Dimensional Stone Extraction by Splitting Technique -Role of Joints

Dr. A. Rajan Babu

Principal Scientist- Centre for Testing Services
Head, Geomechanics & Ground Control Department
National Institute of Rock Mechanics, India

Abstract

The technique of extraction and the requirement of dimensional stone quarrying are entirely
different from the regular ore mining operations. There always exists a definite degree of risk
concerning damage and hence the recovery volume of potential blocks. In stone quarrying,
quite often, the site conditions may not provide opportunities for splitting the block in desired
manner. Under such circumstances restrictions are automatically imposed on the splitting
sequences, drilling and blasting designs etc. An error of least nature may predominantly
influence the performance of the whole process of splitting as every activity is related to one
another. This call for more appropriate decision based on logistic considerations that solely
lies on the incharge of operations.

The natural discontinuities and more precisely the jointing system have an undue influence
on the recovery of saleable blocks obtainable and the cost of production. However care is
exercised in the planning and design of a quarry, an unprecedented joint or discontinuity of
any nature, whether natural or artificial would completely upset the whole process of
extraction. This calls for detailed knowledge on the joint patterns and other discontinuities to
advantageously convert them for prudent extraction. The most common types of jointing
patterns frequently encountered at the quarries have been identified, grouped and examined.
They are a) No horizontal joint but vertical joints present, b) Horizontal joint present but no
vertical joint, c) Both horizontal and vertical joints are present, d) Both horizontal and
vertical joints are absent and e) Highly jointed. The significance of their existence and
consequent influence upon block extraction and decision making is discussed. The various
aspects described in this paper will certainly aid the quarry operators for making superior
decisions based on geotechnical knowledge and logistics.

Key words: Joints, Recovery, Splitting, Free face

Introduction
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The Indian quarrying industry is under the process of transition from conventional methods
of exploitation to scientific methods through mechanisation using modern equipment thereby
aiming for rapid and enhanced production. The present trend of rapid quarrying has already
witnessed an increased threat to the environment and will mean a quantum increase in
deterioration further in the future. At this crucial juncture the country’s prospect to become
the world leader in the global stone trading entirely depend on the coordinated scientific
approach towards quarrying, processing and marketing along with concern for associated
environmental impacts and mitigative measures.

The quarry operations involving drilling, blasting, loading, transport, handling of waste and
other associated activities can damage the environment and ecology to an unacceptable
degree, unless carefully planned and controlled. Hence, there is a need to assess the
environmental and ecological impact of quarrying operations to balance between the needs of
mining engineering and environmental requirements. No doubt that there is only a meek
concern for eco-friendly quarrying in dimensional stones, whereas the same has attained
maximum dimensions in the regular mining industry. Drilling and blasting is a critical area of
concern which needs thorough emphasis on all its aspects of execution as it will continue to
play a major role in the mining activity.

The block splitting technique for a site largely depends on the physico-mechanical properties
of the rock and the nature & orientation of the jointing system. Splitting becomes easy when
prominent loose joints are present in vertical and horizontal planes. Loose or filled joints are
very rarely encountered and only tight joints are commonly present. The prevailing
conditions at the field overwhelmingly demand meticulous planning for safe extraction and
preservation of the valuable blocks. Quite often need for drilling the required number of holes
was neglected without considering the nature of the jointing system (loose/tight). Drilling and
blasting of only vertical holes or horizontal holes is likely to induce cracks and may render
the whole block valueless. There is a wrong apprehension to save on drilling that finally ends
up with damage to the saleable blocks. It is upheld not to compromise on drilling the
required number of holes at correct spacing for both vertical and horizontal splitting. Before a
decision could be made it is prudent to thoroughly inspect the jointing patterns and confirm

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its nature. The following session elucidates the efficacy of block splitting under different rock
joint conditions.

Block splitting

The primary objective of stone quarrying is to generate desired sizes of sound blocks for use
as dimensional stones. Various techniques of extraction are in vogue but drilling and blasting
is the most common practice for primary block splitting. While explosive splitting is
practiced the most common extraction sequence is similar to that as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Sequence of Block Extraction

The performance of block splitting using explosives greatly depends on the site
characteristics and particularly controlled by the natural discontinuities such as the joints,
fractures, cracks etc. Several cases of jointing system are encountered at different regions and
rock types. These joints can be broadly grouped in to the following five categories for the
purpose of splitting with explosives.
1. No horizontal joint but vertical joints present
2. Horizontal joint present but no vertical joint
3. Both horizontal and vertical joints are present
4. Both horizontal and vertical joints are absent
5. Highly jointed
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1. No Horizontal Joints but Vertical Joints Present

The absence of horizontal joints will impose restrictions on the freedom for block splitting
operations. However the presence of vertical joints will ease the splitting process to the extent
of creating a new free face. Again the nature of joints is critical to use as a free face. A tight
joint requires a few holes to be drilled at a larger spacing and pre-splitting before horizontal
cutting is executed. Loose joints without filling is a very rare occurrence and is the best to be
utilised as free faces. Also joints with loose filling can be conveniently used for free faces.
On the other hand joints with tight filling should be treated as tight joints and drilling and
pre-splitting is a prerequisite.

Once the decision is taken on the above, the next operation shall be for splitting of the
horizontal plane to the desired block width. For this purpose horizontal holes shall be drilled
at calculated spacing usually varying between 0.25 to 0.4 m depending on the explosive to be
used and the displacement needs (Figure 2). The initiation of vertical and horizontal holes can
be simultaneous but preferably independent while using detonating cord splitting. The most
common problem encountered in this situation is the propagation of horizontal cracks beyond
the drilled depth and damaging the neighbouring rock. However, when a vertical joint is
used as a vertical plane along the block width then, the neighbouring rock is protected but
damage in the form of toe frequently occurs in the block being split. The damage to the rock
mass could be minimised by adapting to systematic drilling and site specific splitting designs.

Vertical Joint

Identified Block

Holes for horizontal splitting

Figure 2 Vertical Joints Present and Horizontal Plane to be created
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2. Horizontal Joint Present but No Vertical Joint

The presence of horizontal joints is the most ideal condition for block splitting operations
(Figure 3). Artificial creation of horizontal planes is known for generating damage to the
surrounding rock mass as well as the block being split. However the nature and frequency of
these joints may impair the production of desired size blocks. The dip and strike of horizontal
joints greatly control the recovery and advancement of the faces.

Joints with varying dips pose problems for the formation and maintenance of benches and
leads to poor recovery owing to non-uniform block sizes and wastage. Joints at regular
intervals and greater spacing will aid in the production of large and sound blocks apart from
allowing for uniform floor and consistent bench heights.

Figure 3 Horizontal Joints Present and Vertical Plane to be created

Whereas, at lesser spacing only small size blocks are possible and wastage cannot be avoided.
Presence of favourable horizontal joints minimises the cost of production and saves on time.
Huge block sizes for primary splitting are often designed in these conditions. It also offers
easy displacement when a properly designed vertical splitting is executed. The face
orientation and advancement shall take advantage of these joints.

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3. Both Horizontal and Vertical Joints are Present

This is a complex situation and the recovery may be either very high or too low. Under
favourable circumstance recoveries as high as 50% is possible with minimum production
costs and in a short span of time. In most of the cases the need for primary splitting may not
arise and secondary splitting for sub dividing the blocks could be directly taken up (Figure 4).
On the contrary low recoveries and huge losses are also quite frequent under unfavourable
situations.

Tight vertical joint Tight vertical joint

Vertical holes at larger spacing

Identified Block

Horizontal loose joint

Figure 4 Horizontal and Vertical Joints are Present and Loosening may be required

In the same lease hold area the nature and occurrence of these joints may differ and pose
serious operational problem including the choice for method of extraction. Selective
quarrying is automatically imposed and development and maintenance of benches becomes
complicated. Frequent shifting of roads and direction of face advances may lead to loss of
time and confusion. One way to avert wrong adventures could be to conduct a detailed
geological and geotechnical studies and to estimate the possible recovery. The studies would
provide enough information on the nature of joint patterns, their frequency of occurrence and
most likely extraction technique to be followed.

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4. Both Horizontal and Vertical Joints are Absent

This situation is most common in majority of the quarries. The procedure to prepare the block
for primary splitting (Figure 5) is quite tedious and time consuming. Owing to this and to
meet the production target many quarry operators seldom concentrate on the block
preparation but proceed with self invented approaches. A good decision always produces
good results whereas a bad one could spoil the whole block.

Created free face Created free face

Holes for vertical splitting

Identified Block

Holes for horizontal splitting

Figure 5 Horizontal and Vertical Planes are to be created by Splitting

The block preparation shall start with the identification of suitable block geometry,
determination of face orientation, direction of face advances, marking & levelling, creation of
free faces, drilling of holes and finally the splitting. The identified block should be
thoroughly cleaned and washed followed by marking the block dimensions with paint. Any
over hangs or under cuts should be trimmed and properly levelled. The spacing for the blast
holes should be measured and marked with paint. The extraction of sound blocks is
invariably controlled by the availability of free faces. The more is the number of free faces
and the less is the probability of damage to the blocks and the surrounding rock mass. The
presence of natural discontinuities should be carefully examined for usage as free faces so
that the mechanical means of creating free faces could be avoided. Irrespective of the method
employed for creation of free faces, the cutting becomes difficult when joints, black patches,

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etc. are encountered in the cut portion. Under such conditions the rockmass suffers severe
damages around the cut portion and produces undesirable cracks. Therefore the free face cut
area should be carefully kept on a solid rock to avoid propagation of the cracks and to obtain
a uniform cut with ease of operation. The depth of cut should be kept atleast 0.1 m below the
floor holes to restrict/minimise the propagation of cracks ahead of the vertical split face while
splitting the horizontal plane. Precise drilling is critical when explosives are used to separate
a block from the bench or in sub dividing blocks. The closely spaced holes must be properly
aligned; otherwise it is difficult to obtain the desired fracture. If a natural quarry floor is
available, it may only be necessary to shear a vertical plane with explosives. When there is no
bedding plane the vertical and horizontal plane is sheared from the formation by loading and
firing explosives simultaneously.

5. Highly Jointed

Highly jointed rock mass conditions are not suitable for stone quarrying (Figure 6). However
owing to their aesthetic beauty and commercial importance certain variety of stones has to be
quarried under highly jointed conditions. The production of large size blocks is a remote
possibility and only small blocks suitable for monuments are obtainable. Whatsoever the
technique may be adopted for extraction, the wastage is envisaged on the higher side with
very low recovery. However, the right technique of extraction will produce maximum
recovery and protect the surrounding rock mass from damage and further loss to recoverable
blocks.

Figure 6 Highly Jointed Rock Mass Capable of Producing only Small Size Blocks
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Conclusions

The quarrying for dimensional stones requires thorough knowledge on the rock mass
properties, expert technique and logistic thinking for better recovery and productivity. The
presence of joints and other natural discontinuities greatly influence the potential for
producing saleable blocks, selection of extraction technique and economics of operation. The
most common jointing patterns encountered during quarrying have been categorized in to five
groups. The salient features including the limitations, advantages and disadvantages of
various categories of joints on the extraction process has been discussed with possible
solutions for better recovery and improved quarrying.

References

1. A. Rajan Babu, P.K. Behera, D.S. Subrahmanyam and R.N Gupta; “Development of
Guidelines for improving recovery in Granite Mining Operations”, Final Report 2002.

2. A. Rajan Babu, D.S. Subrahmanyam, P.K. Behera, G.M. Nagaraja Rao and R.N
Gupta; “Setting up of Granite Mining Cell at National Institute of Rock Mechanics”
Final Report, 2003.

3. Rajan Babu and R. N. Gupta, “Charge strength vis-à-vis charge distribution for block
splitting in dimensional stone quarries” Journal of the Indian Mining & Engineering.
March 2001, pp 15-21.

4. A. Rajan Babu, D.S. Subrahmanyam and R.N Gupta; “Performance improvement in

dimensional stone quarrying through affordable scientific approach – A case study”,
International conference on Technology Management for Mining, Processing and
Environment (TMMPE – 2000) at IIT Kharagpur. Pp. 108-115.

5. A. Rajan Babu and R.N. Gupta “Classification of granite quarries – A base for
technology management” Journal of Mines, Metals & Fuels. Pp. 322-324.

6. Swapan Kumar Mohanty, A. Rajan Babu, G.M Nagaraja Rao and R.N Gupta,
“Application of Laboratory rock mechanics investigations for characterisation of
dimensional stone granite for their global marketability”. Journal of the Indian Mining
& Engineering, December 2000, pp – 45-47.

7. A. Rajan Babu, P.K. Behera and R.N. Gupta, “Eco-Friendly Stone Quarrying - Some
issues”, Seminar on Safe & Environmental Friendly Quarrying @ Mining Engineers’
Association of India, Bangalore – 20 September 2003.

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 About the Author: Mr. A. Rajan Babu is a well known
personality in the filed of dimensional stone industry who
has immensely contributed for the technological growth of
this industry. He has developed expertise in the areas of
rock blasting (including controlled blasting techniques for
large underground excavations, tunnels, cautious blasting
near structures, controlled splitting of dimensional blocks
etc), rock mechanics instrumentation, planning and design
of mines/quarries, Geotechnical studies etc. At present
serving as Scientist-in-charge for the Department of
Dimensional Stone Technology at NIRM, K.G.F and
actively involved in planning and design of dimensional
stone quarries and large underground excavations &
tunnels. He has undergone a study tour-cum-training at
ITALY for quarrying of dimensional stones. Has
submitted about 75 technical reports on various problems related to mining, Dimensional
stones quarrying, civil engineering, environmental sciences etc., and published about 40
papers in the National and International journals/symposiums. Besides, he has served as a
part time Lecturer in the Department of Mining Engineering at Golden Valley College of
Engineering, KGF for five years.

His Outstanding R & D Achievements Includes;

 Developed a methodology for scientific exploitation of dimensional stones in India for the
first time.
 Developed a site specific guided procedure for block extraction in granite stone quarries.
 The hole spacing calculation using Berta’s method for block splitting was modified using
multiplication factors and charge length for displacement needs.
 Classified the dimensional stone quarries and suggested the desired degree of
mechanisation.
 Conceptual Quarry layouts have been developed and recommendations made for their
adaptation in various topography.
 Course material for training of “Scientific exploitation of dimensional stones” to the
industry personnel was conceived, designed and published. These include:
 Scientific quarrying of dimensional stones in general,
 Quarrying of Marble
 Quarrying of Granite
 Quarrying of Sandstone/Flaggy limestone/Slate
 About 275 personnel have been trained so far.

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HONOURS & AWARDS:

1. Appointed as “National Expert” and Consultant by the United Nations Industrial

Development Organization (UNIDO), October 10, 2004
2. Member Governing Board, Stone Crafts Foundation, IICD, Jaipur
3. Nominated for AMERICAN MEDAL OF HONOR, July 19, 2002
4. Nominated for MAN OF THE YEAR 2002, March 17, 2002
5. Nominated for RESEARCH BOARD OF ADVISORS, February 22, 2002
6. Nominated for DISTINGUISHED LEADERSHIP AWARD, November 21, 2001
(American Biographical Institute, Inc, North California, USA).
7. Nominated as member: Committee constituted under the chairmanship of Controller
General, IBM for suggesting desirable degree of mechanisation in Granite quarries in
India.
8. Secretary: For the Central Agency, under Granite Development Council.

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