Additive Manufacturing(18ME741) Module 5

AM APPLICATIONS
❖ Functional models
❖ Pattern for investment and vacuum casting
❖ Medical models
❖ Art models
❖ Engineering analysis models
❖ Rapid tooling
❖ New materials development
❖ Bi-metallic parts
❖ Re-manufacturing.
❖ Application examples for Aerospace, defence, automobile, Bio-medical and general
engineering industries

Functional models:

o There are a number of RP technologies that meet the need for building. Functional
prototypes with material properties close to those of production parts. o One of the RP
processes that are widely used for producing models for functional tests is SLS.
o Initially, four nylon-based materials (standard nylon, fine nylon, fine nylon medical
grade, nylon composite) were available commercially for this process. o Later Duraform
PA and glass reinforced Duraform GF were added to this. Duraform prototypes can be
relatively easily finished to a smooth appearance.
o The production of nylon parts is generally cost-effective when a small number (1-5) of
parts is required.
o Before the introduction of Duraform pa, a nylon composite known as the proto-form
composite was used widely for producing functional parts.

A case study of protoform - building a functional model

∙ Proto form is a blend of 50% by weight nylon powder and 500/0by weight spherical
glass beads. This SLS glass-filled nylon processed to near full density which has a
high modulus and good heat and chemical resistance.
∙ The housing in figure is a test part and is built in proto form composite because it is
required to withstand harsh testing conditions including temperatures of about 100°c. ∙
As a base part for mounting precision components, it has to keep its dimensions within
close limits. The geometry of the housing prevented the downdraft, leaving a hot area
inside the part and causing post-build warping of the walls.
∙ The first part manufactured suffered from much distortion: there was vertical growth
and "wash out" (loss of definition and rounding of edges) on the downward facing
surfaces and the external dimensions of the sidewalls varied.
∙ This problem was solved by making the wall thickness uniform and reducing its
dimension.
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∙ The non-functional ribs were added across the housing to stiffen it. Two ribs were
positioned vertically and two others horizontally as shown in figure the number and
size of the ribs were determined from experience to constrain post process distortion
in the x and y directions without adding too much build time. The ribs were also
located so that they could easily be removed by machining after completing the build.
∙ Subsequently manufactured parts had much better dimensional accuracy. ∙ Form or
geometrical accuracy measurements were taken. To evaluate the influence of the ribs, the
accuracy in the build direction (z direction) and the x-y plane was studied.
∙ The results showed that the ribs improved the accuracy consistently but had different
effects in each direction. Also, there was reduced post-process distortion due to the
added ribs.
∙ Another indicator of the quality of a part produced by RP is the international tolerance
grade established by the ISO-ANSI standards which showed good results in nylon.

Fig. Composite nylon housing: without ribs (left) a nd with ribs (right)

Pattern for investment and vacuum casting:

∙ RP technologies are widely used for building patterns for investment and vacuum
casting. For example, models built employing SLA, SLS, and FDM can be used as
patterns for both casting processes.
∙ A case study is presented below that discusses some accuracy aspects of producing SLS
patterns and also addresses general issues regarding the technological capabilities of
the process.
∙ Two SLS materials are currently available for producing casting patterns, cast form
And true form. In this case study, true form, which is an acrylic-based powder, is used
to build casting patterns.
∙ It is processed at relatively low temperatures, good accuracy but moderate strength. The
density of true form parts can vary from 70 to 90% depending on build parameters
and they can be polished to a mirror-like finish.
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∙ Dense parts are used as patterns for vacuum casting while rather porous parts are better
suited for investment casting; unlike dense models, they do not expand to cause shell
cracking during the burning out of the patterns.
∙ The figure shows below, BS 199 aluminum housing (195x 145x250mm) made by
investment casting from a true form pattern.
∙ Trueform housing pattern (right) and aluminum investment casting (left) ∙ Trueform
behaves like an injection molded plastic and thick sections may be subjected to sinking
or sagging. Part orientation must, where possible, be selected to prevent sagging.
∙ This may not always be practicable and ill such cases shelling of the model (i.e.
Converting a solid model into a hollow part) can significantly reduce part distortion.
Trueform normally gives good accuracy.
∙ If a larger SLS machine such as the Sinterstation 200 had been used this would have
allowed the. part to be oriented horizontally in the build area.
∙ In this way, the accuracy would certainly have been much closer to ±0.12smm which is
the accuracy quoted for the trueform material by the machine manufacturer. ∙ However,
even if some dimensions were out ofthe required general tolerance (±0.12smm) the
aluminum castings were fully satisfactory as any deviations were able to be corrected
when some of the features were machine-finished afterward. ∙ Trueform patterns become
cost-effective when a small number of parts, say up to 50, of complex design are
required and the cost of a mold for wax patterns is prohibitive.

Fig. BS 199 aluminum housing (195x 145x250mm) made by investment casting

from a true form pattern
Medical or Surgical models:

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✔ R P technologies are applied in the medical/surgical domain for building models that
provide visual and tactile information.
✔ In particular, R P models can be employed in the following applications: ✔ 1. Operation
planning. Using real-size R P models of patients’ pathological areas, surgeons can more
easily understand physical problems and gain a better insight into the operations to be
performed. RP models can also assist surgeons in communicating the proposed surgical
procedures to patients.
✔ 2. Surgery rehearsal. RP models offer unique opportunities for surgeons and surgical
teams to rehearse complex operations using the same techniques and tools as in actual
surgery. Potentially, such rehearsals can lead to changes in surgical procedures and
signicantly reduce risks.
✔ 3. Training: R P models of specimens of unusual medical deformities can be built to
facilitate the training of student surgeons and radiologists. Such models can also be
employed for student examinations.
✔ 4. Prosthesis design: R P models can be used to fabricate master patterns which are then
replicated using a biocompatible plastic material. Implants produced in this way are much
more accurate and cost effective than those created conventionally.
✔ The following example, reported by a company in Queensland, Australia, demonstrates
the use of R P models in the medical domain. Two SLA medical models were built for a
patient suffering from a secondary carcinoma of the right superior orbital margin and the
adjacent frontal bone. The model was used to plan the resection of the cancerous bone
and also as an operation reference and patient consent tool as shown in fig.
✔ The second model was then employed to construct an acrylic custom implant in fig.
Fig. The SLA model with the resection template Fig. The SLA model together with template
and the implant

Art models:
✔ Another growing application area for R P technologies is art and design. ✔
Initially, the high cost of R P models meant strict limits on the size of the models.

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✔ However, recently, with the introduction of concept modelers, which are relatively
inexpensive R P machines for quickly producing design models, it has become cost
effective to employ R P techniques in many artistic applications.
✔ The two examples described below demonstrate the use of R P techniques in art. These
were part of work conducted within the CALM (creating art with layer manufacture)
project, which was supported by the Higher Education Funding Council for England as
part of an initiative to promote the use of information technology (IT ) within the art and
design community in UK higher education.
✔ The rest example is an artwork representing a splash spanning the inside of a plexiglass
vitrine
✔ In its final installation, the R P model will be incorporated into a plexibox exactly the
width of the splash itself.
✔ The second example is a cyber sculpture representing an artefact that cannot be created
using any conventional methods.
Fig. Cross-sections of the three-dimensional model of a water splash. (Courtesy of M. H arris
and the CALM project.)

Fig. SLS model representing a water splash. Fig. SLS model of a cybersculpture. (Courtesy of
M. Harris and the CALM project) (Courtesy of K. Brown and the CALM project)

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Engineering analysis models:

∙ Computer aided engineering (CAE) analysis is an integral part of time-compression

technologies.
∙ Various software tools exist, mainly based on finite element analysis (FEA), to speed up
the development of new products by initiating design optimization before physical
prototypes are available.
∙ However, the creation of accurate FEA models for complex engineering objects
sometimes requires significant amounts of time and effort. By employing RP
techniques, it is possible to begin test programmes on physical models much earlier
and complement the CAE data.
∙ physical prototypes are available. However, the creation of accurate FEA models for
complex engineering objects sometimes requires significant amounts of time and effort. ∙
By employing RP techniques it is possible to begin test programmes on physical models
much earlier and complement the CAE data.
∙ Four applications of RP models for engineering analysis are described below 1.
Visualization of flow patterns: SLA models were used to optimize the cross flow jacket
of a V6 high performance racing engine (Fig. below). Sixty sensors were installed in the
model to monitor local flow temperature and pressure conditions. The coolant flow
patterns were visualized by accurately injecting very small air bubbles. The flow patterns
were recorded by high-speed video.

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Fig. Assembly of the cross-flow water jacket of a V6 high-performance racing engine 2.

Thermoelastic tension analysis (THESA), By employing the THESA method [49],
RP models of real part s can be used on test rigs for structural analysis. This method
allows temperature changes in the test parts to be directly correlated to the load. The
effect of a particular load on the temperature patterns is analysed using thermal
imaging.

3. Photo elastic stress analysis: Photoelastic testing is employed to determine the

stresses and strains within physical part s under specific conditions. This method is
based on the temporary birefringence of a transparent material subjected to a
specifc load. SLA models exhibit the required birefringence that can be observed
by irradiating the test samples with polarized white and monochromatic light.
Results from photoelastic analysis of SLA models can be transferred to functional
metal parts by employing fundamental similarity laws. It is also possible to ‘freeze’
the stresses and strains by warming the loaded model to a level above the resin
glass transition temperature and then gradually cooling it back to room temperature
(Fig. below)

Fig. The frozen stress distribution for a model of an aeroengine turbine rotor
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4. Fabrication of models for wind tunnel tests. RP techniques can be used to produce
wind tunnel models, which are not subjected to significant loads For example, the
strength, accuracy and surface finish of models produced using SLA, SLS, FDM
and SGC technologies are sufficient for tests of nonstructurally loaded parts. In
addition, SLS models produced using steel powder or metal models fabricated
from RP
patterns are adequate for lightly loaded applications.

RAPID TOOLING:
✔ As R P becomes more mature, material properties, accuracy, cost and lead-time have
improved to permit it to be employed for the production of tools.
✔ Indirect methods for rapid tool production Indirect RT methods are alternatives to
traditional mould-making techniques. These less expensive methods with shorter lead
times allow tool validation to be conducted before changes become very costly. The aim
of these RT methods is to fill the gap between R P and hard tooling by enabling the
production of tools capable of short prototype runs.

✔ A brief description of the most widely employed indirect methods is provided below: 1.
Metal deposition. This process involves using an R P model with a good surface
finish that incorporates a draft angle and an allowance for the shrinkage of the
moulding material. The pattern is embedded along its parting line into plasticine
within a chase. The sprue, gates and ejector pins are added and, after the exposed half
of the mould is coated with a release agent, a 2–3 mm thick shell of a low-temperature
molten metal is deposited over it. Once a metallic shell has been created, water
cooling lines can be added and the shell is back filled with epoxy resin or ceramic to
improve the strength of the mould.
2. Room temperature vulcanizing ( R T V ) . This process is an easy, relatively
inexpensive and fast way to fabricate prototype or pre-production tools. RTV tools are
also known as silicone rubber moulds. The most widely used form of RTV moulding is
vacuum casting. The vacuum casting process includes the following main steps, (a)
producing a pattern (any R P method can be employed); (b) adding venting and gating
to the pattern; (c) setting-up the pattern on the parting line and then suspending it in a
mould casting frame; (d) pouring a deaerated silicone rubber into the casting frame
around the pattern; (e) curing the mould inside a heating chamber; (f) removing the
pattern from the silicone mould by cutting along the parting line and then closing and
sealing the mould; (g) pouring a urethane resin into the mould inside a vacuum
chamber; (h) curing the part in a heating chamber for 2–4 hours and then removing it
from the mould; (i) cutting off the gate and risers from the casting to make an exact
copy of the pattern. This process is best suited for projects where form, functional
testing can be done with a material that mimics the characteristics of the production
 material.
3. Epoxy tooling. This process is used for manufacturing prototype parts or limited
runs of production parts. Epoxy tools are used as moulds for prototype plastic
injection, moulds for castings, compression moulds and reaction injection moulds.
The

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fabrication of the mould begins with the construction of a simple frame around the
parting line of the R P model (Fig. 19). Sprue gates and runners can be added or cut
later on, once the mould is finished. The exposed surface of the model is coated with a
release agent and epoxy is poured over the model.
4. Ceramic tooling. Instead of epoxy, any plaster ceramics can also be cast around a
master to produce a tool cavity. Ceramic tools can be employed in plastics processing,
metal forming and metal casting. In making ceramic tools, the amount of water used
has to be controlled to avoid excessive shrinkage as the material sets. Recently,
attention has been focused on non-shrinking ceramics.
5. Spin casting. This process consists of injecting a material through a central sprue
into a mould that is rotated at high speed. Spin casting moulds for metal parts are made
of heat-vulcanized silicone. The heat that is given out during the fabrication of such
moulds is too high for most R P patterns
6. Investment casting. This process is used to cast complex and accurate parts. Wax
patterns are employed to define the part shape and then are melted away. It is also
possible for patterns to be produced from foam, paper, polycarbonate and other R P
materials that can be easily melted or vaporized. Two forms of this process are known,
shell investment casting and solid ask investment casting. The latter employs solid ask
moulds instead of shells. In addition, the moulds are lled under a vacuum differential.
7. Fusible metallic core. Fusible metallic core technology is a new method for
forming complex, hollow, one-piece plastic components that may be difficult to
produce by any other method. This technology can be considered as a variation of
investment casting 8. Sand casting. The sand casting process is often employed for
the production of relatively large metal parts with low requirements for surface
quality. R P techniques can be utilized to create master patterns for fabricating sand
moulds. These moulds are produced by placing R P patterns in a sand box which is
then filled and packed with sand to form the mould cavity. When employing R P
techniques, it is easy to build patterns that include compensation for the shrinkage of
the castings as well as additional machining stock for the areas requiring machining
after casting.
9. 3D KeltoolTM process. This process is based on a metal sintering process
introduced in 1976. The 3D KeltoolTM process converts R P master patterns into
production tool inserts with very good denition and surface finish.

Direct methods for rapid tool production

Indirect methods for tool production as described in the previous section necessitate a
 minimum of one intermediate replication process. This might result in a loss of accuracy
and could increase the time for building the tool. To overcome some of the drawbacks of
indirect methods, some RP apparatus manufacturers have proposed new rapid tooling
methods that allow injection moulding and die-casting inserts to be built directly from
three-dimensional CAD models. Direct RT methods enable the production of inserts
capable of surviving from a few dozen to tens of thousands of cycles and represent good

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alternatives to traditional mould-making techniques.The most popular direct RT methods

are presented below:

1. Direct ACES TM Injection Moulds ( AIM TM) . With this method, SL is used to
produce epoxy inserts for injection mould tools for thermoplastic parts. 2. Laminate
tooling. The original LOM process produces parts with a wood -like appearance using
sheets of paper. Experiments to build moulds directly or coated with a thin layer of
metal have been reported. Unfortunately, moulds built in this way can only be used
for low-melting thermoplastics and are not suitable for injection molding or blow
molding of common thermoplastics
3. Rapid Tool TM process. This process employs SLS to build tooling inserts. The
latest materials developed for the RapidTool process of producing metal parts by SLS
are Laser Form TM and copper polyamide(PA).
4. Sand Form TM tooling. Sand Form TM zirconium and silicon materials can be
used to build moulds and cores directly from three-dimensional CAD data employing
the SLS process. The sand moulds and cores produced are of equivalent accuracy and
have properties that are identical to those of moulds and cores fabricated with
conventional methods.
5. EOS Direct Tool TM process. This process uses proprietary metal powders that are
selectively sintered in a specially developed machine. The sintered parts are porous
and usually must undergo infiltration with an epoxy resin in order to increase their
strength. After infiltration, further polishing of the part surfaces is possible to achieve
the quality required for injection moulding inserts. The Direct Tool TM process is
mainly utilized for rapidly producing complex inserts, the surfaces of which cannot be
machined directly.
6. Direct metal tooling using 3DP. This RT process uses 3DP to build tooling inserts
in a range of materials including stainless steel, tungsten and tungsten carbide. The
process allows the fabrication of parts with overhangs, undercuts and internal volumes
as long as there is an escape route for the unused loose powder.
7. Topographic shape formation ( TSF). This technology is used primarily for the
rapid production of moulds. Parts are built by successive layering of a silica powder
and selective spraying of paraffin wax from an X –Y –Z controlled nozzle. The wax
binds the powder to form a new cross-section of the part and also partially melts the
previous layer to ensure good adhesion.
APPLICATIONS OF RAPID TOOLING TECHNOLOGY
1. Die casting inserts. To evaluate the applicability of Rapid Tool TM to aluminium
gravity die casting, inserts for a windscreen wiper arm were built. The inserts were
finished following the steps described in reference. The tool was used to cast parts in
LM 6 aluminium alloy. After producing 250 castings in four separate runs, no
degradation signs were visible on the insert surfaces or on the cast parts.

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2. Injection moulding inserts. This example illustrates the capability of the Rapid Tool
TM process for fabrication of injection moulding inserts. An insert was manufactured for
moulding the cap for a nose hair trimmer. While the external surface of the part is
relatively simple, its internal features are much more complex.
3. Metal parts: car seat frame. The Rapid Tool TM process can also be used directly to
build complex metal parts. However, it must be borne in mind that the parts in their
intermediate green stage are very fragile and must be handled with great care. Another
problem is that, in contrast to moulding inserts, such parts do not normally have at bases
that can be used for infiltration during the furnace cycle.
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Bimetallic parts:
✔ Additive manufacturing of bimetals is important to many industries such as energy,
automobile, aerospace, chemical and petrochemical industries, power generation, and oil
and gas industries.
✔ As an example, advanced high temperature nuclear reactor systems may utilize liquid
coolants to optimize heat transfer, neutronics, safety, and compactness of the nuclear
supply system.
✔ The structural components of the primary system in contact with the reactor coolant must
be adequately compatible with the materials of the reactor components. ✔ Bimetallic
structure plays an important role here, by using one metal as a cladding with high
temperature strength and Lead–Bismuth eutectic (LBE) corrosion resistance to be
joined/bonded with another base metal. High-Cr martensitic steel is considered as one of the
best candidate materials.
✔ Laser additive manufacturing (AM), e.g., powder bed fusion (PBF) system, uses material
powders to build three dimensional parts with complicated structures.
✔ It has been proved to be an efficient, robust, and cost-effective way for the next generation
manufacturing.
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✔ Though many breakthroughs have been achieved, it is still a big challenge for processing
dissimilar metals, due to many impact parameters such as their differences in solubility,
intermetallic compounds, weldability, thermal expansion coefficient, melting points,
thermal conductivity.

AEROSPACE:

Borescope bosses for A320neo geared TurbofanTM engine

∙ Industry user sector: Aerospace Industry
∙ Material: Nickel alloy 718
∙ Part dimensions: Volume: 15.600 mm3
∙ LxBxH Boundary Box: 42x72x36 mm
∙ Additive process used: Laser Beam Melting
∙ The bosses are made by selective laser melting (SLM) on an EOS machine. ∙
They form part of MTU’s low-pressure turbine case and allow the blading to be
inspected at specified intervals for wear and damage using a borescope.

Fig. Courtesy: MTU Aero Engines

Benefits of AM technology
∙ Series production of up to 2000 parts per year
 ∙ Lower development production leadtimes and lower production costs.

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∙ Suitable for producing parts in materials that are difficult to machine, as, for
example, nickel alloys
∙ For complex components that are extremely difficult, if not impossible to to
manufacture using conventional methods.
∙ Tool-free manufacturing and less material consumption

Support to satellite antenna

∙ Industry user sector: Aerospace
∙ Material: Ti6Al4V
∙ Part height and weight: 380 mm, 3.3 kg
∙ Part made by EBM with optimized design thanks to topology optimization

Fig. Courtesy: Poly-Shape

Benefits of AM technology
∙ Weight reduction: 55%

RSC emission Rake

∙ Industry user sector: Aerospace / Experimental research
∙ Material: Inconel 718
∙ Part dimensions: 270 mm x 80 mm x 180 mm
∙ Part weight: 2.0 kg
∙ Additive process used: Laser Beam Melting
∙ The water cooled emission rake is placed into the exhaust duct of a high pressure
combustion facility. It is used to sample hot exhaust gases using 6 sampling
tubes and supplies the gas to an analyzing system. It can sample gas at
temperatures of 2100°C and a maximum pressure of 45 bar. The part was
produced on a laser cusing M2 machine by Concept Laser.
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Fig. Courtesy: RSC Engineering GmbH

Benefits of AM technology
∙ Manufacturing of all components and details in one single step (fast
manufacturing)
∙ Additional design freedom (individual cooling geometries, conical and helical
sampling tubes,...)
∙ Cost saving up to 60% compared to a conventional manufactured rake for
similar use

DEFENCE APPLICATIONS FOR AM (3D PRINTING)

Modelling, test units and prototyping

∙ Additive manufacturing is an ideal solution for creating quick concept models and
prototypes, and it is widely used in the defence industry to rapidly produce
prototypes without the need for expensive tooling.
∙ Design concepts, as well as validation testing, can be done much faster, thereby
shortening the product development cycle.

Replacement parts, tooling and maintenance

∙ As military equipment is typically kept and used over a period of many years, the
defence industry relies heavily on spare and replacement parts.
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∙ For years, outsourcing has been the most common way to procure these parts, with
thousands of replacement parts and tools for military equipment sourced from
external companies.
∙ Here, additive manufacturing becomes a viable option, as it facilitates the cost
effective and relatively quick production of parts and tools on demand. Many
ships in the US Navy have 3D printers on board that are used for replacement
parts, helping to maintain the aging fleet without having to order a spare part or
to return to a port.
∙ Furthermore, technologies like Direct Energy Deposition (DED) and Wire Arc
Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) are already widely used to repair functional
military equipment. Thanks to these technologies, worn surfaces of turbine blades
and other high-end equipment can be restored and repaired. As replacement parts
can quickly run out of stock, 3D scanning techniques can be used to reverse
engineer an available part, which then can be easily replicated via 3D printing.
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Direct digital manufacturing (DDM)

Direct digital manufacturing (DDM) is the usage of additive manufacturing technologies for
production or manufacturing of end-use components. DDM is also known as “Rapid
Manufacturing;” and for the purposes of this discussion, the term rapid manufacturing, as
commonly used in this field, is synonymous with DDM.
Many times, DDM applications have taken advantage of the geometric complexity
capabilities of AM technologies to produce parts with customized geometries. In these
instances, DDM is not a replacement for mass production applications, as customized
geometry cannot be mass produced using traditional manufacturing technologies.

In addition, since the economics of AM technologies do not enable economically competitive

high volume production for most geometries and applications, DDM is often most economical
for low-volume production applications.

Two major individual-specific medical applications of DDM will be discussed, from Align
Technology and Siemens/Phonak, as well as several other applications that make use of the
unique design freedom afforded by AM techniques.

Align Technology

∙ Align Technology, in Santa Clara, California, is in the business of providing orthodontic

treatment devices.
∙ Their Invisalign treatments are essentially clear braces, called aligners, that are worn on
the teeth.
∙ Every 1–2 weeks, the orthodontic patient receives a new set of aligners that are intended
to continue moving their teeth.
∙ That is, every 1–2 weeks, new aligners that have slightly different shapes are fabricated
and shipped to the patient’s orthodontist for fitting.
∙ Over the total treatment time (several months to a year typically), the aligners cause the
patient’s teeth to move from their initial position to the position desired by the
orthodontist.
∙ If both the upper and lower teeth must be adjusted for 6 months, then 26 different
aligners are needed for one patient, assuming that aligners are shipped every 2 weeks.

Fig. Aligner from Align Technology (Courtesy Align Technology)

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∙ The need for many different geometries in a short period of time requires a mass
customization approach to aligner production.
∙ Align’s manufacturing process has been extensively engineered. First, the orthodontist
takes an impression of the patient’s mouth with a typical dental clay.
 ∙ The impression is shipped to Align Technology where it is scanned using a laser
digitizer. The resulting point cloud is converted into a tessellation (set of triangles) that
describes the geometry of the mouth.
∙ This tessellation is separated into gums and teeth, then each tooth is separated into its
own set of triangles.
∙ Since the data for each tooth can be manipulated separately, an Align Technology
technician can perform treatment operations as prescribed by the patient’s orthodontist. ∙
Each tooth can be positioned into its desired final position. Then, the motion of each
tooth can be divided into a series of treatments (represented by different aligners). ∙ For
example, if 13 different upper aligners are needed over 6 months, the total motion of a
tooth can be divided into 13 increments. After manipulating the geometric information
into specific treatments, aligner molds are built in one of Align’s SLA 7000
stereolithography (SL) machines.
∙ The aligners themselves are fabricated by thermal forming of a sheet of clear plastic
over SL molds in the shape of the patient’s teeth.
∙ The aligner development process is geographically distributed, as well as highly
engineered. Obviously, the patient and orthodontist are separated from Align
Technology headquarters in California.
∙ Their data processing for the aligners is performed in Costa Rica, translating customer
specific, doctor-prescribed tooth movements into a set of aligner models. ∙ Each
completed dataset is transferred electronically to Align’s manufacturing facility in Juarez
Mexico, where the dataset is added into a build on one of their SL machines. ∙ After
building the mold using SL from the dataset, the molds are thermal formed. After thermal
forming, they are shipped back to Align and, from there, shipped to the orthodontist or
the patient.
∙ Align’s SL machines are able to operate 24 h per day, producing approximately 100
aligner molds in one SLA-7000 build, with a total production capacity of 40,000
unique aligners per day. As each aligner is unique, they are truly “customized.” And
by any measure, 40,000 components per day is mass production and not prototyping.
Thus, Align Technologies represents an excellent example of “mass customization”
using DDM.

Disadvantages

∙ To achieve mass-customization, Align needed to overcome the time-consuming pre and

post-processing steps in SL usage.
∙ A customized version of 3D Systems Lightyear control software was developed, called
MakeTray; to automate most of the build preparation.
∙ Aligner mold models are laid out, supports are generated, process variables are set, and
the models are sliced automatically. Typical post-processing steps, including rinsing
and post-curing can take hours.
∙ Instead, Align developed several of its own post-processing technologies. They
developed a rinsing station that utilizes only warm water, instead of hazardous
solvents.

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∙ After rinsing, conveyors transport the platforms to the special UV post-cure station that
 Align developed. UV lamps provide intense energy that can post-cure an entire
platform in 2 min, instead of the 30–60 min that are typical in a Post-Cure Apparatus
unit. Platforms traverse the entire post-processing line in 20 min. Support structures
are removed manually at present, although this step is targeted for automation.

Siemens and Phonak

Siemens Hearing Instruments, Inc. and Phonak Hearing Systems are competitors in the
hearing aid business. In the early 2000s, they teamed up to investigate the feasibility of using
Selective Laser Sintering technology in the production of shells for hearing aids . A
typical hearing aid is shown in Fig. The production of hearing aid shells (housings that fit
into the ear) required many manual steps. Each hearing aid must be shaped to fit into an
individual’s ear. Fitting problems cause up to 1 out of every 4 hearing aids to be returned to
the manufacturer, a rate that would be devastating in most other industries.

Fig: Siemens LASR®hearing aid and shell

Traditionally, an impression is taken of a patient’s ear, which is then used as a pattern to make
a mold for the hearing aid shell. An acrylic material is then injected into the mold to form the
shell. Electronics, controls, and a cover plate are added to complete the hearing aid. To ensure
proper operation and comfort, hearing aids must fit snugly, but not too tightly, into the ear and
must remain in place when the patient talks and chews (which change the geometry of the
ear).

To significantly reduce return rates and improve customer satisfaction, Siemens and Phonak
sought to redesign their hearing aid production processes. Since AM technologies require a
solid CAD model of the design to be produced, the companies had to introduce solid
modeling CAD systems into the production process. Impressions are still taken from patients’
ears, but are scanned by a laser scanner, rather than used directly as a pattern. The point cloud
is converted into a 3D CAD model, which is manipulated to fine-tune the shell design so that
a good fit is achieved. This CAD shell model is then exported as an STL file for processing
by a SLS machine. A scanned point cloud is shown superimposed on a hearing aid model in
Fig.

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Fig. Hearing aid within scanned point cloud

Currently, Siemens Hearing Instruments produces about 250,000 hearing aids annually. In
2007, they claimed that about half of the in-the-ear hearing aids that they produce in the US
are fabricated using AM technologies. Since the adoption of additive manufacturing, their
hearing aid return rate has fallen dramatically with their improved design and manufacturing
process.

In the mid-2000s, Siemens developed a process to produce shells using SL technology to

complement their SLS fabrication capability. SL has two main advantages over SLS. First, SL
has better feature detail, which makes it possible to fabricate small features on shells that aid
assembly to other hearing aid components. Second, acrylate SL materials are similar to the
materials originally used in the hearing aid industry (heat setting acrylates), which are
biocompatible. As mentioned, Siemens originally adopted SLS fabrication; SLS has strengths
in that the nylon polyamide materials typically used in SLS are biocompatible and the surface
finish of SLS parts aided hearing aid retention in the ear, since the finish had a powder-bed
texture.

Since the introduction of AM-fabricated hearing aid shells, most hearing aid manufacturers in
the Western world have adopted AM in order to compete with Siemens and Phonak. 3D
Systems developed a variant of its SLA Viper Si2 machine to manufacture shells, called the
SLA Viper HA. The machine contains two small vats, one with a red-tinted resin and the other
with a blue-tinted resin. The idea is to fabricate both the left and right hearing aid shells for a
patient in one build, where each shell is a different color, enabling the patient to easily
distinguish them. Of course, the resins can be swapped with flesh-colored resin in both vats, if
desired by a patient.

The hearing aid shell production is a great example of how companies can take advantage of
the shape complexity capability of RP technologies to economically achieve mass
customization. With improvements in scanning technology, it is likely that patients’ ears can
be scanned directly, eliminating the need for impressions. If desktop AM systems can be
developed, it may even be possible to fabricate custom hearing aids in the audiologist’s office,
rather than having to ship impressions or data sets to a central location!

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DDM Drivers

It is useful to generalize from these examples and explore how the unique capabilities of AM
technologies may lead to new DDM applications. The factors that enable DDM applications
include:

∙ Unique Shapes: parts with customized shapes.

∙ Complex Shapes: improved performance.
∙ Lot Size of One: economical to fabricate customized parts.
∙ Fast Turnaround: save time and costs; increase customer satisfaction.
∙ Digital Manufacturing: precisely duplicate CAD model.
∙ Digital Record: have reusable dataset.
∙ Electronic “Spare Parts”: fabricate spare parts on demand, rather than holding
inventory.
∙ No Hard Tooling: no need to design, fabricate, and inventory tools; economical low
volume production.

Manufacturing vs. Prototyping

Production manufacturing environments and practices are much more rigorous than
prototyping environments and practices. Certification of equipment, materials, and personnel,
quality control, and logistics are all critical in a production environment. Even small
considerations like part packaging can be much different than in a prototyping environment.
Table compares and contrasts prototyping and production practices for several primary
considerations.
Key characteristic Manufacturing RP DDM company
company

Certification

Equipment From equipment

Production machines and
manufacturer
calibration equipment

Personnel No formal testing,

On-going need for certification
certification, or training
typical

Practices Trial-and-error, no formal

Formal testing for each critical
documentation of practices
step, periodic recertification

Quality Basic procedures; some

ISO 9000 compliance.
inspection
 Extensive, thorough quality
system needed

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Key characteristic Manufacturing RP DDM company
company

Manufacturing

System Basic system; controls and

Developed system; controls and
documentation not essential
documentation required

Planning Basic. Requires only modest

Formal planning to ensure
part assessment
customer requirements are met.
Developed process chains, no
experimentation

Scheduling and delivery Informally managed; critical

Sophisticated scheduling, just
jobs can be expedited; usually
in-time delivery
only one delivery date

Personnel Informal training, on-the-job

Formal training for certification
training; certification not
and periodic recertification.
necessary; redundancy not
Redundant personnel needed for
essential
risk mitigation

Vertical integration Helpful From customer’s perspective, should be a one-stop-shop.

Qualified suppliers must be
lined up ahead of time to enable
integration

Life-Cycle Costing

∙ In addition to part costs, it is important to consider the costs incurred over the life
time of the part, from both the customer’s and the supplier’s perspectives. ∙ For any
manufactured part (not necessarily using AM processes), life-cycle costs associated
with a part can be broken down into six main categories:
 1.Equipment cost, 2. Material cost, 3. Operation cost, 4. Tooling cost,
5. Service cost, and 6. Retirement cost.

∙ Equipment cost includes the costs to purchase the machine(s) used to manufacture
the part.
∙ Material and operation costs are related to the actual manufacturing process and are
one-time costs associated only with one particular part. For most conventional
manufacturing processes,
∙ Tooling is required for part fabrication. This may include an injection mold, stamping
dies, or machining fixtures.

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∙ The final two costs, service and retirement, are costs that accrue over the life-time of
the part.

Service costs typically include costs associated with repairing or replacing a part, which can
include costs related to taking the product out of service, disassembling the product to gain
access to the part, repairing or replacing the part, re-assembling the product, and possibly
testing the product. Design-for-service guidelines indicate that parts needing frequent service
should be easy to access and easy to repair/replace. Service-related costs are also associated
with warranty costs, which can be significant for consumer products.

Let’s consider the interactions between service and tooling costs. Typically, tooling is
considered for part manufacture. However, tooling is also needed to fabricate replacement
parts. If a certain injection molded part starts to fail in aircraft after being in service for 25
years, it is likely that no replacement parts are available “off the shelf.” As a result, new parts
must be molded. This requires tooling to be located or fabricated anew, refurbished to ensure
it is production-worthy, installed, and tested. Assuming the tooling is available, the company
would have had to store it in a warehouse for all of those years, which necessitates the
construction and maintenance of a warehouse of old tools that may never be used.

In contrast, if the parts were originally manufactured using AM, no physical tooling need be
stored, located, refurbished, etc. It will be necessary to maintain an electronic model of the
part, which can be a challenge since forms of media become outdated; however, maintenance
of a computer file is much easier and less expensive than a large, heavy tool. This aspect of
life
cycle costs heavily favors AM processes.

Retirement costs are associated with taking a product out of service, dismantling it, and
disposing of it.

Large product dismantling facilities exist in many parts of the US and the world that take
products apart; separate parts into different material streams; and separate materials for
distribution to recyclers, incinerators, and landfills.

The first challenge for such facilities is collecting the discarded products.
A good example of product collection is a community run electronic waste collection event,
where people can discard old electronic products at a central location, typically a school or
mall parking lot.

Product take-back legislation in Europe offers a different approach for the same objective. For
automobiles, an infrastructure already exists to facilitate disposal and recycling of old cars.
For most other industries, little organized product take-back infrastructure exists in the US,
with the exceptions of paper and plastic food containers. In contrast to consumer products,
recycling and disposal infrastructure exists for industrial equipment and wastes, particularly
for metals, glass, and some plastics.

How recyclable are materials used in AM? Metals are very recyclable regardless of the
method used to process it into a part. Thus, stainless steel, titanium alloys, and other metal
parts fabricated in EBM, SLM, LENS, or similar systems can be recycled.

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For plastics, the situation is more complicated. The nylon blends used in SLS can be recycled,
in principle. However, nylon is not as easily recycled as other common thermoplastics, such as
the ABS or polycarbonate materials from FDM systems. Thermoset polymers, such as
photopolymers in SL and printing processes, cannot be recycled. These materials can only be
used as fillers, landfilled or incinerated.

In general, the issue of life-cycle costing has simple aspects to it, but is also very complicated.
It is clear that the elimination of hard tooling for part manufacture is a significant benefit of
AM technologies, both at the time of part manufacture and over the part’s lifetime since spare
parts can be manufactured when needed. On the other hand, issues of material recycling and
disposal become more complicated, reflecting the various industry and consumer practices
across society.

Future of Direct Digital Manufacturing

In future DDM is applicable in the shape complexity capabilities for economical low
production volume manufacturing. Longer time-frames will see emergence of applications
that take advantage of functional complexity capabilities (e.g., mechanisms, embedded
components) and material complexities.

To date, thousands of parts have been manufactured for the aerospace industry. Many of these
parts are still flying on military aircraft, space shuttles, the International Space Station, and
many satellites.

Several small DDM companies have been created to serve the aerospace market. Other
service bureaus revamped their operations to compete in this market. The machine vendors
have reconceptualized some of their machine designs to better serve manufacturing markets.

An example of this is the development of the 3D Systems SinterStation Pro, and the similar
public announcements by EOS that all future models of their machines will be designed with
production manufacturing in mind. Existing and start-up companies focused on AM material
development are researching flame-resistant nylon materials to enable parts manufacturing for
commercial aircraft, as well as higher-temperature and higher-recyclability materials.

Other markets will emerge:

∙ One needs only consider the array of devices and products that are customized for our
bodies to see more opportunities that are similar to aligners and hearing aids. From eye
glasses and other lenses to dentures and other dental restorations, to joint
replacements, the need for complex, customized geometries, hierarchical structures
and complex material compositions is widespread in medical and health related areas.
∙ New design interfaces for non-experts may one day enable individuals to design and
purchase their own personal communication/computing devices (e.g., future cell
phones and PDA’s) in a manner similar to their current ability to have a physical
representation of their virtual gaming characters produced.
∙ Structural components will have embedded sensors that detect fatigue and material
degradation, warning of possible failures before they occur.
∙ The opportunities are bounded only by the imagination of those using AM technologies.

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In summary, the capability to process material in an additive manner will drastically change
some industries and produce new devices that could not be manufactured using conventional
technologies. This will have a lasting and profound impact upon the way the products are
manufactured and distributed, and thus on society as a whole.
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