COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY • Subconscious: information that is out of consciousness and

not immediately available to consciousness

TOPIC # 1
Functions of Consciousness
Consciousness • allows us to process information.
• is the individual awareness of your unique thoughts, • choose our actions.
memories, feelings, sensations, and environments. • set priorities.
• Essentially, your consciousness is your awareness of yourself • learn and adapt to new information.
and the world around you. • make decisions.

States of Consciousness Changes in Consciousness

• Dreams • Understanding different levels of consciousness can help
• Hallucinations healthcare professionals spot signs that someone might be
• Hypnosis experiencing a problem.
• Meditation • Some of these changes occur naturally; others are the result
• Sleep of factors such as drugs or brain damage.
• States induced by psychoactive drugs. • Consciousness changes also can cause changes to perception,
thinking, understanding, and interpretations of the world.
Two Normal States of Awareness
• consciousness HISTORY OF CONSCIOUSNESS
• unconsciousness
Rene Descartes
Higher states of consciousness • introduced the concept of mind-body dualism.
• are often associated with spiritual or mystical experiences. • Structuralists: used introspection to analyze and report
Often involving an elevated state of awareness where people conscious sensations, thoughts, and experiences.
can gain a greater sense of themselves and their role in the
world. William James
• compared consciousness to a stream unbroken and
Examples of this are:
continuous despite constant shifts and changes.
• transcendence
• meditation: defined as a set of techniques that are intended
to encourage a heightened state of awareness and focused
Sigmund Freud
attention mindfulness: the practice of becoming more fully • focused on understanding the importance of the unconscious
aware of the present moment—non-judgmentally and and conscious mind.
completely—rather than dwelling in the past or projecting
into the future. THEORIES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
• runner’s high: a brief, deeply relaxing state of euphoria that
often occurs after intense or lengthy exercise. Integrated Information Theory
• lucid dreaming: occurs when a person is asleep but aware • looks at consciousness by learning more about the physical
that they are dreaming. processes that underlie our conscious experiences.
• flow states: a state of mind in which a person becomes fully
immersed in an activity. Global Workspace Theory
• suggests that we have a memory bank from which the brain
Altered levels of consciousness draws information to form the experience of conscious
• also, can occur, which may be caused by medical or mental conditions awareness.
that impair or change awareness.
• Altered types of consciousness include:
THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND, PRECONSCIOUS
➢ Coma
➢ Confusion MIND, AND CONSCIOUS MIND
➢ Delirium
➢ Disorientation • Sigmund Freud believed that behavior and personality were
➢ Lethargy derived from the constant and unique interaction of
➢ Stupor conflicting psychological forces that operate at three different
levels of awareness: the preconscious, conscious, and
5 Levels of Consciousness unconscious minds.
• Conscious: everything you are aware of
• Preconscious: information you are not currently aware of that FREUD'S THREE LEVELS OF MIND
you can pull into awareness if needed
• Unconscious: memories that are outside of awareness and
inaccessible 1. The Preconscious Mind
• Non-conscious: automatically bodily functions that occur • consists of anything that could potentially be brought into the
without awareness and sensation. conscious mind.
2. The Conscious Mind • The ability to pay attention to detail and analyze the activity
• contains all the thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes of around you comes with heightened awareness, but this can
which we are aware at any given moment. typically only be achieved during certain states of
• This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think consciousness.
and talk about rationally.
• This also includes our memory, which is not always part of Factors That Affect States of Consciousness
consciousness but can be retrieved easily and brought into • Whether prescribed or illicit, chemical substances that impact
awareness. a person's mental state can also affect their level of
awareness. Different types of drugs work by altering your
3. The Unconscious mind state of consciousness in various ways.
• is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that
are outside of our conscious awareness. • Stimulants: Heightened awareness can create feelings of
• The unconscious contains contents that are unacceptable or euphoria.
unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. • Depressants: Lowered awareness can create feelings of
relaxation.
• Hallucinogens: Altered perception of reality can create
How the Unconscious Mind Affects Behavior
feelings of paranoia.
➢ negative thoughts
➢ self-defeating thoughts and behaviors
➢ feelings of anger 3 States of Consciousness
➢ compulsive behaviors
➢ childhood behavioral problems 1. Sleeping
➢ difficulties in interpersonal relationships • Sleep creates a unique state of consciousness because while
➢ distressing patterns in romantic relationships you experience a lowered level of awareness during sleep,
➢ attitudes about others your brain is still active.
➢ unhealthy habits • Your brain's ability to cycle through different stages of sleep
➢ distressing dreams with both rapid eye movement (REM) and non-REM sleep is
➢ first impressions of other people proof of this activity.
➢ prejudice and stereotypes.
2. Dreaming
The Freudian Slip • REM sleep is the part of the sleep cycle most often associated
• a verbal or memory mistake linked to the unconscious mind. with the dreams that you can remember when you wake up.
• also known as parapraxis, these slips supposedly reveal • During this time, your brain is active in a way that is like when
secret thoughts and feelings that people hold. you are awake, but your state of awareness is lowered.
• Freud believed that the slip showed the sudden intrusion of
the unconscious mind into the conscious mind, often due to 3. Hypnosis
unresolved or repressed feelings. • The phenomenon of hypnosis involves hyper-awareness
which leads to an alteration of a person's state of
Accessing the Unconscious Mind consciousness.
• thoughts and emotions outside of our awareness continue to • During hypnosis, a person will often appear as if they are
exert an influence on our behaviors, even though we are asleep. Although they are processing their thoughts through
unaware (unconscious) of these underlying influences. a deep, focused awareness.

Role of the Preconscious Mind

• acts as something of a guard, controlling the information that
is allowed to enter conscious awareness.

STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
• Two common states of awareness exist: conscious and
unconscious. Where the term unconscious represents a lack
of awareness, consciousness itself can present with varying
levels of awareness.

States of Consciousness and Level of Awareness

Low Awareness
• Although you may not feel as if you are aware of every single
detail of what is happening around you, even in a state of
consciousness where you have a low level of awareness, your
brain is still capable of processing the signals it receives.

High Awareness
• A person who experiences a high level of awareness tends to
be more in control of their thoughts.
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY NREM Sleep Patterns
TOPIC # 2 • NREM sleep is composed of three different stages.
• The higher the stage of NREM sleep, the harder it is to wake a
person up.
STAGES OF SLEEP: WHAT HAPPENS IN A SLEEP
CYCLE STAGE 1
• Stage 1, also called N1, is essentially when a person first falls
• Sleep is not uniform. asleep.
• Instead, over the course of the night, your total sleep is made • This stage normally lasts just one to seven minutes.
up of several rounds of the sleep cycle, which is composed of • During N1 sleep, the body has not fully relaxed, though the
four individual stages. body and brain activities start to slow with periods of brief
• In a typical night, a person goes through four to six sleep movements. There are light changes in brain activity
cycles. Not all sleep cycles are the same length, but on associated with falling asleep in this stage.
average they last about 90 minutes each. • It is easy to wake someone up during this sleep stage, but if a
• It is normal for sleep cycles to change as you progress person is not disturbed, they can move quickly into stage 2.
through your nightly sleep.
• The first sleep cycle is often the shortest, ranging from 70 to STAGE 2
100 minutes, while later cycles tend to fall between 90 and • During stage 2, or N2, the body enters a more subdued state
120 minutes. including a drop in temperature, relaxed muscles, and slowed
• In addition, the composition of each cycle – how much time breathing and heart rate.
is spent in each sleep stage – changes as the night goes • At the same time, brain waves show a new pattern and eye
along. movement stops.
• Sleep cycles can vary from person to person and from night • Overall, brain activity slows, but there are short bursts of
to night based on a wide range of factors such as age, recent activity that actually help resist being woken up by external
sleep patterns, and alcohol consumption. stimuli.
• Stage 2 sleep can last for 10 to 25 minutes during the first
sleep cycle, and each N2 stage can become longer during the
What Are the Sleep Stages in a Normal Sleep Cycle? night. Collectively, a person typically spends about half their
• There are four sleep stages, including one for rapid eye sleep time in N2 sleep.
movement (REM) sleep and three that form non-REM
(NREM) sleep. STAGE 3
• These stages are determined based on an analysis of brain • Stage 3 sleep is also known as N3 or deep sleep, and it is
activity during sleep, which shows distinct patterns that harder to wake someone up if they are in this phase.
characterize each stage. • Muscle tone, pulse, and breathing rate decrease in N3 sleep
as the body relaxes even further.
• The brain activity during this period has an identifiable
pattern of what are known as delta waves.
• For this reason, stage 3 may also be called delta sleep or
slow-wave sleep (SWS).
• Experts believe that this stage is critical to restorative sleep,
allowing for bodily recovery and growth.
• It may also bolster the immune system and other key bodily
processes.
Sleep Stage #1 • Even though brain activity is reduced, there is evidence that
Type of Sleep: NREM deep sleep contributes to insightful thinking, creativity, and
Other Names: N1 memory. During the early sleep cycles, N3 stages commonly
Normal Length: 1 - 7 Minutes last for 20 to 40 minutes.
• As you continue sleeping, these stages get shorter, and more
Sleep Stage #2 time gets spent in REM sleep instead.
Type of Sleep: NREM
Other Names: N2 REM Sleep Patterns: What Is REM Sleep?
Normal Length: 10 - 25 Minutes • During REM sleep, brain activity picks up, nearing levels seen
when you are awake.
Sleep Stage #3 • At the same time, the body experiences atonia, which is a
Type of Sleep: NREM temporary paralysis of the muscles, with two exceptions: the
Other Names: N3, slow wave sleep (SWS), delta sleep, deep sleep eyes and the muscles that control breathing.
Normal Length: 20 - 40 Minutes • Even though the eyes are closed, they can be seen moving
quickly, which is how this stage gets its name.
Sleep Stage #4 • REM sleep is believed to be essential to cognitive functions
Type of Sleep: REM like memory, learning, and creativity.
Other Names: REM Sleep • REM sleep is known for the most vivid dreams, which is
Normal Length: 10 - 60 Minutes explained by the significant uptick in brain activity.
• Dreams can occur in any sleep stage, but they are less
common and intense in the NREM periods.
• Under normal circumstances, you do not enter a REM sleep • muscles begin to relax.
stage until you have been asleep for about 90 minutes. • you produce low amplitude mixed frequencies waves in the
• As the night goes on, REM stages get longer, especially in the theta range (4 to 7 Hz).
second half of the night.
• While the first REM stage may last only a few minutes, later NREM Stage N2
stages can last for around an hour. In total, REM stages make During this stage:
up around 25% of sleep-in adults. • heartbeat and breathing slow down further.
• no eye movements
What Affects Sleep Stages? • body temperature drops.
• While there is a typical pattern for sleep stages, there can be • sleep spindles and K-complexes are two distinct brain wave
substantial individual variation based on several factors. features that appear for the first time.

Age NREM Stage N3

• Time in each stage changes dramatically over a person’s life. During this stage:
Newborns spend far more time in REM sleep and may enter a • arousal from sleep is difficult.
REM stage as soon as they fall asleep. • heartbeat and breathing are at their slowest rate.
• As they get older, their sleep becomes like that of adults. • no eye movements
Older adults tend to spend less time in REM sleep. • body is fully relaxed.
• delta brain waves are present.
Recent sleep patterns • tissue repair and growth, and cell regeneration occur.
• If a person gets irregular or insufficient sleep over a period of • immune system strengthens.
days or more, it can cause an abnormal sleep cycle.
REM Stage R
Alcohol During this stage:
• Alcohol and some other drugs can alter sleep architecture. • eye movements become rapid during phasic REM.
• For example, alcohol decreases REM sleep early in the night, • breathing and heart rate increase and become more variable
but as the alcohol wears off, there is a REM sleep rebound, muscles become paralyzed, but twitches may occur.
with prolonged REM stages. • Brain activity is markedly increased.

Sleep disorders. Facts about Sleep

• Sleep apnea, restless legs syndrome (RLS), and other • Human beings spend 1/3 of their lives sleeping, while cats
conditions that cause multiple awakenings may interrupt a spend roughly 2/3 of their asleep. Other animals, like koalas
healthy sleep cycle. and bats, can sleep up to 22 hours a day.
• Newborn babies need roughly 14 to 17 hours of sleep per
How Can You Have a Healthier Sleep Cycle? day, while teenagers require about 8 to 10 hours each night.
Most adults need 7 to 9 hours of sleep.
Improving Sleep Hygiene • Sleep deprivation can have a hugely negative impact on
➢ achieving consistent sleep schedule health. Even as little as 24 hours without sleep can cause
➢ getting natural daylight exposure significant mood swings, difficulty functioning, and altered
➢ avoiding alcohol before bedtime perception.
➢ eliminating noise and light disruptions • Energy levels naturally dip at two distinct times of the day:
12-2 p.m. and 8-9 p.m. This explains the post-lunch fatigue
that some people feel during the middle of the day.
EVERYTHING TO KNOW ABOUT THE • Higher altitudes can have a negative impact on sleep quality.
STAGES OF SLEEP According to research, this may be because of a reduced
amount of slow-wave (deep) sleep.
Stages of Sleep
Sleep Disturbances
• Non-REM • According to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, the
➢ sleep happens first and includes three stages. number of people annually who experience a sleep disorder
➢ The last stage of non-REM sleep is when you sleep is about 70 million.
deeply. • Sleep disorders can have a negative impact on sleep quality,
➢ It’s hard to wake up from this stage of sleep. which in turn can lead to other health problems.
• Below, you’ll find some of the most common sleep disorders
• REM and how they’re treated.
➢ sleep happens about an hour to an hour and a half after
falling asleep. Insomnia
➢ REM sleep is when you tend to have vivid dreams. • Insomnia is a chronic sleep condition characterized by
difficulty sleeping.
NREM Stage N1 • Some people have trouble falling asleep, others are unable to
During this stage: stay asleep, and some have trouble with both.
• eye movements are typically slow and rolling. • Insomnia often causes excessive daytime sleepiness and
• heartbeat and breathing slow down. fatigue.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) Tips to Get Quality Sleep
• is the primary treatment for insomnia. Here are some ways you can improve your sleep hygiene:
• CBT may also be combined with sleep medications, which are • Spend time outside in the sun during the day.
able to help people fall and stay asleep. • Exercise or move your body throughout the day.
• For some people, improving sleep hygiene may also help. • Limit your nap time to no more than 20-30 minutes.
• Avoid stimulants and certain foods before bed.
Sleep Apnea • Limit your screen time an hour before sleeping.
• Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) • Create a comfortable bedroom environment.
• is a condition in which the body stops breathing during sleep.
These periods of no breathing, called apnea, happen because Four Theories as to Why We Need to Sleep
the airways of the throat become too narrow to allow air • Mander Bryce, a neurologist at Neuroimaging Lab and UC
flow. Berkeley’s Sleep says, “There have been a lot of medical
• Like insomnia, this condition can negatively affect sleep researchers who have put forward theories about why we
quality. sleep, but most of these theories are largely incomplete.
• The first line of treatment for OSA is a continuous positive • Sleep affects almost all organs in the body and as such, it’s
airway pressure (CPAP) machine. hard to study.
• The CPAP creates enough airflow to allow a person with sleep • There are numerous theories of sleep, but none of them has
apnea to breathe properly during sleep. If the CPAP doesn’t been proven correct.”
help, bilevel positive airway pressure (BiPAP or BPAP) may be • However, there’s no clear-cut answer to this challenging
considered to help patients tolerate the pressures. question, one thing these experts all agree on is that sleep
• In some cases, an oral appliance or surgery may be necessary plays a very critical role in our overall health and wellness.
for OSA. • Also, there are some rather obvious clues that could help
explain our need to nap on a daily basis.
Restless Leg Syndrome • One such clue is the fact that, for most of us (if not all), a
• Restless leg syndrome (RLS) is a neurological disorder that goodnight’s slumber leaves us feeling much better in the
causes an uncomfortable feeling in the legs, which occurs in morning, whereas a lack of a decent night’s rest leaves one
the evening as bedtime approaches and when the individual feeling much worse.
is resting or trying to fall asleep. • Several theories have also been put forward, which attempt
• People with RLS often have trouble getting enough sleep to further explain why sleep is such a great necessity in the
because of their symptoms. human life, and below are some of the more promising ones:
• Certain medications are FDA approved to help manage RLS
symptoms. Repair and Restoration Theory of Sleep
• Practicing good sleep hygiene can also help relax the body • Based on a long-held belief that somehow sleep “restores”
before bed and make it easier to fall asleep. something that is spent in our bodies while we are awake, the
repair and restoration theory is perhaps one of the most
Shift Work Disorder popular theories of sleep.
• Shift work disorder is a condition that commonly affects • According to it, sleep affords the body the much-needed
those who work outside of a regular 9-to-5 schedule. opportunity it requires to repair and rejuvenate itself, which
• This disorder can cause an imbalance in the natural circadian involves restoring and revitalizing the physiological processes
rhythm, or sleep-wake cycle. which keep your body and mind healthy and functioning
• People with this disorder are at a higher risk for increased properly.
daytime sleepiness and health issues. • Lately, this theory has gained ample support following
• Treatment for shift work disorder includes strategic napping, considerable empirical evidence gathered from human and
avoiding stimulants like light at the correct time, and, if animal studies. Several of these experiments suggest that in
possible, reducing the number of hours worked. some ways, sleep allows the body’s immune system to
• For people who sleep during the day, it can also help to use function better.
light-blocking tools like eye shades or curtains. • For instance, in one experiment it was shown that people
who regularly had less than 7 hours of sleep a night were
approximately three times more likely to fall ill when exposed
Narcolepsy to the common cold virus than those who had 8 or more
• Narcolepsy is a chronic central nervous system disorder that hours of sleep every night.
causes extreme daytime sleepiness with “sleep attacks” along
• The theory is further supported by research findings which
with poor sleep at night.
have shown that many of the major body restorative
• Type I narcolepsy also causes cataplexy, which is a sudden, functions mostly or, in some cases, only occur during sleep.
physical collapse caused by loss of muscle control.
• These include restorative functions such as protein synthesis,
• People with both type I and type II narcolepsy often tissue repair, muscle growth, and growth hormone release.
experience extreme disruptions in their daily life.
• Medications like stimulants and SSRIs are used to treat the
symptoms of narcolepsy.
Evolutionary Theory of Sleep
• At-home treatments, like good sleep hygiene, diet and • Also referred to as the Adaptive Theory or Inactivity Theory,
exercising regularly, can help to promote healthful sleep. the Evolutionary theory is one of the earliest theories that
tries to explain the necessity of sleep.
• It suggests that periods of inactivity at night or during the
daytime is an adaptation which served a survival function by
ensuring that animals remained out of danger during times of
 vulnerability. However, the evolutionary theory of sleep is not • This would make some sort of sense if you thought about the
widely accepted and several flaws in this hypothesis have evolutionary ancestors’ struggle to find enough to eat, and
been cited by those who challenge it. they're using sleep as a way of cutting down their energy
• In a simple counterargument, some people argue that when consumption, to be able to make the most of their limited
an animal is sleeping, it is not able to respond promptly to food.
potential threats, and this makes it extremely vulnerable and
the perfect prey for predators.
Why do We Dream? Dreams Explained
• Therefore, it would be much safer for an animal to remain
conscious, as this would enable it to react quickly to
emergencies (even if it’s just lying still in the dark of the Introduction
night). It’s no wonder people would want to understand why we dream
• In fact, some researchers have used this counterargument to given that we spend around six years of our life in the dream state.
point out that the vulnerability of a sleeping animal is reason
enough to believe that sleep must be serving some other Sleep Paralysis
essential function. Otherwise, this careless behavior would
REM Sleep
have been phased out by evolution centuries ago.
• where dreaming gets going
• My body is paralyzed.
Brain Plasticity Theory • your heart rate goes up.
• Brain Plasticity Theory is probably one of the more recent, • your blood pressure rises.
and rather compelling, theories of sleep. • Brain activity returns to near waking levels.
• It is based on research findings, which suggest that sleep is • Paralysis in REM sleep is caused by the glycine and amino
correlated to changes in the organization and structure of the acid from the brain stem onto your brain's motor neurons.
brain. In earlier days, the brain was perceived as a static • believed that paralysis is nature’s way of preventing us from
organ, but many studies have since disproved this notion by acting on our dreams.
showing that the brain can adapt and change over time.
• The term “brain plasticity” was coined to refer to this Sleep Paralysis
extraordinary ability of the brain to change throughout an • When you enter REM Sleep, your brain releases chemicals
individual’s life, and proponents of this theory believe that that paralyze your body, which are supposed to be lifted once
sleep contributes importantly to the processes of brain you wake up.
plasticity.
• But sometimes it doesn’t, and this is where we get sleep
• To start with, the brain plasticity theory argues that people paralysis. You wake up, you’re aware of your consciousness
sleep to process the information they have acquired during but you can’t move.
the day and consolidate new memories.
• It feels like there’s a massive weight on your body that is
• It suggests that, when one is asleep, the brain does not rest preventing you from waking up.
idly, but rather, it utilizes this time to sort out and review the
• These are often caused by disrupted REM Sleep.
activities and information absorbed throughout the day and
• Sigmund Freud theorized that dreams represented a window
cements these things into long-term memory.
to the unconscious mind, a reservoir of feelings, thoughts,
• Support for this hypothesis has been drawn from several
urges, and memories that are beyond our conscious
studies, which demonstrate that lack of sleep hurts the ability
awareness.
to remember information.
• Most of the contents of the unconscious mind are
• For instance, in one experiment several volunteers were
unacceptable or unpleasant, representing feelings of pain,
given aptitude tests such as remembering a sequence of
anxiety, or conflict.
patterns presented to them on a computer.
• When we’re sleeping, the forces that keep these feelings in
• Half of the volunteers were shown these patterns during the
check are weakened, allowing us to live out our desires and
morning session, and the other half in the evening, after
even fears through our dreams.
which, their memories were tested by the team of
• Carl Jung also believed that our dreams tapped into our
researchers.
unconscious mind.
• For the morning volunteers, the test was done after a full day
• However, he argued that it was a collective unconscious that
of being awake while the evening learners were tested after a
we were able to access through our dreams.
night's sleep; and sure enough, the individuals allowed to
• According to Jung, this is a theoretical repository of
sleep had better recollection of the test patterns.
information shared by everyone in which certain symbols and
dreams have meanings that are similar for all people
Energy Conservation Theory regardless of culture or location.
• In natural selection, competition for and effective utilization • Dream interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to
of energy is extremely important – in that, if a species can dreams.
make use of its given energy resources in a slightly more
effective manner, it would have a great advantage over
Activation Synthesis Theory
similar species.
• Rejects the idea that dreams mean anything at all.
• Using this line of thought, the energy conservation theory
• That dreaming can be merely electrical brain impulses that
tries to explain why we need to sleep by suggesting that sleep
pull random thoughts and imagery from our memories.
has something to do with saving an individual’s energy.
• This suggests that humans could create dream stories after
• In general, it proposes that the primary function of sleep is to
they wake up in a natural way to make sense of the absurd.
lower one's demand for energy as well as reduce the amount
expended during part of the night or day; especially during
those periods when it’s least efficient to look for food.
Continual-Activation Theory 1. obstructive sleep apnea, where the flow of air
• Proposes that the conscious and unconscious mind must stops because airway space is obstructed or too
continually be active to maintain proper brain function. narrow.
2. central sleep apnea, where there is a problem in
Lucid Dreaming the connection between the brain and the
• term coined by Van Eeden in 1913 muscles that control your breath.
• most commonly occurs in the late stages of REM Sleep and 3.
essentially allows your conscious mind to control something Parasomnias
your unconscious mind normally has control over • Parasomnias are a class of sleep disorders that cause
abnormal movements and behaviors during sleep.
Pre - Cognitive Dreams • They include:
• Dreams that appear to predict the future through a sixth ➢ sleepwalking
sense and here are famous examples of this happening. ➢ sleep talking.
➢ When the Titanic sank in 1912, hundreds of people ➢ groaning
reported having psychic dreams of it sinking, which had ➢ nightmares
also 19 validated through getting a date-stamped letter ➢ bedwetting
and several people canceled their tickets to board the ➢ teeth grinding or jaw clenching.
Titanic based on their dreams of it.
➢ Two weeks before Abraham Lincoln was shot dead in Restless Leg Syndrome
1865, Abraham Lincoln had a dream of a funeral at the • Restless leg syndrome (RLS) is an overwhelming need to
white house and when he asked who is in the casket, move the legs.
they answered the president. • This urge is sometimes accompanied by a tingling sensation
in the legs.
SLEEP DISORDERS • While these symptoms can occur during the day, they are
• Sleep disorders are a group of conditions that affect the most prevalent at night.
ability to sleep well on a regular basis. • RLS is often associated with certain health conditions,
• Most people occasionally experience sleeping problems due including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and
to stress, hectic schedules, and other outside influences. Parkinson’s disease, but the exact cause isn’t always known.
• However, when these issues begin to occur on a regular basis
and interfere with daily life, they may indicate a sleeping Narcolepsy
disorder. Depending on the type of sleep disorder, people • Narcolepsy is characterized by “sleep attacks” that occur
may have a difficult time falling asleep and may feel while awake.
extremely tired throughout the day. • This means that you will suddenly feel extremely tired and fall
• The lack of sleep can have a negative impact on energy, asleep without warning.
mood, concentration, and overall health. • The disorder can also cause sleep paralysis, which may make
you physically unable to move right after waking up.
Insomnia • Although narcolepsy may occur on its own, it is also
• Insomnia refers to the inability to fall asleep or to remain associated with certain neurological disorders, such as
asleep. multiple sclerosis.
• It can be caused by jet lag, stress and anxiety, hormones, or
digestive problems. SYMPTOMS OF SLEEP DISORDERS
• It may also be a symptom of another condition. Insomnia can • Symptoms differ depending on the severity and type of
be problematic for your overall health and quality of life, sleeping disorder.
potentially causing: • They may also vary when sleep disorders are a result of
➢ depression another condition.
➢ difficulty concentrating • However, general symptoms of sleep disorders include:
➢ irritability ➢ difficulty falling or staying asleep.
➢ weight gain. ➢ daytime fatigue
➢ impaired work or school performance ➢ strong urge to take naps during the day.
• Insomnia is usually classified as one of three types: ➢ unusual breathing patterns
1. chronic, when insomnia happens on a regular ➢ unusual or unpleasant urges to move while falling
basis for at least 1 month. asleep.
2. intermittent, when insomnia occurs periodically. ➢ unusual movement or other experiences while asleep
3. transient, when insomnia lasts for just a few ➢ unintentional changes to your sleep/wake schedule
nights at a time. ➢ irritability or anxiety
➢ impaired performance at work or school
Sleep Apnea ➢ lack of concentration
• Sleep apnea is characterized by pauses in breathing during ➢ depression
sleep. This is a serious medical condition that causes the body ➢ weight gain.
to take in less oxygen.
• It can also cause you to wake up during the night.
• There are two types:
CAUSE OF SLEEP DISORDERS • Treatment for sleep disorders can vary depending on the type
• There are many conditions, diseases, and disorders that can and underlying cause.
cause sleep disturbances. • However, it generally includes a combination of medical
• In many cases, sleep disorders develop because of an treatments and lifestyle changes.
underlying health problem.
Medical treatments
Allergies and Respiratory Problems • Medical treatment for sleep disturbances might include any
• Allergies, colds, and upper respiratory infections can make it of the following:
challenging to breathe at night. ➢ sleeping pills
➢ melatonin supplements
• The inability to breathe through your nose can also cause
➢ allergy or cold medication
sleeping difficulties.
➢ medications for any underlying health issues
➢ breathing device or surgery (usually for sleep apnea)
Frequent Urination ➢ a dental guard (usually for teeth grinding)
• Nocturia, or frequent urination, may disrupt your sleep by
causing you to wake up during the night.
Lifestyle Changes
• Hormonal imbalances and diseases of the urinary tract may
• Lifestyle adjustments can greatly improve your quality of
contribute to the development of this condition.
sleep, especially when they’re done along with medical
• Be sure to call your doctor right away if frequent urination is
treatments.
accompanied by bleeding or pain.
• You may want to consider:
➢ incorporating more vegetables and fish into your diet,
Chronic Pain and reducing sugar intake
• Constant pain can make it difficult to fall asleep. ➢ reducing stress and anxiety by exercising and stretching
• It might even wake you up after you fall asleep. ➢ creating and sticking to a regular sleeping schedule
• Some of the most common causes of chronic pain include: ➢ drinking less water before bedtime
➢ arthritis ➢ limiting your caffeine intake, especially in the late
➢ chronic fatigue syndrome afternoon or evening
➢ fibromyalgia ➢ decreasing tobacco and alcohol use
➢ inflammatory bowel disease ➢ eating smaller low carbohydrate meals before bedtime
➢ persistent headaches ➢ maintaining a healthy weight based on your doctor’s
➢ continuous lower back pain. recommendations.
• In some cases, chronic pain may even be exacerbated by
sleep disorders. HYPNOSIS AS A THERAPEUTIC TOOL
• For instance, doctors believe the development of
• Hypnosis is a trance-like mental state in which people
fibromyalgia might be linked to sleeping problems.
experience increased attention, concentration, and
suggestibility.
Stress and Anxiety • While hypnosis is often described as a sleep-like state, it is
• Stress and anxiety often hurt sleep quality. better expressed as a state of focused attention, heightened
• It can be difficult for you to fall asleep or to stay asleep. suggestibility, and vivid fantasies.
• Nightmares, sleep talking, or sleepwalking may also disrupt • People in a hypnotic state often seem sleepy and zoned out,
your sleep. but they are in a state of hyper-awareness.

How sleep disorders are diagnosed Types of Hypnosis

• Your doctor will first perform a physical exam and gather • There are a few different ways that hypnosis can be delivered:
information about your symptoms and medical history.
• They may also order various tests, including: Guided Hypnosis
➢ Polysomnography (PSG): • This form of hypnosis involves the use of tools such as
o This is a lab sleep study that evaluates oxygen recorded instructions and music to induce a hypnotic state.
levels, body movements, and brain waves to • Online sites and mobile apps often utilize this form of
determine how they disrupt sleep vs. home sleep hypnosis.
study (HST) that is performed on your own and is
used to diagnose sleep apnea.
Hypnotherapy
➢ Electroencephalogram (EEG):
• Hypnotherapy is the use of hypnosis in psychotherapy and is
o This is a test that assesses electrical activity in the
practiced by licensed physicians and psychologists to treat
brain and detects any potential problems
conditions including depression, anxiety, post-traumatic
associated with this activity. It’s part of a
stress disorder (PTSD), and eating disorders.
polysomnography.
➢ Multiple sleep latency test (MSLT):
o This daytime napping study is used in conjunction Self-Hypnosis
with a PSG at night to help diagnose narcolepsy. • Self-hypnosis is a process that occurs when a person self-
• These tests can be crucial in determining the right course of induces a hypnotic state.
treatment for sleep disorders. • It is often used as a self-help tool for controlling pain or
managing stress.
How sleep disorders are treated
• Uses and Potential Benefits In some cases, people might seek • People do vary in terms of how hypnotizable and suggestible
out hypnosis to help deal with chronic pain or to alleviate they are while under hypnosis, however.
pain and anxiety caused by medical procedures such as • Research suggests that people who are highly suggestible are
surgery or childbirth. The following are just a few of the more likely to experience a reduced sense of agency while
applications for hypnosis that have been demonstrated under hypnosis.
through research: • While hypnosis can be used to enhance performance, it
➢ Alleviation of symptoms associated with irritable bowel cannot make people stronger or more athletic than their
syndrome (IBS) existing physical capabilities.
➢ Control of pain during dental procedures
➢ Elimination or reduction of skin conditions including History of Hypnosis
warts and psoriasis. • The use of hypnotic-like trance states dates back thousands
➢ Management of certain symptoms of ADHD of years, but hypnosis began to grow during the late 18th
➢ Treatment of chronic pain conditions such as century from the work of a physician named Franz Mesmer.
rheumatoid arthritis
• The practice got off to a poor start thanks to Mesmer's
➢ Treatment and reduction of pain during childbirth
mystical views, but interest eventually shifted to a more
➢ Reduction of dementia symptoms
scientific approach. Hypnotism became more important in
➢ Reduction of nausea and vomiting in cancer patients
the field of psychology in the late 19th century and was used
undergoing chemotherapy
by Jean-Martin Charcot to treat women experiencing what
was then known as hysteria.
Impact of Hypnosis • This work influenced Sigmund Freud and the development of
• The experience of hypnosis can vary dramatically from one psychoanalysis. More recently, there have been several
person to another. different theories to explain exactly how hypnosis works.
• Some hypnotized individuals report feeling a sense of • One of the best-known theories is Hilgard’s neo dissociation
detachment or extreme relaxation during the hypnotic state theory of hypnosis.
while others even feel that their actions seem to occur • According to Hilgard, people in a hypnotic state experience a
outside of their conscious volition. split consciousness in which there are two different streams
• Other individuals may remain fully aware and able to carry of mental activity.
out conversations while under hypnosis. • While one stream of consciousness responds to the
• Experiments by researcher Ernest Hilgard demonstrated how hypnotist’s suggestions, another dissociated stream
hypnosis can be used to dramatically alter perceptions. processes information outside of the hypnotized individual's
• After instructing a hypnotized individual not to feel pain in conscious awareness.
their arm, the participant's arm was then placed in ice water.
• While non-hypnotized individuals had to remove their arms OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS
from the water after a few seconds due to the pain, the
• Psychoactive drugs are drugs that can alter our
hypnotized individuals were able to leave their arms in the icy
consciousness.
water for several minutes without experiencing pain.
• They can alter our perceptions, influence our moods, calm us
down, make us feel more alert, etc.
Tips for Hypnosis • We classify psychoactive drugs based on the actions and
• While many people think that they cannot be hypnotized, effects that they have on our bodies.
research has shown that many people are more hypnotizable
than they believe.
Depressants
• Research suggests that:
• depress our central nervous system function.
• Between 10% to 15% of people are very responsive to
• decrease the level of arousal or stimulation in certain areas of
hypnosis.
our brain.
• Approximately 10% of adults are considered difficult or
• decrease our heart rate.
impossible to hypnotize.
• lower blood pressure
• Children tend to be more susceptible to hypnosis.
• slow our breathing.
• People who can become easily absorbed in fantasies are
much more responsive to hypnosis. • can cause dizziness and lack of coordination lower our
processing speed.
Potential Pitfalls
• While amnesia may occur in very rare cases, people generally
Types of Depressants
remember everything that transpired while they were • barbiturates (tranquilizers)
hypnotized. • benzodiazepines
• However, hypnosis can have a significant effect on memory. • alcohol
• Posthypnotic amnesia can lead an individual to forget certain
things that occurred before or during hypnosis. Stimulants
• However, this effect is generally limited and temporary. • stimulates / excites our central nervous system.
Research has found that hypnosis does not lead to significant • increase heart rate and blood pressure.
memory enhancement or accuracy, and hypnosis can result in • increase our alertness.
false or distorted memories. • we feel more awake with stimulants.
• Despite stories about people being hypnotized without their • more alert and energetic
consent, hypnosis does require voluntary participation on the • can make people jittery and unable to sit still.
part of the patient.
Types of Stimulants
• caffeine
• amphetamines
• meth
• mdma (ecstasy)
• cocaine
• nicotine

Hallucinogens
• sometimes referred to as psychedelics.
• cause individuals to experience distorted perceptions.
• can cause heightened sensations.

Types of Hallucinogens
• LSDs; acid
• psilocybin; active ingredient in mushrooms
• peyote
• PCP (phencyclidine)

Opiates
• sometimes called opioids.
• can depress central nervous system functions.
• decrease our heart rate.
• lower blood pressure
• cause relaxation and induce sleep.
• analgesic; reduce the perception of pain.

Types of Opiates
• morphine
• codeine
• heroin
• oxycodone
• Vicodin
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY REVIEWER THEORIES AND MODELS ON SELECTION VISUAL
TOPIC # 3 ATTENTION

Spotlight Model
ATTENTION
• Visual attention works like that of a spotlight.
• Is how one actively selects and processes a limited amount of
• Psychologist, William James suggested that this spotlight
information from all the information captured by the senses,
includes a focal point in which things are viewed clearly.
stored memories, and other cognitive processes.
• The area surrounding this focal point, known as the fringe, is
• Allows us to use our limited mental resources judiciously.
still visible, but not seen, the outside area is the margin.
• Is the capacity of mental states to shift and appreciate the
sensory relevance. Zoom-Lens Model
CONSCIOUSNESS • Suggests that we can increase or decrease the size of our
focus much like the zoom lens of a camera.
• is the individual awareness of thoughts, memories, feelings,
• A larger focus area also results in processing since it includes
sensations, and environments.
more information so the limited attentional resources must
• Is a global process that surveys what is going on in the body
be distributed over a larger area.
or the environment.
Broadbent’s Filter Model
Are attention and consciousness one is the same?
• Donald Broadbent
• No, attention is deeper than the consciousness.
• Capacity to process information is limited.
• Selection of information to process takes place early in the
How does attention work?
perceptual process.
• Utilize a filter to determine which information to attend to.

Basic Stages in the Perceptual Process

B AUDITORY ATTENTION
SELECTIVE
Selection Organization Interpretation
The Cocktail Party Effect

AUDITORY ATTENTION • Investigated how people can track certain conversations

while tuning others out.
• Is a cognitive process that allows the listener to focus • Name-calling.
selectively on the stimulus of interest, while ignoring • Speaker with voices.
irrelevant competing stimuli.
• Disentangling Sound, unlike our eyes, our ears cannot be Treisman’s Attenuation Theory
directed to avoid registering material that we wish to ignore.
• Proposed that instead of a filter, attention works by utilizing
SELECTIVE ATTENTION an attenuator that identifies a stimulus based on physical
properties or by meaning.
• Is the process of focusing on a particular object in the • Attenuator likened to a volume control.
environment for a certain time. • Example: Wedding Attire
• Attention acts somewhat like a spotlight, highlighting the
details that we need to focus on and casting irrelevant
information to the sidelines of our perception.
• Is by focusing on some events to the detriment of others. This
is because attention is a resource that needs to be distributed
to those events that are important.
 • The neurotransmitter, Norepinephrine, is involved in the
maintenance of alertness.
• ADHD

Resource Theory of Selective Attention

• Attention is a limited resource that is divided. Orienting
• A fixed amount of attention available must be allocated to
multiple tasks or events. • selection of stimuli to attend needed in performing a visual
search.
THEORIES OF DIVIDED ATTENTION: ALLOCATION OF • The Superior Parietal Lobe, Temporal Parietal Junction, Frontal
ATTENTIONAL RESOURCES eye fields, and Superior Colliculus are involved in orienting.
• The neurotransmitter, Acetylcholine, is involved in orienting.

1st Model suggests 2nd Model suggests

that one single pool that multiple sources
of attentional of attention are
resources can be available, one for • Autism
divided freely. each modality.
Executive Attention

• According to research, multitasking can lower IQ and • Includes processes for monitoring and resolving conflicts that
productivity. arise from internal processes such as thoughts, feelings, and
• Multitasking requires 21 minutes to gain attention for every responses.
task shifting. • Anterior Cingulate, Lateral Ventral, Prefrontal Cortex, and
Basal Ganglia are involved in Executive Attention.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE OUR ABILITIES TO PAY • The neurotransmitter, Dopamine, is involved in Executive
ATTENTION. Attention.
• Dysfunction this associated with Alzheimer’s, Borderline
• Stress Personality Disorder, and Schizophrenia.
• Anxiety
• Arousal
• Difficult tasks
• Skills

NEUROSCIENCE AND ATTENTION: Alerting

Alerting
• Is being prepared to attend to some incoming event and
maintaining the attention.
• Right Frontal and Parietal Cortexes are involved in alerting.
 Inattentional Blindness Selective Attention Theory
• When focusing hard on one thing and failing to notice • According to this theory, naming the actual color of the
unexpected things entering the visual fields. words requires much more attention than simply reading the
texts.

Speed of Processing Theory

• This theory states that people can read words much faster
than they can name the colors.

Automaticity
• This theory proposes that automatic reading doesn’t require
focused attention.
• Recognizing colors, requires a certain number of attentional
resources to process.

SLIPS ASSOCIATED WITH AUTOMATIC PROCESSES

Omissions
Characteristics Controlled Processes
• An interruption in a routine activity cause skipping a step in
Amount of intentional effort Require intentional effort doing the routine.
Degree of conscious awareness Require full conscious awareness • (Ex: forgot to close the ref door when somebody called)

Use of attentional resources Consume many attentional resources Description Error

Type of processing Performed serially (one step at a time)
• An internal description of the intended behavior leads to
Relatively time-consuming execution, as
Speed of processing performing a correct action on the wrong object.
compared with automatic processes
• (Ex: putting can be good in the freezer while arranging
Novel and unpracticed tasks or tasks with groceries, after somebody called)
Relative Novelty of Tasks
many variable features

Level of processing Relatively high levels of cognitive processing Associative Activation Error
(requiring analysis or synthesis)
• Strong associations may trigger the wrong automatic routine.
Difficulty of tasks Usually, difficult tasks • (Ex: Answering Come-in with a ring of cellphone when
expecting body to arrive).

How does automization occur?

• automatization, various tasks that start as controlled
processes finally become automatic ones because of practice.
• A controlled process turned into an automatic process when
you get used to it.

Stroop Effect
• John Ridley Stroop
• The delay in reaction time between congruent and
incongruent stimuli.