PTEA

CHAS
2 Mathematical Logic
UnitI
Syllabus

propositionat Logic logic Propositional

Equivalences, Application of
Proof by Propositional Logic-Translating English
sentences, Mathematical Induction and
Strong Mathematical Induction

Exemplar/Case Studies Know about the great

philosophers- Georg Cantor, Richard Dedekind and Aristotle.

2.1 Proposition Negation is also known as NOT and it is

A proposition
or a statement is a declarative represented by -
sentence which is either true or false.
Conjunction is also known as AND, it is
The possible values of a proposition are called represented by a.

truth values.
Disjunction is also known as OR, it is
represented
The value true is denoted by T or by the symbol 1. by v
The value false is denoted by F or by the Name of
symbol 0. Equivalent
Connective Symbol
Examples English word

) India is a country. Negation

Conjunction
NOT
AND
ii) Calcutta is an old city.
Disjunction OR
i) There are twelve months in a year.
2.2.1 Negation
iv)2+5=9
These are propositions. Examples ), (ii) and (ii)
If p denotes
negation and
a statement, then
read as "not p".
it is
p denotes its

are true statements, where as (iv)is a false statement.

Consider the statement
Examples
sentences are not statements, since they
P: Delhi is a city
Following

donot declare a definite truth value T or F. The negation of p can be represented by

G) Wish you a happy journey. P: Delhi is not acity

(i)What is your name? Ifp is a statement, then pis also a statement.
iii) What are you doing? Table 2.2.1: The truth
tablefor negation
iv) Please wait.

2.2 Logical Connectivity

There are three fundamental connectives. These
T T

)
are

Negation

i) Conjunction
2.2.2 Conjunction
F

The conjunction of two statements p and q

as p and g and is denoted by p Aq
is read

(ii) The statement p a q has the truth value T

Disjunction
whenever both p and q have the truth value T;
otherwise it has the truth value F.
 2-2

Comp.)
(SPPU- Table 2.2.3: Truth table for i.
blefor Aalthemalca
EF Discrete
Mathematics

disjunction

Example :if
q Pvq Discre
PIt is raining

There are 40
chairs in my room.
T T T
q
is raining and
there are 40
chairs in T F T (pv
then PAqIt T T
my room.
as follows:
The truth table for pnqis given F
Table 2.2.2: Truth table forconjunction
Translate into symbolic form,the
Ex. 2.2.2
PA There is something wrong
stateme

T T the student.
with
tha3
or with
F shal watch the game on televi
(i) I

F F to the game
n Le
th
F F F
Soln.: it

ta
the statement (i) If we write
Ex. 2.2.1 : Translate symbolicform,
into

Amar and Mohan went up the hill. p: There 1s

something wrong
with

he has teacher.
(i)
Ram watches television while

dinner qThere is
something wrong with
is rich but student.
(ii) Shyam unhappy.

then pvq There is

something wrong with
Soln.

) If we write
(ii) If we write
teacher or with the student.

p:Amar went up the hill.

q: Mohan went up the hill.
p: Ishallwatch the game on televisio

then the statement can be written in q: I shall go to the game.

given
p aq then pvq I
shall watch
the game on televisior
symbolic form as
go to the game.
(ii) If we write

p:Ram watches television. Ex. 2.2.3: Constructthe truth table for

q:Ram has dinner. ()PAP: i)pv-g: (i)(pvg) v-P

then the given statement can be written as paq Soln.

(ii)If we write (i) PAP

P: Shyam is rich.
PAP
q:Shyam is unhappy F F
then the given statement can be written

Here, but is treated as 'and'.

as paq.
F T F

(ii) pv9
2.2.3

The
Disjunction
disjunction of two statements p and qis
pV1g
F F T T
written as p vq and is read as p or q.
The statementp v
when both p and
q has the truth value
have the truth
F
value
only

F;
F T F F

F
q T F T T
otherwise T. The disjunction of p and
it is q is

defined in the Table 2.2.3.

T T T

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P Pvg (p Aq) P
Table 2.3.2: Truth table for p q
F T
TT
F T
F F T

TTFT
F T F

TT
F
TF
TT
F
T
2.3 Conditional and Bi-conditional
Statements Ex. 2.3.1 : Express the contrapositive, converse, inverses
Tat p and q be any two statements. and negation forms of the conditional statement

given below
hen
hen p q is called a conditional statement and x
"If is rational, then x real".
it is read as ifp then q or "p implies q". The truth Soln.
is

table of p q1s given as follows

pis
Table 2.3.1: Truth table for
p q P
the converse of p

qis the inverse p >q

q

F
pis contrapositive
of

ofp >q.
The given
statement is

TF
TT
T T

T
If x is rational

Let,
P
then x is real"

P:X1s rational
Thetruth value of p>qis when p is true anddq
X is real

P
in

. is false;

pis called
all other cases

antecedent(hypothesis)
p q has truth value T.

Operation
Symbolie
formn
Statement
orm
qis called consequent (conclusion) 1.
Contrapositive Ifx is not real

P can be written in equivalent form then x is not

p
aspvq)
qpis called the

q is called
converseofp
the inverse ofp
>q
qq 2. Converse P rational

If x is real
x is rational
then

P is called the contrapositive ofp

3. Inverse p If x not

P and the contrapositiveq phave the

rational then x
Same truth values. isnot real
4. Negation x is rational or
Let pandq be any two statements. = pv q) x is not real.
then p q is called a biconditional statement
and it is read as and only if
"p if q".

Pgis another way of writing (p >)a (q>p) Ex. 2.3.2: Express the contrapositive, converse and

The statement

Same truth
p
values;
q is true if

it is
p and q have the
false if p and
inverse

"If 3<
forms
b and 1+ 1
of the

2 then
following

sin 3 statement

= 1/2"

g have different truth values. Soln.: Let, P 3<b

netruth table of p >qis given as follows:
1+1=2
rsin /3 = 1/2

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 2-4 inverse eand
Define converse,
and state conve
Ex. 2.3.4 contraposi
(SPPU Comip a statement nverse,
ofthe following: Discrete
iversa
Mathermatics
Discrete contrapositive

Ghven staternent w/3= 1/2

(1)
If today
is Easter, thento
rrow is n
Monday
if3band 11-2then sin If a triangle
is notisosceles PA

ie.(pq form
(2)
equilateral.
n is
thenit
i,P
pA
then odd or n is
form Statement Ifn is prime,
(3) t.2.3.6
perationSymbolic
Contre r px) rein
Soln.
32b or is Easterthen orrow ia
positire -t(-pv-then Statement:If
today
(DeMorgan's Law)11 2
(1)

Cenverse (pAg rsin-5 then

Monday.

Converse:If
tomorrow
is Monday th
then tod:

3<b and 1+1 =2

B. Inverse -(pAg)-r
If 3bor1+1 2 Easter
If today
is not Easter then tomor
OTTON
Inverse
sin
=(-pv-q)-rthen not Monday. oin.
(De Morgan's Law) is not Monda
If tomorrow day
is
Write inverse Contrapositive:
given.
Ex. 2.3.3: The converse statement is not Easter.
and contrapositive
statements: today (ii
a man not
then
a is isosceles then

:
he considerate of others, triangle
(1)
is
(2) Statement If
is a gentleman. x. 2.3.
is stretchable then it has been not equilateral.
(2) Ifa steel rod

SPPU-May 16, 3Marks is not equilateral theni

heated Converse :If a triangle
Soln. not isosceles.
1) The converse statement is
a is isosceles then it
Inverse : If triangle
others then a man is
If he is considerate of
equilateral.
gentleman
is equilateral then
Let Aman is agentleman Contrapositive: If a triangle
He isosceles. oln
P: is considerate of others is

i.e.
P lconverse] (3) Statement:fn is prime thenn is odd orn is 2. 1)-
Inverse:
then a man
p q
is
:Ifhe is
not a gentleman.
not considerate of others
Converse: Ifn is odd or n is 2 then n is prime.

not prime then n even and i

Contrapositive:~q~p: If a man n
is not a Inverse If is is

gentleman then he is not considerate of others. not 2 3)

(2) The converse statement is
Contrapositive: If n is odd and n is not 2 then na
If a steel rod is stretchable then it has been not prime.
heated".
Let P: steel rod is stretchable Ex. 2.3.5: Consider the following

qIt has been heated. P: This system is good.

p Iconverse] q: This system is
cheap
Inverse Write each of the sentences

p q :If the
then it
steel rod is

has not been heated.

not stretchable symbolic form

() This system
following

and
is good chea
Contrapositive:q
been heated then
p: If the steel rod has not
() This system is not good but chea
it is not stretchable. in) This system is neither good nor cheapP

(v) This system is good or cheap

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 te Mathematics(SPP -
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Mathematical Logic

Soln.
(ii) Either the material is

(i) pa
(i) pAq exercises are not challenging
interesting or the

but not both.

(iv) pvq
(ii)pA the material is
If
(iv) not and
interesting

6 Consider the following

exercises

course is not
are not challenging then the

Anil is rich. enjoyable.

p:
(v) The material is
q: Kanchan is
poor.
uninteresting, the exercises

are not challenging and the course

Write each of is not
the
following statements in enjoyable.
symbolicform
Soln.
0Anil is not rich and Kanchan is
poor.
() t is not true that (i)
pAg
both rich.
Anil and Kanchan are pqa
(ii)

(it) Either Anil is

iii) pv~ (iv(pA~) T
poor or Kanchan
(v) Either Anil or Kanchan is
rich.
is
poor (v)pAqr
Soln. Ex. 2.3.9 : Express
PAQ (i)(pA~q) form:
following statements in
propositional

i)-Pv iv) pv~ () There are many clouds in the sky but it did
not rain.

Ex.23.7 Use Gi) Iwill get first class if and

only if I study well
p:Today is
Monday. and score above 80 in
mathematics.
q:The grass is wet. (ii) Computers are cheap but softwares are
r:The dish ran away costly.
withthe spoon.
Write an (iv) It is hot and humid
English sentence that very or Ramesh is
corresponds to
each ofthe heart
following having problem.
(1) TAq (2) gvr (v) In small restaurants the food is good and
(3) (Pvg) (4) pv r service is poor.

So (vi) IfI finish my submission before 5.00 in the

(1) The dish did not run evening and it is not very hot
away with the spoon and the
I will goand
grass is Wet. play a game of
hockey.
Soln.
(2) The grass is not wet or the dish ran
away with thhe

pALq:P:It
spoon. There are
G) many clouds in the sky
(3) It is not true that today is rained
Monday or the grass is
wet. P:Iwill get first class
(i) (qar)>pq:lstudy well
(4) Today is Monday or the dish did not run Lr: I score above 80in maths
away with
the
spoon.
(iii) p aq P:computers arecheap
Lg: Softwares are costly
Ex.2.3.8: Let p denote the statement The material is
P:It is very hot
denote the The
interesting'. q statement, (iv)
pa qvr q:It is humid
exercises are and denote the Lr: Ramesh is
challenging' r having heart problem
statement, The course is
enjoyable. Write the P: In small restaurant food is good
statement
(v) paq Lq: ln small restaurant
) in service is
following
symbolic form: poor
The
are
material is
interesting and exercises (vi)(pa~
q)r
challenging. P:I finish my submission before 5.00 in the evening
Gi) The material is means the
q:It is very hot
interesting
Lr:I will
play hockey
exercises are challenging and conversely.

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 2-6
F Discrete Mathematics (SPPU-Comp.)

: statement in
the pvq Por q;
Ex. 2.3.10 Convert the folowing English Mathemaica

symbolic form PAq pand q;

f1 am not studying maths and go to a P Pimplies q:

I
(0
am in a good mood.
movie then p
Pimplies qand q

I
() 1 am in good mood, then will studying
pvq p implieg

1
exclusive -oro
maths or I
will go to e movie.
The truth tables of these
compoun.
Gi) If1 am not in good mood, then 1 will
not gogiven below. ound
statem
to a movie or will ement
study maths
I
a movie or
Table 2.4.1 pvg
(v) 1wil go to I will not study
maths Table
2.4.2
if and only if
l am in a good mood P PVg :pA

SPPU May 13,6 Markss F F F

Soln.

Let p: Iam studying maths

F
T
T T
T
F

Igo F T

rIam
to
a movie
in agood mood.
T T T T
)-p)nqr ii) r>(p vq) Table 2.4.3: p
Table
2.4.4:pv
(iii)(-) qvp (iv) (qvp)(r)
Ex.2.3.11: Use T F
p:willstudy discrete
T F F

T
structure
T
q:1 will go to a movie

T:1am in a good mood.

Write the English T

sentence that
corresponds to
each ofthe

(0rg
foliowing
Table 2.4.5 p
(i)gap
(i)q P (iv)P
FF TF T P q is true when

)
Soin.

(i)I
Ifiam

will
not

not
in

go
a good mood then

to a movie
SPPU-Dec. 18,2Marks

and
I will go to a movie

study discrete
TTF
T
T either p is
true.
false or q is

structurre

(ii) If I go to a movie then I will not study discrete

Table 2.4.6 pq
structure
P4 p p (P qAqp)
(iv)

2.4
If I do not study
in a good mood.

Truth Tables
discrete structure then I am not
FFTT
FT T

F
T
F
The truth values of
compound statements can be F F T F
derived from the truth values of basic
p and q be statements. The compound
be constructed using connectives.
statements. Let
statements can
TTTP Py T T

p=~qVp
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 Mathematic (SPPU Comp.) 2-7 Mathematical Logic
Discrete
s true
true when
whe
p truth
is

value.
both p and q have then same 2.4.4

A
Contingency
statement is neither a tautology nor
p
P to~
gis identical vvq

Dis identical to
qvp contradiction.

2.4.5 Basic Logical Equivalences

pt
P is
The
a isidentical

identical

truth
tru

nts can
tables for
be
to

to
v(~pq)
(p Ag)

(pAq)v(pA~g)D
more complicated
constructed using the
compound
1.

)
Idempotence

ii)
pvp p
pAp=p
statem
given

Ex.
above.

21:
ln.The
Constructthe
truth table
for P
truth table

v qg can
truth tables

for

(p
p (p v g)
)
2. Commutative

ii)
PvgqVp
pAq=qAP
by constructing be
constructed appropriate columns one 3.
the answeris reached. Associativity
until
byone
Columns of p and q can be used to construct the
(i)
Pvqvr =pv(qv r)
column of Pvq. ii)
(pAq)ar =pa (qar)
v 4.
Column of p can be used to
construct the
Distributivity
column of ~(pvq). () (pvqar) =(pv g) n (pvr)
Columns of p and~ (pvq)can be used toconstruct i) (pa (qv r)) = (pag)v(paT)
the column of p ~(pvq).
5. Double
negation
P9 Pgpvq P (pvq (p)=P
F T 6. De Morgan'slaw

FT T F (pvq)=~ pAg
F T T F paq =~Pv
TT F F
Following properties can be added

7. 1) PvT=T
to our list.

Either

)
p is false
8. )
i)
PvF=p
(pa T) =T

2.4.1
Tautology
orpv is true.

9. )
() PAF=F
pv p)=T

)
A statement whose truth value is always true (T) is
called a tautology. (ii) PA p)=F
10. T=F

)
2.4.2 Contradiction
A statement whose truth value is always false (F)
(ii) F=T
is called a 11.
contradiction Pv pAq) =p .(Law of Absorption)
2.4.3
Equivalence (11) PA pvq) =p ..Law of Absorption)
Two statements
p and q are said to be
Equivalent when they have the same
logically

truth values or
12.
p-q~ ~p
When the statement p qis a tautology.
13. pq=(pq) a q p
Itis represented asp =. 14. p q~pVq
15. pq= (paq)v~pA~g
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 2-8
Discrete Mathematics (SPPU-Comp.)
Hence, pV pA9 atautolop
1s
Mathemalica
Ex. 2.4.2: Show that (-p)- (pq)is atautology.
Soln. :Let us constructthe truth table for Ex. 2.4.5 : Prove by
constructing the t

p)p-) 0) PQv R)

P P (p)(pq) (i) (Pa) (P(PQ)v

a) P-R is
tautolog
i.e. pvq
FF T Soln.
SPPU-Dec,
12,
G
FTT (Qv R) = (P>)v (PR)
P P
T (0)

TFF R QvRP P PR(P

TTF T (QVR)
(P
either

q ~p is false |EFFF T T
T
T
T T
orp is true.
T
The column of ( p) (p q) is always true and
F T T
hence

Ex. 2.4.3:
it is a tautology.

Using laws of algebra of propositions, prove

TTF
FTT
T F
T
F
T

Soln.: L.H.S.
equivalence.

(Pvg)A-p= pA
=(pvg)a~pP
TFTTT
T TFTTT
F

F
T
EpA p)v(qn~ p)
FvqA~p)
distributivityl

pA pFl
TTTTT T T T

qA p) pvF=p
pa9 commutativity]

Ex.

Soln.
2.4.4
Verity pv (p^g)is tautology Columns for (Qv R) and
are same and hence the two are
P>
equivalent.
Truth values are same.

P v (P
Method I: Using truth table. (ii)
(PQ)(PvQ)
PAq
F
(paq) p V (pAq)D
T
PQP|PvQ P4Q) Pv
T F
FT
TF
F
FF
T
T T
T
FT
T

T T
T T

TTT F T
T
F

F
F T

T
always true.

The statement pv (paq)is always true, hence it

is a tautology.
Same truth values.
Method II: Using laws of

Pv (paq) =pv(~pv
algebra
[De Morgan's law]
Since, (P
ence it is a
Q) (PvQ) is
always true and
tautology.
=(pv p)v(q) [Associativityl

Tv(q pv p=T Ex. 2.4.6:

Show that(p a q) (p> q) is a tautolo9y.
T IT vp T
=

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 e Mathematics(SPPU -Comp.)
2-9 MathematicalLogic
DisCretd

Soln.
dI: Using true table Ppva-P(pvg-P) (pvg)al-p)n-q)

Method

P F
(PAg)
T
(p q) T
TFF
F
T F
T T

TF T

TTT T T Since (p v
contradiction.
q)a(p)a (q) is
Always

always false,
false

it is a

2.4.6 Law
Duality
either (pAq) is
false Two formulas A and B are said to be duals of each
or (pq)is true. other if either one can be obtained from the other by
Since,
Sinc (p A q) P )is always true and henceit
replacing

is a tautology. A by v

Method II: Using laws of algebra. and v by A

If the formula A
(pAg)(p9) T or F, then its dual B is
contains the special
symbols
replacing T by F
obtained by
paq)v (p Pq~pvql and F by T in addition to
changes suggested above.
E(paq)vpv q) pqs pvql Examples
E PV qvpvq De Morgan's law] (a) The dual
of (p v q)aris(p aq)vr
PvT qvq=T and ~pv p= p (b) The dual of (pa q) vT is (p
vq)aF
T 2.5
Normal Forms
pv T=T
There are four kinds
Hence, (p Aq)(pq) is atautology. of normal forms:

Ex.2.4.7

)
Show that

i)
PAP
the

(pv9) (p)
propositions

A (g)are contradictions.
1.

3.

4.
Disjunctive normal form
2. Conjunctive normal form

Principal disjunctivenormal form

Principal conjunctive normal form.

)
Soln.

pA p can be shown to be a contradiction with the

2.5.1

is
A
a
Disjunctive
formula is in

disjunction of
Normal Form
disjunctive normal form (DNF)if it

conjunctions of literals. A

P
help oftruth table.
propositional variable or its
negation is called a literal.
P pAP A
known
term containing
as
conjunction of
mintermsor product term.
literals is also

T Example of minterms
1.
2. xAy
3. XAy 4 XA y
In disjunctive normal form, minterms are
Always false separated by v The
(disjunction). following are in
incep pis always false, it is a contradiction. disjunctive normal form:

pvg) (p)a (~ q) can be proved acontradiction

A 1.
(paq) v(~pa~q)
the
with
help of truth table. 2. (pAq)v (pA~T)v(«qa~rA s)

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 Mathematical
LO
on ro ys tor
our attention wh Discrete Mathematics

C
2-10
We focus g r)istrua
e.
p The

Discrete

2.5.2

A
Mathematics

Conjunctive
(SPPU -Comp

Nomal
is in Conjunctive
Form
Normal
Form
Step
2: the statement3,4 and
rows

1.
are 1, 2,

In row no.

pA
P, I and
the
,
requiredminten
qAr1s
8.
r are all F
2.

3.
In row
true.

maxtern.

n row no.
So
no.

(
formula of lhtera q is F and r

TF,
also 1s
of disjunctions 15 2, P is false. So
row no.
G
it is a conjunction
of literals 2. In
1s the re
the requir, maxterm.
disjunction
So P
a term

known as maxterm.
containing

3: We can find
mintermn. Step
Example ofmaxterms 1s F, q is T andTT is conjunctions o
xV no. 3, P
2.
3.
In row he required minter
4.Xvy So pA q~r1s i.e. (~pvqv r) A
3. XVy
normal form,
maxterms
are

are in no. 4, P
1s F, q and r are TNote: For any stateme
n conjunctive The following 4. In row
the required minter equivalent.
separated by a (conjunction). pagATIS
normal form: andr are T.
8, P, q
all
conjunctive 2.5.5 Normal Form
In row no,
1. (pvqa(pv~q) 5.
the required minterm. Manipulation
Ppvq)a (pv~r)a (qv~rV~s) pagar 1s
We
2.

for Finding
DNF
can
DNF of p > (q A r) by taki
can find CNF

Truth Table Method

We find formula using algeb
2.5.3 n Step 3: of minterms. i.e.

)
P be a statement formulaits
containing
its disjunctions
distributivity and De
Let DNF from
We can find in such manipulations
variables X1, X2., X
pA g~T)vPA~qAr)

.
which P
truth table: V
of the truth table
for
is
v(paqa~T)V(PAq^ 9^9AEx. 2.5.3: Find conj

1 For each row

Method for Finding CNF
for the
Yn
true, we construct a minterm y1 Y2
Truth Table 1.
f

2.5.4 (PAG
where we take statement formula containing

kX Ifk position
in
thatrow

in that
contains

row contains
T.

F.
Let
variables
p
X1,
be
X2..Xn
a
We can find its CNF from i Soln.
1. (pag)a qp
Ifk" position truthtable:

The of the minterms is the 1. For each row of the truth

table for which Pi
pis logical
2. disjunction
a maxterm y1 V Y2
required formula.
false, we construct
(paga q1
where we take = (pag
in disjunctive normal form.
p (qa
Ex. 2.5.1: Express
'kXkifk position in that row contains F.
r)
Soln.
=(paF)
k Xkif k position in that row contains T.
Step 1: constructa truth table.
= Fv p
maxterms
Table 2.5.1 :Truth table of
p >(qa)
2. Conjunction of the
formula.
is the requre
PA
rqArPqAr
1 F F FF T Ex. 2.5.2:
Express p > (qa r) in conjunctivenota
form
(p) a
2 F
F T F T Soln.
Note A
3 F T FF T Step 1: We construct a truth table. The trutn tab
literal

1.(P
5
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F Step 2:
0
We
PqAr) is given in the Table 2.5.1.

th
2.
2. pA
(pa(p
6

T T
T
F
F
F
F
focus our

Statementp
are 5,6 and
7.
attention

(qAr)
on roWS
rows for
is false.
which

Thest row p
8 T T T T 1. In row
are
no. 5, p is true and both q
and =(F
false.So
qvr)isthe required

maxterm.

Knowedl
Tech llsati
Discrete Mathematics (SPPU -Comp.)
2-11 Mathematical LogiC

2. In row no. 6, p is
true, q is false and r is IF Vx=x
true. So (pvqv
r)is the required
maxterm. (pA9) va [Removing implication]

3. In row no. 7, p and q are true and r is

PV qvq4 [De Morgan's Law]
false.

maxterm.
So (pv qv r) is the required pvT qvq T)
=T IT Vx = T
Step 3: We can find CNF of p (qa r) by taking CNF=T
conjunctions of maxterms. and DNF =T
i.e. Pvqvr)ApvqV r)a(PV qv r)
Ex. 2.5.4: Obtain of
disjunctive normal form
Note For any statement formula,
its CNF and DNF are (P) (-Pa)
equivalent
Soln.:

2.5.5 Normal Forms using Algebraic Pq (~pag)

Manipulations
We can find CNF and DNF of any statement
=pvq) paq p qpva
formula using algebraic manipulations. Laws of
=(pag)apv
distributivity and De Morgan's are particularly useful F
in such ((paq)A p)v ((paq)aq) Distributivity
manipulations.

Ex.
= pAq)v (pag pAp P,qAgq
2.5.3: Find and normal forms
for
conjunctive

the following
disjunctive

without using truth table

xVx=x
1.
(PAg)a (qp) 2.
(PA (Pp>q))q)
DNF (paq) lone minterm]

Soln.
Ex.2.5.5 Obtainconjunctive normalform of
1. (paq)a q>p)
qp ~ qvP SPPU Dec.12, Marks 3
equivalent to

)
is logically

Soln.

(pr)a(p > q) = (pvr)A pvq

pAq)a-qvp) p qvpl
Pr=PV
=(paq)A~q)v ((paq)a p) Distributivityl Lpq Pvq inCNF
=(pAF)v (pag) lqn-q=F and p ap pli) (png)v ~paqar)
=Fv (pAg IpAF =F] =(paq) pl a (paq)vg a [(p g) v r v a
Fvx=x Distributivity]
.DNF =(p v p) a (qv p)l a lql a pvr) a (qv rl
(p)a(q) .CNF
[Distributivity and from
Note: A iteral isboth aminterm anda maxtem Hence: the Law of Absorption

1 (pAg)isin DNF with pgas a minterm. L pAvq=

2 pAqis in CNF with twomaxterms ap 6q Ta (qvp)l aqa pvr) a (qvr)...pv p =T)
2.
(pa(p >q)qD (qVp)a (q) a p v aqVr)r)

=(pa(~pvq))> p ~pvq CNF (qv~p)a(q)a(pvr)a (qvr)

(pA p)v(paq))>q Distributivity Ex. 2.5.6: Obtain the conjunctive and disjunctive norma

(Fv(pa q))q pA pF] form of the propositions given below

() (P Q)v (PQ) i) (pvg)9

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PuDliC ations
 gee
Mathemati.
auical
v I(p vo
2-12 pAqAp^gl
Discrete Mathematics
Mathematics
(SPPU-Comp Fv v@apVq
(p
Discrete

= (p
v
vg (p q For a
conclusion
set of premises

C follows lc
Soln.

(PAQ)v(-PaQ)
P=T
of distributivity/ HiaH2 H
AQ IReverse
VP) IPv
(Distributiv
In other words, when
TaQ (pAp)v(qn.pv(pa~q)v
~q)vF
then C is also true.

Fv(q ~p)VPA pAPa It is often convenient

Q form:
DNF =(q ~p)v(pA~q
H
) CNF
(pvq)>q
(pv9v
QR

Remove implication
Which is

0
the required
aisjunctive

DNF of ((
normals

9)n gP)vp
form H2

p)v Ex. 2.5.9 Find

()Find CNF of p pv
(pAq)v PPU Dec.14,4Marks, May 17, 3Man C
Distributivity)
pvg)A (qvg)

)(pq) q)> (
lqvg=a
(pvq) Soln.
p) vp
Ex. 2.6.1: Show that the
two maxterms DNF of (p
CNF (pvg)q
vP P
DNF = (pag)va ltwo minterms| (q p))

= ((pva) (gvp)) vp
Ex. 2.5.7: normal form
Obtain

following
the disjunctive of the
= PA VPvFv
(pA qovp
9 Pv-P(qv (q1)) () pa(P>) =PAqvpag) vp
:
Soln.

pv-P>(qvq~1))
= pAg vp which is in DN Soln.: There are threc
~pv q)
pv-p(qv gv~)
ii) CNF of p
H
r P
P (~pV~q)
lq rE~qV H2
Pv p >(Tv~r)) lqv q=T pvpv~q)) pv~(pvg) H
PV p >T) IT Vx= T]
=pv pv paq)
FPvpvT) pT=pvT] = (PVq) We have to show
pvT ap which is in CN
T
pvT T
2.6
C:p logic

IpvT=T Methods of Proofs In other words,

DNF T
C) pa pq) Proving a theorem in then p is also tru
mathematics
drawing a conclusion involve a truth table.
pa-pv)
(pA
=
v
(paq)
Fv(paq)
P)
pqpvgl
[Distributivity]
We take
then derive
other
certain
from some

statements,
given

which
informatio

are
true an
PF FF
=
(paq) IpA F] p established.
statements whose truth can
1
DNF (png Fvx=x Truth
of a theorem
2 F PT
Ex. 2.5.8

Soln.
Obtain
DNFthe
for(pvg)=(paq)
initial

are all
of
collection
can
demonstrated
statements called
be
f 3 FT
is
equivalent
(pvq)= (pag)
to
~(pv q)
also
true, then the
true.
premise
conclusion of the
theore
4
FT
=
pvg)a (pag)v (p
(p a g)

vq)a
Let

that
p and
" q be two
statement formulas. We saj
5 TF
(p nq)
xy=xny)v(xA~y) conclusionof
logically
follows from
formulas.
or p 18 a valid
*Lboth are true
or both
are
falsel
if
the

p>qis a
premise p".
"g
TT
tautology.
8TT
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 Discrete Mathematics
(SPPU-Comp.) 2-13
Mathematical Logic
For a set of premises
(hypothesis) {H1, Hg.H,) a
C follows
Row no. 4, marked with (-)is the only row where
eonclusion logically ifT

HAHaAHC premises p q, r >q,r are all

marked T.In this
row the conclusion
In other words, whenever
p is also T. Thus the argument is
H,Hg.H,are all true valid
then C is also true.
Ex. 2.6.2 Determine the
It is often convenient to write validity of argument given:
arguments in column like mathematics then
form S,:If I I will study

HH SEither
S:IfI fail
I
then
will

I
study or Iwill

do not like
fail

mathematics.

Soln.

H C
Let, p: I like mathematics

q:Istudy mathematics
r:I fail
Ex. 2.6.1 Show thatthe argument therefore,

p q S1P
r S2: qVT
S:r>p)
The validity of argument can be analyzed by a
truth table.
Soln.There are three premises
H:p q P9 vr
1FFF T F
We have to show
C: p
H2
H3 r T

that the conclusion,

logically follows from H, H2 and Hg.

34 2 FFTT
F T F

F TT T T
T
T
T
T
T
T

5T F F F F T
In other words, whenever H,H and Hg are true
TFT
then p
a truth table.
is also true. This can be done by constructing

7
8
6

TTF
T TTT
T TF T

T
F
T
F

1
F F|F T
T T T The rows marked () are those in which premises

F T
3F TFF
F T T
T
F
T are true.

conclusion
valid.
In row
r
no. 8, premises

(~ p) is false. Thus the

are true but the
argument is not

4F|TT F T 2.6.1 Rules of Inference

5T FFT T T F Some common rules of inference are listed below.

6T FTT T F F 1. Modus ponens 2. Modus tollens

7T TF F F T

P
F T p
 Discrete 2-14
Mathemstics (SPPUComp.)
3. We conclude that the given Mathematical
Disjunctive 4. Chain rule argumentis
syllogism

T P

P r

(1)
Ex. 2.6.5:

Soln.

H (pAq
Show that~gfollows
(p a g), ~vp. logically
from
valid

5.
Resolution (2) H2 :gp
PVr (3) Hg :~pV~q [from using De
(4) H4: ~q from (2) and (3)
using
Morgan's
l
Pvq q follows from~ (pa D) resolu
andaqvp.
)
olutior

Ex. 2.6.3:
Show that r Given
is a valid inference from the Ex.2.6.6 that the value
of
premises p q, qrand p Determine the value of is
(Pv
g)q
Soln. falh

Ci)Giventhat the valu

of p
(1)
H:pq you ermine the istru
true.
C
value of
pv(P
(2)
H2:qr Soln.

3) Hg P Given
premises
G)
pv~g)
E
(4)q from H and Hg
PV q)vq

5) R Lusing modus ponens qv pA q)= qvp)aqa g)D

q>rand (4)q1

Pq
In line number

and p.
from
Lusing
4, q can be concluded from
(2)

modus ponens It is

when p is
(qvp) Ag
given that p
true and q is
q false.
1s false.
p q will be fal

In line number When q is false, (q v p) a qwill be

5,rcan be concluded from false.

rand q. Pv~g)q will befalse.

Thus r is a valid inference from
i)~pv (p)e
the given
premises.
P I(p)a q p)
Ex.2.6.4: Test the of
Pv T a(q>p
validity
argument: "If a person is
poor, he is [It is
dies
unhappy. If a person
young. Therefore poor person dies
is
unhappy, he

young9"
pv q p)
given that p -qis true

Soln.
PVqvp
Let, P: Person is
poor Tv q pvp
q: Person is
unhappy
T
r: Person (Tvq
dies young Ex. 2.6.7 : Show that
Therefore,

H p
0(PAPv q))v (qa (Pa9))s
equivalent to q.
Ho: qr
The conclusion
and Ho :q >rusing thechain
C
C : Pr
p>rfollows from
rule.
H:p-
)
Soln.
)(Pv~g)pv~g)vg) a

(papvq)v(qa-(paq)
lPA~p)v (p a vlqapv~9
is
tautology

q)l

De Morgan's law and distributivity

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TechPubllcation
 crete Mathematics (SPPU
Comp.)
2-15
Mathematical

FvpADv
Fvp
(qn~p)v(q
q)v (qa~p)vF
~) (iii) Let p I am happy
Logic

(paq)v (q p) My program run

qPV
p) qAT=q
Given premises
r program is
errorfree.

ii) (pvq) pa~q)vg)

((pV q)p)v ((pv q)~q)vq i) qP
(PA p)v(~qa p)v (p A ~q) i) q>r
v(~qAq)vq
Fvq ii) p
p)v (pa~g)v~qvg From
1) and (iii) we can conclude ~ q and r
qAp) v(pAq)vT cannot be concluded from above
premises.
T
2.7 Quantifieers
Ex. 2.6.8 Determine whether In
mathematics, we use expressions
the following like there
valid or arguments are exists" and "for all. These are used
invalid to
quantify
0 f Aaryan study hard, he will obtain
statements.
first
class and he will get a For all is also known as universal
if
good job. Therefore quantifier and
Aaryan study hard, he will it is
represented by the
get a good symbol v.
Job
There exists is also known as
(i) If Geeta goesto class Sheis existential
on time.But and
quantifier it is
represented by the
Geeta is
late She will therefore miss the
class. symbol 3.

(in) arn happy

necessary
if

condition
my programruns.
for the
program torun
A Examples of universal
quantifiers

is it should be error
free 1 am not happy
1. x+x +1>0 for
all real numbersx.
Therefore is not errorfree 2. All men are mortal.
SPPU May 13, 6Marks
)
Soin.

Let, P Aaryan
He will obtain
study harded
3.
Every orange is yellow.
We can write these examples
i) For all x, if
as follows
x is a real number then
first less
r He will get a good job. x+X+1>0.
Given premises, (ii) For all x, if x is a man then x is mortal.

The conclusion : p
pAr.
P
rAr follows from the premise
(iii)

Let,
For all

Hx)
R(x)
x,

:
if x is orange then
x is a man,
x is a real number
x is yellow.

The given argument is true. Mx)Xx ismortal,

i) Let,
O(x) x is orange
p Geeta goesto class Y(x) : x is yellow

qShe is on time Using the above symbols, Ex. ),ii) and ii) can
Given be written as
premises

(a) (Vx) (R(x) > x+x+1> 0)

6i1)
pq (b)
(Yx)(H(x)>M(x)
USing the principle of modus we can
follows,
Conclude from the given premises
that P.
(c) (Vx) (O(x) Y(x)
Given true. Examples of existential quantifier
argument is

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 Mathematica

Discrete
Mathematics
(SPPU- Comp
2-16

Ex.2.7.1 : Let

Express
p(X):X

)Thereexists
is

the follow
student

a
using

student.
qx)xis
quantif
c
Discrete ianematics (S

example
students are clever Statement
Let us consider the following Some
(i) (Vx)(P(x)
a man.
4. There exists

clever. soln. exists a

There exists
"There a st
student' can
x)(Px)
6. Some men are
statement an x such ala (Vx) P(x)
a) The
6. Some real numbers
are integer:
as,
written
There exists that x 3x)(Px))
follows
We can rewrite as
x is a ma student'.
exists an x such that he wrivten
can De written using
quantifiers.
When negatinga qua
The same
1s
iv) There and x

x such that x is
man a 1. 3 is replaced by v-
(Thereexists an (p(x))
'Some students are clever Y

( The statement
clever 2. is
x real number (ii) exists an x such can replaced by
as There
is
an x such that xi
There exists written

x is an integer
and x is clever." Ex. 2.7.4: Negate the foll
and student
can be written using quantifierers, Pune is a
Let, Mx)X is a man, The same (a)

number a q(x)) (b)

a real (3x) (p(x) Every
R(x)x is city

Soln.
CCx)x is clever, the universe of books, the
Ex.2.7.2 Over proposit
Ix)x is an integer
are defined B has blue cover M (a) It is not the case
that
(vi) can be
(v) and
Then the statements (iv), maths book 10)xis publishedn Ano (b) Not every
city in Ma-
expressed as follows Translate the following

d)(x)Ma) Ex.2.7.5:
)
Negate each

(
(e)x(Mx)A Cx))
Ex)R) I)
There
India
are maths books published out
SPPUMay 14,2Man (i)x,=
(n)
Vx, x=
there

If
i
Soln.
2.7.1 Statement Functions and Variables
(iv) It is
day
Let Mlx)denote 'x is
mortal
)Maths books published in India have ablue cove
Soln.
Hence M denotes the predicate is mortal" (i) The statement can also be written

A simple statement
an
function like Mx), in one
all x such that
as, Thereexi
x is maths book and x is
publish
)x) (|x|#x
variable

symbol
is

and a single
expression

variable.
consisting ofa predicate outside

quantifiers,
India'. The same can be written
(3x)(M(x) A~ Ix))
usit (ii) Vx xx)
A simple statement function (ii)If there is riot, th
becomes a statement
when the variable is Ex. 2.7.3
replaced by a definite object. State
whether true or false.
For iv) It is day ightan=
example, M(r), Md) and M(t) are statements
where r, d and t denotes
Ramesh,Delhi and Table.
1 (Vn e N) (n +4> 3)
A
compound statement function is
2.
(Vn e N) (n +2> Ex.2.7.6: Determin
8)
combining
and the
one or more
obtained

simple statement
logical connectives.
For
from
functions
3 ne N) (n +4< 7) Soln.
statemer

denote x
is a human example, let H(x) 4 an e N) (n
+6<4)
being and Mx)
mortal', then the
denote x is
Soln.
Sr
followings are
statement functions, Statemer
compound 1.
True No.
1.
H)M x) 2.
False
In+4> 3]
2. Hx)Mx) 3. True forn =2,n +2<8] x,x+2=
3.Mx)
4.
4 False
for
n +6>
n=
2,n +4< 7]
Vx, x +1
H(x)v~M(x) 41
Ex. 2.7.7
2.7.2 : If
P(xc
Negation of a
A Quantified
Statement R(x.y
quantifier
given inthe statement (1)
along with its gation
following table.

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 Mathematics (SPPU-Con

)
2-17
Discrete Mathematical Logic

Statement
Negation () Vx (-a (x))
(Vx) (P(x)) (3x) (P(x)
y (P))
(Px))
(3x) (Vx) (P(x)
(Gi)

(it)-(3x (P) a
(Vx)(Px) 3x) (P(x) (2) Using the information given above, write
the following sentences in
(3x)(P(x)) English
(Vx)(Px)
symbolic form
when negating a
quantified statement:
() The sum of any two integers is an odd
1. 3isreplaced by v. integers.

2. Y is replaced by 3. (i) Every integer is even or prime

(i)Every integer is an odd integer.

Ex. 2.7.4 Negate the
following statement. Soln.
(a) Pune is a big
town.
(1) 1) All numbers are not prime numbers.
(b) Every city in
Maharashtra is
clean
Soln. ii) Some numbers are not even.

(a) It is not the case that (iii) No even number is a Prime number.
Pune is a big town.
(b) Not every city in
Maharashtra is clean.
(2) G) Vx Vy
(Rx,y)
Ex.
ii)
(Vx)(P(x) vQ (x))

(
2.7.5:
Negate each ofthe statement.
Cii) (Vx) Px)
Vx, x=x
(Gi) ax, x =x Ex.2.7.8 Negate each ofthe statement
(i) there is
0x,xx
If
riot, then someone is killed.

i) x,=x
Giv) It is
day light and all the people are arisen.

Soln.
(i)If a
) (x)(x|*x) v)Itis day
there is

light
riot,

and
then someoneis killed
all
the people are arisen.
SPPU May 15,Dec.
(i) vx (x x) 15, 4Marks
(iii)

(iv)
If there

It is day
is riot, then

ightand someoneis
all are alive.

not arisen.
Soln.

i)

ii)
3x)such that
(Vx)x= x
| is false.
x |=x is false.

Ex. 2.7.6 Determine the truth value of each of thel ii) lt is not the case that if there is a then
statement and negate statement.
riot,
every someone is killed.
Soln.
iv) Either it is not day light or all the people are not
Sr. Truth arisen
No. Statement Negation
Value
1.
3x,x+2 x False Vx, x+2 X
2.8 Mathematical induction

Q. State the principle

Vx,x+1>x True x,X +1 Sx of Mathematical Induction.

SPPU Dec. 14, 2-Marks

EX.2.7.7 If
Px): X is even, Q(x): x is a prime number,
Principle of Mathematical Induction
Rxy):x+y is even.
Mathematical induction is an we
(1) Using above, write an sentence approach where
English for
each of
generalise a particular solution. It is used to establish
the symbolic statement given
correctness of a statement involving natural numbers.
below:

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 2-18
Mathematical

Discrete Mathematics (SPPUComp indin

| Ex. Byusing mathematical
of threeEx.28
2.8.2
(n 112
Proof by
mathematic
thetetienl
indsetion
coneiets
tnen
1323 +n3 4
pis to be proved
basic stes.If the steatement
Sbow that p is trne for some particulsr
integer
n SPPU Dec.12, 6 arks, May Dec. 19,4
M
this is ealled the Soln.
basis

p is true for sotme particular intese

k Let, S(n)13+23++n3
Assume
.thisis called induction hypothesis. n (n+12
8Prove pis true for n = k1, this is called

induction step.
Step 1:Basis ofinduction
Ex 28.1 Stetethe principle of mathematical
inducton
for n = 1,
and prove the folowing propositon
:
P)14+7 (3n-2)
n3n-1) S(1) 13 = 11+1.4-1
SPPU-Dec. 14, Marks 4 S(1) is true
Soln.: Principle
of mathematical induction is discussed
in the Section 2.8. Step 2 Induction hypothesis Assume S(n) is
true
=k
Pn)14+7+(3n-2) n

Sk): 13+2+... +k3

n3n-1
k(k +12
Step 1: Basis of
induction 4
is true

for n=1,

P)
P):1
true for n
= 131)-1 1 Step 3:Induction step

Given that S(k) 1s true, we have to prove

tha
is
=1 Sk + 1) is true.
Step 2: Induction hypothesis;

Assume Pn)is true of n =k

L.H.S. of S (k+1) = 1 +2°+... +k +k+ 1

Pk): 1+4+7+ k2k+1)

ie.
+(3k -2)
+(k+ 13
KBkistrue k2k+1)2 +4 (k+13
Step 3: Induction step

Given that Pk) we

correctness of
is true, check the (k+1)[k +4 k+ 1
statement for k +1.
Pk+1): 1+4+7+.+
(3k-2)
(3(k+ 1)-2) k1)2 (k+ 2)2
k(3k-(3
2 (k+1)-2) R.H.S. of Sk +1) = k+1)2 (k+1) +1)
k(3k-1)+2x 13 (k+1)-2
2
k+1)2k+22
-k2.35k+2
(k +1)3k
L.HS. of S(k + 1) =
4
R.H.S.of S(k + 1)
2
+2) k+1)(3(k + 1)-1) S (n) is true for
2 all n by
mathematicalinduction.
R.H.S of Pk + 1) Ex. 2.8.3 : Use
Pk) is true for all n by mathematical
induction
mathematical

1.2
2.334 1
induction to show

nn+1) n+1
that

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 Mathematics (SPPU
ete Mathemati Comp.) 2-19 Mathematical Logic
Discrete
Step2: Induction hypothesis
Soln
Assume S0k) is true for n =k
Let,

1:Basis
of induction S(k)3+3.5 + 3.5k
s
Step 1,
3(6k1-1V4 is true
forn
Step 3: Induction step

Step
:S) is

Induction
true

hypothesis

Assume S(n) is true for n k

Given that S(k)
S(k+1)is

Sk+1):3+3
L.H.S
true.

= 36k+2-1V4
S(k + 1)
5++3.5
is true, we have to

+3.5
prove that

SRT2*s4 R+D istrue

of

= 3+3.5+.. +3.5k +3.5k+1

Step S: Induction step =3(5k1 -1/4 +3.6k+1
Given that S(k) is true, we have to prove that
Sk+1)is true. [k1-1+4.51
sk+1D: 12 2334+kk+D - 5.5k1-1]=[*2-1]
*k+1)k+1+1)k+1+1
kt1 = R.H.S. of S (k + 1)

LH.S. of Sk + 1) . S(n) is true for all n by mathematical induction.

Ex.2.8.5: Use induction to show that n2 2n for

n21.
1
*+1)+1+1) Soln.

Let, S(n): n! 2 2n-1

k+1+ 1) k+2)k+ Step 1:Basic of induction
k+12
(k+1) k +2) forn 1,

S(1):1! 2 21-1
- RHS. of S (k+1
or S(1): 12 1

Sn) is true for all n by mathematical inductance.

S(1) is true

Ex.2.8.4: Prove using mathematical induction, where n is Step 2: Induction hypothesis

non-negative number: Assume S(n) is true for n =k
3+3.5+3.5.. 3.5h =3.(5 +1-1)/4.
Sk):k! 2 2-is true
Soln.
Step 3:Induction step
Let, S(n): 3+3.5 +3.5+ +3.5 3(5+1-1/4
Given that S(k) is true, we have to prove that
Step 1: Basis of induction
g Sk +1)istrue.
For n =0, k!2 2k-1
S0) 8.5 =3 (5-1/4 or, (k+1)(kl) 2k-1(k +1)
r,
OT S0) 3 3 ...[Multipleby k + 1]

Or, (k+1)! 2 (k+1)x2-1

S(0) is true

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 2-20
Disorete Mathemtics (SPPU-Comp) Mathematical
1: Basis of induction
Step
k12 for k1 forn 1,

Wehava, 1)1 221

er, 1)1 S(1)1.2 = 11+1
Henre Sk1) ie troe, Therefore Sin) is true
tor
al true
12
n by mathemetionl S(1)is
induction.

Step2:
Induction hypothesis
Ex 2.8.6 Prove byinduction for n &0
Assume S(n) 1s true for n =k
1-a S(k)
1.2+2.3++k(k+1
Soln.:Let, Sn)14n+a k (k+ 1) (k+ 2)
+
3 is
true

Step 3: Induction step

Step 1: Bazis of
induction
Given that S(k) 1s true, we have to
forn 0. + 1) is true.
S(k prove th

L.H.S. of Sk+ 1) =1.2 +5

SO 1-
k(k+1)..+k{k+1)
(k+2) +k+10k
SO)istrue 3 +(k +1)k
+2
Step 2: Induction hypothesis =k+1)k+2)
Assume S(n) is true for n = k.
Sk): 1+a+a. a -
k+ 1) k + 2) k +3)
is true
R.H.S. of S(k + 1)
-a
S(n) is true for all n by
Step 3: Induction step
mathematical
induction.

Given that Ex. 2.8.8 : Prove n

S(k) is true, we have to
prove that
that
<2 for n > 1
using mathematiz
Sk+1Dis true. induction.

Soln.
LH.S.of Sk+1)=1+a+a2+.+a +ak+1 Let, S(n) : n
<2" for n> 1

1- 1 Step 1: Basis

for n =2
for
induction2.3
as n> 1
1- :1-k+2 S(2) 2<2
1-a
S(2) is true.

Step 2: vitenat
= Induction hypothesis
R.H.S.of Sk+1)
Sn)is true for all n by mathematical Assume S(n) is true for n =k
induction.

Ex. 2.8.7: Prove by induction

Sk):k <2 is true
thatfor all n2 1.
Step 3: Given that
1.2+2.3 +.. +n (n+1) =0*1)(n+2) Sk) is true, we have toprOVe tha

Soln. Sn) :
Sk+1) is true.
Let, 1.2+2.3 + .. +n
n+ 1) It is
given that,
n (n
+1)(n+2)
3 k <2k
or,
2k < 2.2k by
2
[Multiply

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 Mathematics(SPPU.Comp.) Mathematical Logic
2-21

)
k+k < 2k1 whieh fs divisible 3
by
of
k+1 21 k11 Given hypothesis is true for n -1

Sik+ istrue Step 2: Induetion hypotheais

S(n) ia
Stn)
is true for all n>1 by mathematical Let us assume that k (k+1 +(k + 2i
Hence
diviaible by9.
induction
Step 3: Induction step
ForFor all integers showthat 8-3 is divisible by
Ex.2.8.9 5 by mathematicalinduction for n 2 1. Given that n(n1+(n +2 is divisible

SPPU Dec.13,4 3Marks by 9 forn+ we havek. to show that

Marks, Dec 14, (k +1+(k 2+(k+3 is
divisible by 9.

Soln (k+1(k+2+(k +3
Let S(n)8h-3h isdivisible by 5
:Basis of induction
(k+1+(k+23+(k33 k2.3
Step 1
+3 k 32+33)
forn 1, = k(k+ 1 +(k +2
S(1) 8-3-5 is divisible by 5 +19k+27 k+27)
S1)is k+k +13 +(k+2 is divisible by9.
3
true.

Step 2:Let us assume that 8n is divisible by 5 for .inductionhypothesis)

n=k or, 8-3h is divisible by 5. 9k+27 k +27 is divisible by 9
Step 3:Induction step .every term is multiple of 9)

We have to verify that 8 *-83k +3 1

is n+ (n +13 +(n +2) is divisible by 9 for
divisible by 5. It is given that is n =k+1
divisible by 5. Hence, the given hypothesis is always true from

8k+1-3k*1 =8-(8) -3 (35) mathematical induction.

= 8 (8k)-(3k)(8-5)
Ex.2.8.11 Prove the given proposition by mathematicai
= 8-(8k)-8 (8k)+5(8k) induction

= 8 (8k 3k) +5(85) 135 n-1) 2nT 21

divisible divisible
SPPU-Dec. 16,3Marks
by 5 by 5
Soln.:Let, S(n)
3+3.5t+
8k+1-3k+1 is divisible by 5. (2n-1)2n +1)
Hence
mathematical
8-3 indication.
is divisible by 5 for alln by
2n+1
Step 1: Basis ofinduction

Ex. 2.8.10: Show that the sum of the cubes of three

for n= 1, S(1)
13
consecutive natural number is divisible by 9. 2+i istrue

Soin.: We have to prove that n+ (n +1 + (n + 2)is S(1)is true

by9.
divisible Step 2: nductionhypothesis
Step 1: Basis of induction Let us assume that S(n) is true for n =k
for n =1,
n +(n+1" + (n + 23 for n =1 is Or, S(k)
1.3 k-1)2k+1)
1++13 +(1+23=13 +23 +83 k
=1+8+ 2736 2k+1 is true

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ubIC atitr
P
 Mathematical
2-22
step
Disorete Mathematics (SPPU- Comp 3:Induction
Step is true, we have to
that Stk)is
Given prove
Step 3: Indurtion step true.
we have to show that
Stk+1)is
ven that Sk) is Sk +1)
true,

Sk+1)istrue. LH.S.of
LHS.of Sk 1) = 12-2232--42+-1-1,2
-1k1T +(-1k+ 12
-1 2
-1-k(k+1)+-1k+12
(2k 1)-1 2k+1)+1)
1 -I-1klk(k+ 1)+2-1kk+ 1
2k12 D2k3
- --1 k(k+1)+2-1* k+ 1

= -1 (k+ |2k+1)-k
k3 1k
1)

=
2k k dk + 1) (k+2) R.HS.

true for all n from

Hence S(n) is mathematie

induction.

3RH.S. of Sn)
Ex. 2.8.13 Prove by mathenmaticalinduction

Hencethe given statement is true for all n from 2+5+8 +(3n 1)n3n+12
mathematical induction. SPPU-May 13, 6Marks
induction, prove that, Soln.:
Ex.2.8.12: Using mathematical
12-22-32-42 (-1-n Let, S(n):2+5+8 +..+ (8n1)=n(3n +1/2
1nn1 Step 1: Basis of induction

SPPU-May 16,4 Marks

for n = 1,

Soln.:Let, Sn): 12-2+32-42 +-1)2-1n2 S(1):2 = 1(8x1+ 1)/2=4/2=2

S(1) is true.
-1-an+1)
Step 2: Induction hypothesis
Step 1:Basis of induction Assume S(n) is true for n =k
forn 1,
Sk):2+5+8+....+ (3k -1) =k (3k + 1)2
-1-112 is true.
S):12=- 2 which is true

Step 3:
Sn) is true for n =1
Induction step

Given that Sk) is true, we have to prove tha

Step 2: Induction hypothesis

Letus assumethat the given

Sk+1) is true.

statement is true
for n =k L.H.S. of Sk+1)
s):12-22+3-42.+(-1k-1k2 2 +5 +8+.. +(3k 1) +(3(k +1)-1

-1-k + (k 1)
k3k2+) (3k +2)
2 1s true

k(3k+1)+6k +4
2

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Discrete 3k+7k+4
2 2-23

3k3k2+4k+4
2
)
Skk+1)+4 Mathematical
Logic
(k+1)
Sk4)(k+) 2k 2k6k+3
_&t
2+1)+1
180k 2Bk31
Sk
) is true and hence
S(n)is
Sn)is 3
k12k+1)2k+3
true for
inductance. true for all n by
bri al
all n EX
2.8.15: mathematical
the help of Prove
With
by induction.
2814 athematical 1.11 2.21mathematical
E that, induction +3.31+ induction that for n>1
prove
+n.nl=(n
2+52+(2n-12 n(2n-1) Soln.
+1)1-1
SPPU May
12n+1) Step 1:
Basis
15.4Marks
SPPU May of
14, 4Marks LHS.induction
= ,for n =1
= 1.11=1
Soln
Sn) 12+32+52 R.H.S.
Tet
+(2n-1 Given (1+1)1-1 21
:Basis ofinduction
Step 2 : statement is
true forn -1=2-1=1
Step

S1)
For

S(1)

is
n =1
=
true.
x 1- 12 3
= 12 = 1
Induction

Assume that
n=k.
or, 1.1!
hypothesis
the
given
=1.

statement is
true
forT
+2.21 +3.3!
Induction hypothesis Step 3:Given +.+k.k! =(k+ 1)!-1
Step thatthe
Assume S(k) is true for n =k have to statement is
n =k + 1.prove that the
true for n
k,we =
S) 12+ 3 +5+... statement is true
for

k(2k-1) 2k +1) +(2k-12 L.H.S. of

the
statement for n
=k+1
(1.1!+2.2! +3.3!+
+k.kl)
Stepd:
Induction
step = (k+ +(k+1)k+1)!
1)!-1+(k+1) k+1)!
Give that Sk) is
true, we have to =
Sk+1) is prove that (k+2)k+1)!-1
true. =
(k+2)!-1 (k+1)+1)!-1
Si+1)
1+3 +54+.. +(2k-1) Hence, the statement is true for
+(2 (k +1)- 1) henceit is n =k + 1 and
always true.

+1)2(k+ 1)-1)(2 (k+1)+1) Ex.2.8.16: Use

3 mathematical induction to show that for all

RESk +-1)-k+)(2k 1)(2k +3) +

3
ne1 1+2+3++n 0+1)
2

5. Slk+1)
of
3
SPPU-May 17, Dec.18,
Markss
Soln.: LetS(n) =1+2+3+..+n=nn+1)
k 2k-1)(2k +1) 2
+(2k+1 1)2 Step 1: Basic for inductions

(2k-1) (2k +1)+3(2k

3
2k+1)[k(2k -1
+1)4

8
+3(2k +1)] .
For n

S1) is
S1) =
=

true.
1,

1 = 2 1
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 Discrete

Step 2:
Mathematics

Induction hypothesis

Assume S(n)is true for n=

(SPPU-Comp)

k
2-24

| 2.9
Let
and let a
and
Strong Mathematical Induction
p (n) be a predicate
b be i

pla), p(a +1),.,p(b) areall.

all

fixed integers with a sb.

integ
Mathematical

defined over
lLo

S(k)= Basis step: true.

2++k&k+1) :Forany integer k > b. if
Step 3:
Given

Sk+1)is true.
Induction step

that S(k) is true, we have to prove

hat
Induction step

forall integers
Conclusion:
integersn2a.
i
k>b,if
with a si<h then p(k) is pi)is

Then the statementp(n)is js

true
)
true for
t
a
L. H. S. of
S(k+ 1)
Ex. 2.9.1 Show that every integer greater
=1+2+3++k+ (k+1) divisible by a prime number.
-Sk+k+1)- (k+ 1)
value 2 is
divisible by itole
Soln.: Basis of
kk+1)+ k+1)
2
2 (k+1)+1)(k+1)
2
prime number) is

=R.H. S.of S(k+1) Induction step

S(n)
We assume the strong inductive hypothesis
is true for all n by mathematical induction.
every integer upto
k is by a prime.
divisible tha
Ex.2.8.17 Show that 72n (23n - (3h) is divisible Now, k is either a prime and hence divisible
by 25 for all natural number itself, or it can be factored as product b
n. of
numbers. Thus, k is divisible by a prime.
prime

Soln. :The
SPPU-May 19, Marks3
problem is being solved using mathematical
induction. 2.10 The Great Philosophers
Georg
Step 1: Basis for induction
Cantor, Richard Dedekind
for n= 1
72(23-3(8-1 = 72+(23-3) and Aristotle
31-)
= 49 +2x3=49+1 50
George cantor

50 is divisibleby 25. He was a german mathematician.He

created set
theory, which has become a fundamental
Step 2: Induction
forn = k
hypothesis theory in
mathematics. He defined the cardinal
and
72h 23k-3.3k-1 is divisible 25 numbersand their arithmetic.
ordina
by
Step 3: Induction step He established the
importance of one-to-one
Giventhat 72 23k-3.3k-1 is correspondence between the members of two
divisible by 25, sets.
we have check the He
divisibility of 72n+ 23-3. 3n-1 for also proved that the real
n =k+1 numerous than the
numbers are more
natural numbers. He defined
Putting n =k+1 infinite and well-ordered sets.
72k+2 +23k+3-3 gk+1-1 Richard Dedekind

72k x49 +23k-3x8 x3k-1 He was a German

x3 Mathematician who
=
25x 72k+ 24 x 72k+24 x 23k-3 important contribution to abstract
made
x gk-1 number theory and the algebra, algebrit
25 x 72k+24 [72 definition of the real
numbers.
23k-3xgk-11
Aristotle

He was the founder

Divisible by 25 Divisibleby 25 of formal
logic.
As, both the terms are divisible He made
by 25 we importantcontribution to
from mathematical induction that the conclude logic, criticism
rhetoric,
given postulate Physics,
biology, mathe
is true. matics, Psychology,
metaphysics, ethics and
father of politics. As the
western logic,
Aristotle was the
develop a formal first to
system for
reasoning.
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