevance and promise of biological science

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Biology and medicine

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1. Which of the following is not a property of life?

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By the end of this section you should be able to:

Group biochemical molecules as inorganic and organic.

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Glucose (C6H12O6) is a common monosaccharide and an important source of energy. During

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Fig: 2.3 Structure of maltose (disaccharides)

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Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and some steroids.

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Fig.2.4. Basic structure of amino acid

Fig: 2.5. Peptide bond

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2.5. Nucleic Acids

Fig. 2.6: Basic structure of nucleotide

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By the end of this section you should be able to:

explain how living things are composed of cells

Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organs systems → Individuals

3.1.2. Cell Diversity

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Fig 3.2: Various types of animal cells (shape)

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3.1.4. Parts of the cell and their functions

Fig 3.3: A Generalized Animal Cell

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Function of Cell Wall:-

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The key features of plasma membrane are:

Cholesterol – reduces the fluidity of the membrane.

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Fig. 3.5: Illustration of a Eukaryotic cell membrane