Module 7

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A. Introduction B. The general solution of integrals

of
the
form
axn
The process of integration reverses the process of
differentiation. In differentiation, if f (x) = 2x 2 then ax n d x,
B
The general solution of integrals of the form
f ′ (x) = 4x. Thus the integral of 4x is 2x 2 , i.e. integra- where a and n are constants is given by:
tion is the process of moving from f ′ (x) to f (x). By
similar reasoning, the integral of 2t is t 2 . axn+1
C
axndx=
Integration is a process of summation orBadding parts n+
1 +
c
together and an elongated S, shown as , is used to
replace the words This rule is true when n is fractional, zero, or a positive
B ‘the integral of’. Hence, from above,
4x = 2x 2 and 2t is t 2. or negative integer, with the exception of n =−1.
B
dy Using this rule gives:
In differentiation, the differential coefficient indi-
dx C
3x 4+1 3
cates that a function of x is being differentiated with (i) 3x 4 d x = + c = x5 + c
respect to x, the dx indicating that it is ‘with respect to 4+1 5
x ′ . In integration the variable of integration is shown
by adding d(the variable) after the function to be 2x −2+1
C C
2
(ii) dx = 2x −2 d x = +c
integrated. x2 −2 + 1
C
Thus 4x d x means ‘the integral of 4x 2x −1 −2
= +c= + c,
−1 x
with respect to x ′ , and
C
and 2t dt means ‘the integral of 2t 1
√ x 2 +1
C C
(iii) x dx = x 1/2 d x = +c
with respect to t ′ 1
+1
2
2
B above, the differential coefficient of 2x is 4x,
As stated
hence 4x d x = 2x 2 . However, the differential coeffi- x2
3
2√ 3
cient of 2x 2 + 7 is also 4x. Hence 4xd x is also equal +c=
B
= x +c
3 3
to 2x 2 + 7. To allow for the possible presence of a con-
2
stant, whenever the process of integration is performed,
a constant ‘c’ is added to the result. Each of these three results may be checked by differen-
C C tiation.
Thus 4x d x = 2x + c and
2
2t dt = t 2 + c (a) The integral of a constant k is kx + c. For example,
C
‘c’ is called the arbitrary constant of integration.
8 d x = 8x + c
 ax n+1
C
(b) When a sum of several terms is integrated the result
The standard integral, ax n d x = +c
is the sum of the integrals of the separate terms. n +1
For example, (a) When a = 5 and n = 2 then
5x 2+1 5x3
C C
(3x + 2x 2 − 5)d x 5x 2 d x = +c = +c
2+1 3
C C C
= 3x d x + 2x d x − 5 d x
2
(b) When a = 2 and n = 3 then
2t 3+1 2t 4
C
3 x2 2x3 1
= + − 5x + c 2t 3 dt = +c = + c = t4 + c
2 3 3+1 4 2

Each of these results may be checked by differentiating

C. Standard Integrals them.
C  +
3
Since integration is the reverse process of differentia- Problem2. Determine 4 + x − 6x 2 dx
tion the standard integrals listed in Table 1 may be 7
deduced and readily checked by differentiation. C  +
3
4 + x − 6x 2 dx may be written as
Table1 Standardintegrals 7
C C C
3
ax n+1 4dx + x dx − 6x 2 dx
C
(i) ax n d x = +c 7
n +1
i.e. each term is integrated separately. (This splitting
(except when n =−1) up of terms only applies, however, for addition and
C subtraction.)
1
cos ax d x = sin ax + c
C  +
(ii) 3
a Hence 4 + x − 6x 2 dx
7
3 x x 2+1
C  + 1+1
1
(iii) sin ax d x =− cos ax + c = 4x + − (6) +c
a 7 1+1 2+1
3 x x3
C  + 2
1 − (6) + c
(iv) sec2 ax d x = tan ax + c = 4x +
a 7 2 3
3 2
= 4x + x − 2x3 + c
C
1
(v) cosec2 ax d x = − cot ax + c 14
a
Note that when an integral contains more than one term
C
1 there is no need to have an arbitrary constant for each;
(vi) cosec ax cot ax d x = − cosec ax + c just a single constant at the end is sufficient.
a
C
1 Problem3. Determine:
(vii) sec ax tan ax d x = sec ax + c
a 2x 3 − 3x
C C
(a) dx (b) (1 − t )2 dt
C
1 4x
(viii) eax d x = eax + c
a
(a) Rearranging into standard integral form gives:
C
1
(ix) d x = ln x + c 2x 3 − 3x 2x 3 3x
C C
x dx = − dx
4x 4x 4x
x 1 x
C 2  + 2+1
3 3
Problem1. Determine: = − dx = − x +c
C C 2 4 2 2+1 4
(a) 5x 2 d x (b) 2t 3dt 1 x
 + 3
3 1 3
= − x + c = x3 − x + c
2 3 4 6 4
(b) Rearranging (1 − t )2 dt gives:
B + 1
5 t4
  + +
5 4 1/4
= − + c = − t +c
C
2t 1+1 t 2+1 9 14 9 1
(1 − 2t + t 2 )dt = t − + +c
1+1 2+1 20 √
4
=− t+c
2t 2 t 3 9
=t− + +c
2 3
(1 + θ)2
C
1 Problem7. Determine √ dθ
= t − t2 + t 3 + c θ
3
This problem shows that functions Boften have to be rear-
ranged into the standard form of ax n d x before it is (1 + θ)2 (1 + 2θ + θ 2 )
C C
possible to integrate them. √ dθ = √ dθ
θ θ
θ2
C  +
1 2θ
+ 1 + 1 dθ
C
3 =
Problem4. Determine dx 1
x2 θ2 θ2 θ2
C  0 1 0 1+
− 12 1− 12 2− 12
C
3
C = θ + 2θ +θ dθ
d x = 3x −2 . Using the standard integral,
B xn
2
ax d x when a = 3 and n = −2 gives:
C 0 1
1 1 3
= θ − 2 + 2θ 2 + θ 2 dθ
3x −2+1 3x −1
C
3x −2 d x = +c = +c
0 1 0 1 0 1
− 21 +1 1
+1 3
+1
−2 + 1 −1 θ 2θ 2
θ 2
= + + +c
−3 − 21 + 1 1
+1 3
+1
= −3x −1
+c = +c 2 2
x 1 3 5
θ2 2θ 2 θ2
= 1
+ 3
+ 5
+c
√ 2 2 2
C
Problem5. Determine 3 xdx
1 4 3 2 5
= 2θ 2 + θ 2 + θ 2 + c
3 5
√ 4* 3 2* 5
√ For fractional powers it is necessary to appreciate =2 θ+ θ + θ +c
n m m
a =a n 3 5
1
√ 3x 2 +1
C C
3 xd x = 3x d x =
1/2
+c Problem8. Determine:
1 C C
2
+1 (a) 4 cos3x d x (b) 5 sin 2θ dθ
3
3x 2 3
*
= + c = 2x 2 + c = 2 x3 + c (a) From Table 1 (ii), C
3
2  +
1
4 cos 3x d x = (4) sin 3x + c
C 3
−5
Problem6. Determine √ dt 4
9 t3
4
= sin 3x + c
3
C C C  + (b) From Table 1(iii),
−5 −5 5 −3
√ dt = dt = − t 4 dt C 
1
+
9 t3 5 sin 2θ dθ = (5) − cos 2θ + c
4 3
9t 4 9
2
3
5 t − 4 +1
 +
= − +c 5
9 3 = − cos 2θ + c
− +1 2
4
 C
Problem9. Determine:(a) 7 sec2 4t dt
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C
(b) 3 cosec2 2θ dθ

(a) From Table 1(iv), C

 + D. Definite Integrals
1
7 sec 4t dt = (7)
2
tan 4t + c
4 Integrals containing an arbitrary constant c in their
7 results are called indefinite integrals since their precise
= tan4t + c
4 value cannot be determined without further information.
Definite integrals are those in which limits are applied.
(b) From Table 1(v),
C  + If an expression is written as [x]ba , ‘b’ is called the upper
1
3 cosec 2θ dθ = (3) −
2
cot 2θ + c limit and ‘a’ the lower limit.
2 The operation of applying the limits is defined as:
3
= − cot 2θ + c [x]ba = (b) − (a).
2 The increase in the value of the integral x 2 as x increases
B3
C from 1 to 3 is written as 1 x 2 d x.
Problem10. Determine:(a) 5e3x d x Applying the limits gives:
C
2
dt
-3
3 x3 33
+  3
(b) C ,  +
1
3e4t x dx =
2
+c = +c − +c
1 3 1 3 3
 +
1 2
(a) From Table 1(viii), C  = (9 + c) − +c = 8
+ 3 3
1 3x 5
5e d x = (5)
3x
e + c = e3x + c
3 3 Note that the ‘c’ term always cancels out when limits are
C C applied and it need not be shown with definite integrals.
2 2 −4t
(b) 4t
dt = e dt
3e 3
 + +
2 1 −4t
= − e +c
3 4 C 2
1 1
= − e−4t + c = − 4t + c Problem12. Evaluate(a) 3x d x
6 6e C 3 1

(b) (4 − x 2 )d x
Problem11. Determine: −2
C C  2 +
3 2m + 1
(a) d x (b) dm
m 2 -2
3x 2
, " "
5x
C
3 2 3 2
(a) 3x d x = = (2) − (1)
C C  + + 1 2 1 2 2
3 3 1 3
(a) dx = d x = lnx + c 1 1
5x 5 x 5 = 6 −1 = 4
(from Table 48.1(ix)) 2 2
-3
3 x3
C ,
2m 2 + 1
C  + C  2 +
(b) dm =
2m
+
1
dm (b) (4 − x )d x = 4x −
2

m m m −2 3 −2
(3)3 (−2)3
C  + " "
1
= 2m + dm = 4(3) − − 4(−2) −
m 3 3
2m 2
"
−8
= + ln m + c = {12 − 9} − −8 −
2 3
= m2 + ln m + c 1
"
1
= {3} − −5 =8
3 3
 C 4 +
θ +2
Problem13. Evaluate √ dθ, taking C 2
1 θ
positive square roots only Problem15. Evaluate: 4 cos3t dt
1

C 4 + C 4 + 2  + , -2 , -2
θ +2 θ 2
C
1 4
√ dθ = 1
+ 1 dθ 4 cos3t dt = (4) sin 3t = sin 3t
1 θ 1 θ2 θ2 1 3 1 3 1
C 40 " "
1 1
1 4 4
= θ 2 + 2θ − 2 dθ = sin 6 − sin 3
1 3 3
1 4
Note that limits of trigonometric functions are always
 0 1 0
1
2 +1 − 21 +1
θ 2θ expressed in radians—thus, for example, sin 6 means
= +

1 1 
the sine of 6 radians = −0.279415 . . .
+1− +1
2 2 1 C 2 "
4
 4 Hence 4 cos3t dt = (−0.279415 . . .)
3 1 1 3
√ 4
, * -
θ 2 2θ 2  2 3
= + = θ +4 θ 4
"
3 1 
3 1 − (−0.141120 . . .)
2 2 1 3
√ √
" "
2* 3 2* 3 = (−0.37255) − (0.18816) = −0.5607
= (4) + 4 4 − (1) + 4 1
3 3
" "
16 2 Problem16. Evaluate:
= +8 − +4
3 3 C 2 C 4
3
(a) 4e2x d x (b) du,
1 2 2 1 1 4u
= 5 +8− −4 = 8
3 3 3 each correct to 4 significant figures

C 2 , -2
4 2x
C π/2 (a) 4e2x d x = e
2
Problem14. Evaluate: 3 sin 2x d x 1 1
0
= 2[e2x ]21 = 2[e4 − e2 ]
C π
2 = 2[54.5982 −7.3891] =94.42
3 sin 2x d x
0
,  + -π , -π
1 2 3 2
= (3) − cos 2x = − cos 2x C 4 3
,
3
-4
3
2 0 2 0 (b) du = ln u = [ln 4 − ln 1]
" " 1 4u 4 1 4
3 0 π 1 3
= − cos 2 − − cos 2(0) 3
2 2 2 = [1.3863 −0] =1.040
" " 4
3 3
= − cos π − − cos 0
2 2
" "
3 3 3 3
= − (−1) − − (1) = + = 3
2 2 2 2
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