3.

6 Thermal Modelling on Critical cooling rate in WAAM process: Reduce

distortion, residual thermal stresses and cracks in the base plate as well as build-
up wall.
The residual stresses in the body would exist due to non uniform heating and
cooling. During a layer deposition of a filler wire on the base plate, the molten weld
pool is subjected to high temperature region near about 600 oC to 2200oC followed by
solidification. Besides heat input, current, voltage, and travel speed, there are also some
variables like material density and thermal properties like specific heat, thermal
conductivity which also affect the rate of cooling and thus solidification. As the
combination of ER4043 as filler wire and 1060-H16 as base plate in WAAM process is
yet not been so researched so far due to distortion of base plate and residual stresses is a
major challenges. As a result of thermal contraction and solidification shrinkage, the
central weld zone is subjected to thermal compressive stresses at some location where
as thermal tensile stresses at other location. After the complete solidification, these
thermal stresses exist in the body and termed as Residual stresses, and due to these
residual stresses and solidification shrinkage, the base plate has tendency to distort
towards central zone of weld bead that is further giving rise to distortion and cracks on
the weld bead.
Alternatively, we can say that if we are reducing the non uniform heating and
non uniform cooling in 1060-H16 is an alternative approach to reduce residual stresses,
distortion and cracks in both base plate as well as build-up layer. In the following
model, the relative thickness of plate and Rosenthal’s heat eq. is considered to build-up
Thermal Modelling on Critical cooling rate in WAAM process: In general to reduce
distortion of base plate either by decreasing the welding speed or preheating the base
plate by using Critical cooling rate. Preheating of base plate and bypass temperature is
also considered owing to see binary phase diagram of Al-Si, since the maximum
solubility of silicon in α-Al solid solution at the eutectic temperature (577- 580) ℃ is
1.65%Si that increases the strengthening mechanism of α-Al solid solution. At this
eutectic temperature 577℃ and 12.5% Si, all the phases coexist together at eutectic
point and hence maximum solubility of 11.7%Si that is generally for wrought Al-12.5Si
alloy 4032. The binary phase diagram of Al-Si system is shown in figure 3.8.

Fig 3.8 Binary phase diagram of Al-Si system

3.6.1 Thermal Modelling on Critical cooling rate
The list of symbols used in Thermal Modelling on Critical cooling rate is given in table
3.2 and all the symbols used have their usual meaning.
Table 3.2 List of Symbols used for thermal modelling on Critical cooling rate.
I Current supplied by power source in Ampere( A)
V Potential difference between two terminal in volts ( V )
Vw Speed of welding or Travel speed in mm /s
Hs Heat supplied by power source in J / s
Ht Heat transfer from power source to work material in J / s
Hm Heat utilizes by work material in order to melt unit volume in J /mm3
H el Heat or Energy per unit length in J /mm
ηht Heat transfer or process efficiency, for GTAW ηht =0.85(std . value)
ηm Melting efficiency
ρ Density of material in g/cm3
k Thermal conductivity in W /cm∙ ℃∨J /s ∙ cm∙ ℃
C Specific heat in J / g ∙℃
α Thermal diffusivity in mm 2 /s
To Initial temperature of base plate 25℃
Tc Temperature of interest at which cooling rate is to be calculated
The process efficiency, melting efficiency and the modes of heat transfer through base
plate is shown in fig 3.9. These efficiencies, and Rosenthal’s 3D and2D heat source
equation is used for thermal modelling in wire arc additive manufacturing for base plate
as well as deposited layer.

Fig 3.9 Representation of heat source and modes of heat transfer through the base plate
Let consider V , I are voltage∧current that govern by power source∧v w is
welding speed duringlayer deposition .Then heat transfer efficiency∧¿
melting efficiency can be defined mathematically as :
 Ht
Heat transfer efficiency :η ht =
Hs

⇒ H t =η ht × H s ; where H s=( V × I ) J /s= ( Vv× I ) J /mm=[ ( AV ×× Iv ) ] J /mm

w wb w
3

Energy persec H t =ηht ( V × I ) J / s … eq .1

V ×I
⇒ Energy per unit length H e l=η ht J /mm … eq .2
vw

Hm
Melting efficiency :ηm = … eq .3
Hel

Calculations of cooling rate along central weld zone (R C ):

Based upon relative plate thickness, Rosenthal’s 2D and 3D heat equation can be used
to calculate cooling rate through the base plate.
Relative plate thickness ' τ ' is a dimensionless quantity :

Relative plate thickness τ =t ∙

√ ρ ∙C ∙ ( T c −T o )
H el
… eq .4

[reference eq .4 :welding technology AWS volume 1]

'
if τ> 0.9 ⇔thick plate condition , Rosenthal s 3 D eq . is valid
'
if τ< 0.6 ⇔thin plate condition , Rosenthal s 2 D eq . is valid
if 0.6 <τ <0.9 ;∈this condition closer limit will be consider

Case 1: Assuming relative thickness of plateτ > 0.9; then according to Rosenthal’s 3D
heat eq.
2 π ( T −T o ) ∙ K ∙ R (−V (R
2α
−x)
) … eq .5 ; T tempereture at point (x , y , z)
=e
Ht
For central weld zone: Let y=z =0 ⇒ R= √ 0+ 0+ x 2 ⇒ R=x ; then eq.5 can be written as:
−2 π k ( T −T o )2
( T −T o )=
Ht
2 π k∙ x
⇒Temperature gradient=
∂T
∂x t
= ( )
Ht
… eq .6

Cooling rate at any R=x distance ¿ heat source for temperatureT ( x , o , o )

¿ T c can be found like this :

( ∂∂tT ) =( ∂T∂x ) ∙( ∂∂ xt ) ; where ( ∂∂ xt ) =v ∧using eq .6 , we get

x t T T
w
 2
−2 π k ∙ v w ∙ ( T c −T o )
cooling rate RC =
∂T
∂t( ) x=−2 ,−1 ,0 ,1 , 2..
=
Ht
… eq .7
¿
2
2 π k . ( T c −T o )
¿−
H el
¿
Note: Cooling rate given by eq.7 is only valid along central line of weld zone and T c is
the temperature of those locations where cooling rate is to be calculated, and T ois just
previous layer temperature or initial temperature of plate for single pass welding.
Case 2: Assuming relative thickness of plate¿ 0.6 , then Rosenthal’s 2D heat eq. is valid
and accordingly cooling rate can be determined.

( )
2
t ∙ vw 3
Cooling rate R c =2 π k ρ C . . ( T c −T o )
Ht
… eq .8
¿2π k ρC∙
( )
t 2
H el
∙ ( T c −T o )
3

[reference for eq .8 :welding technology AWS Volume 1]

Note: Cooling rate given in eq.8 for τ < 0.6 or Rosenthal 2D heat eq. for thin plate
equation would apply to any weld where heat flow is essentially lateral, and generally
happens when temperature difference between top and bottom surface of plate is small
in comparison to melting temperature of base plate.
steady state condition for base plate
∂T
( )
∂ t z−dir .
=0

Peak temperature Equation for HAZ: The maximum or peak temperatures are those
temperature below which, the properties of base metal does not affected by heat source.
It exists only at the adjacent to heat affected zone.
1 4.13 ρ C ∙ v w ∙ t ∙ y 1
= + … eq .9
T p −T o Ht T m −T o
Note: eq.9 is only valid for full penetration with single pass.
Practical significance of Critical cooling rate:
,
Let consider ER 5083 as base plate by use of following condition a layer
which
is deposited .
ηht =0.75 , I =70 A ,V =10 volts , plate thickness t=8 mm
o
T o (initial temp .of base plate )=25 C ,
o
T c ( temp . of intreset )=550 C at any location R=x ;
o
since m. p of ER5083 is greater enough than550 C .
Base plate ER5083 material related properties :
3 w
density ρ5083 =2.65 g/cm ,thermal conductivity k 5083=1.21
cm∙ s
o −5 2
specific heat C 5083=0.9 J /g . C ,thermal diffusivity α 5083=5 × 10 m / s
 Now ,Consider seven different welding speed as :
v w1 =0.5 mm/ s , v w 2=1.0 mm /s , v w 3=1.5 mm/ s , v w 4 =3.8 mm/ s ,
v w5 =5 mm/ s , v w 6=7 mm/s , v w 7=8 mm /s . The layer of ER4043 is deposited over the
seven different base plates 5083 under different welding speed keeping all other
parameter constant ie . ηht =0.75 ,V =10 volts , I =70 A as fixed for all the seven layers.
Then after the complete solidification, the layer cross section is cut for hardness test,
corresponding to each layer there will be one hardness and one travel speed and graph
can be plotted between(HV 1 , HV 2 , HV 3 , HV 4 , HV 5 , HV 6 , HV 7) and
( v w 1 , v w2 , v w 3 , v w 4 , … , v w 7 ) .
Our aim is to identify only point where abrupt change in hardness and welding speed
corresponding to this point is known as Critical welding speed (say here v w 3=1.5 mm /s)

Step1: Determine the critical welding speed v w3 c =1.5 mm/s with the use of HV vs v w
graph from this point where hardness changes abruptly.
Step2: Relative thickness number by using eq.4 corresponding to this critical welding

speed. τ =t ∙
√ ρ ∙C ∙ ( T c −T o )
H el
; H el=
0.75 ×10 v ×70 A 525
1.5 mm /s
=
1.5
=350 J /mm

¿ 8 mm
√ 2.65 g /cm3 ×0.9 J /g .o C ×525 o × 10−3
350 J /mm
=8
√
1.252125
350
=0.47849

⇒ τ=0.4785< 0.6
rd
⇒ heat flow is 2 D∈that 3 layer deposition∧eq .8 is valid for RCC

Step3: Critical cooling rate by eq.8 since τ =0.4785<0.6

( )
2
t 3
RCC =2 π k ρ C ( T c−T o ) ; RCC =critical cooling rate∈2 D heat flow
H el

( )
2 3
j g J 8 mm
¿ 2 π ∙ 1.21 ∙2.65 3 ∙ 0.9 o ∙ ( 550−25 ) × 1 4
g ∙ C 350 J /mm
o
s ∙ cm∙ C cm 10
o
Rcc =137 C /s at v w 3=1.5 mm /s

This is the maximum cooling rate of third layer at any location; if we further increase
the cooling rate will lead to non uniform cooling and heating that led to distortion of
base plate as well as deposited 1stlayer and 2nd layer. It is cleared from the cooling rate
eq.7 & eq.8 that besides current, voltage and welding speed, other factor like thermal
conductivity, specific heat, thermal diffusivity and materials density also on which rate
of cooling depend. It is well known fact that residual stresses and distortion exists in the
body due to non uniform heating and non uniform cooling. We can safe any layer in
WAAM manufacturing by simulations of algorithms in CAD file. In this case we can
safe base plate, 1st, 2nd and 3rd layer either by reducing the welding speed of 4 th layer less
than critical welding speed of 3rd layer or by preheating the base plate.
 th
Case 1 :for 4 layer using v w 4 =v w2=1.0 mm/s <v w3 c =1.5 mm /s
first verify relative thickness no :

√ √
ρ ∙C ∙ ( T c −T o )
1.252125
τ =t ∙ =8=0.390<0.6
H el 0.75 ×70 × 10
( v w 4=2=1.0 )
since τ <0.6 ⇒ again 2 D heat flow , for cooling rate eq .9is used , since all other
parameter are constant

( )
3
j g J 8 mm
RC =2 π ∙1.21 ∙ 2.65 3 ∙ 0.9 o ∙ ( 550−25 ) × 1 4
g ∙ C 525 J /mm
o
s ∙ cm ∙ C cm 10
o
⇒ R c =60.92 4 C /sec less than R cc ie . cooling rate of 4 th layer is reduced
th
Case 2 :if we are giving 4 layer pass ∈actual v w 4=3.8 mm /s ;
then∈this case preheating of base plate is necessary ¿ avoid distortion can
th
be find out by assuming Critical cooling rate condition for 4 layer , then
( RC ) 4 thlayer =( Rcc ) 3rd layer ; first verify relative thickness no for v w 4 =3.8 mm/ s
then , accordingly 7∧8 eq . isused for RC .

τ =t ∙
√
H el
ρ ∙C ∙ ( T c −T o )
1.252125
=8
0.75 ×70 × 10
3.8 √ =8
1.252125
138.16 √
=0.762 ;

since 0.6< τ< 0.9 , thenplateisneitherconsidertobethinorthick , wehave

A
¿ choose closer limit ie. thick plate condition ; then ¿ eq .7
Q
2
o
−2 π k . ( T c −T o ) 0.75 ∙70 A ∙ 10 v
⇒ R c =137 C/ s= ; where H el= =138.16 J /mm
H el 3.8 mm/s
o
13 7 C /s × 138.16 ×10
⇒ ( 55 0 C−T O )=15 7 C
2 o O
( T C −T O ) = o
2 π ∙1.21 J /cm . s . C
o
preheating temp . of base plate ER5083 ⇒ T o =T p =393 C
Table 3.3 Evaluation of Thermal Model Performance based on relative thickness number and
critical cooling rate for ER5083 as base plate
ηht =0.75, I=70A, V=10volts, T O=25℃,T C=550℃, and sp. Heat C=1.21w /cm℃
,thermal conductivity k= 0.9 J/g℃
Layer Welding Heat input Relative thickness no Cooling Significance
no. speed, per unit rate of Rcc critical
¿ length Rc (℃ /s) cooling rate
¿
1 0.5 1050 τ = 0.28<0.6, 15 Layer 1st
2D heat flow, thin plate Already safe
2 1.0 525 τ = 0.39<0.6, 60.9 Layer 2nd
2D heat flow, thin plate already safe
3 V wc =¿1 350 τ = 0.4785<0.6, Rc = RCC = On critical
.5 2D heat flow, thin plate 137.8 cooling rate
4 3.8 138.2 τ = 0.761 intermediate, 1396.7 Safe if
closer limit used, v w ≤1.5mm/s
 3D heat flow valid Or preheating
of
Base plate to
393℃ can
only
5 5 105 τ =0.874<0.9, 1995.7 No method to
3D heat flow save if we are
, thick plate depositing
layer in such
6 7 75 τ =1.034>0.9, 2793.97 condition
3D heat flow, thick
plate
7 8 65.63 τ =1.105>0.9, 3193.2
3D heat flow
Remarks:
1. With increase in welding speed, energy per unit length decreases.
2. With decrease in energy per unit length, relative thickness of plate increases and
corresponding cooling rate also increases.
3. ER5083: maximum preheat of 393℃ is possible for base plate to save distortion of
layer 4th as well as itself.

3.6.2 Analysis of process parameter on energy per unit length, relative thickness
number, and cooling rate especially at a particular location where temperature of
interest 550℃
3 w
ηht =0.85 , t=8 mm , T o=25 ℃ , T c =550 ℃ , ρ5083 =2.65 g/cm , k=1.21 , C =0.9 J / g ℃ , theneq.4
cm∙ s 5083
:

τ =t ∙
√ ρ ∙C ∙ ( T c −T o )
H el
=8
√ 1.252125
H el
; where H el =ηht ×
V∙I
vw
…(a)

( )
2
8
forτ ≤ 0.75 , R c =262380.4861 … ( b)
H el

forτ ≥ 0.75 , R =( ) …(c )

209548.16
c
H el

Table 3.4 Variation of welding speed with energy per unit length

Keeping I =125 A , V =10 v as constant , then H el =0.85 ∙ ( 10×v 125 ) J /mm

w

welding speed ¿ Energy per unit Relative Cooling rate

length ¿ thickness number Rc at T c =550℃

0.5 2125 0.19 3.72℃/s

1.0 1062.5 0.27 14.87℃/s
1.5 708.33 0.34 33.46℃/s
2.5 425 0.43 92.97℃/s
3.0 354.17 0.47 133.87℃/s
5.0 212.5 0.61 371.87℃/s
 8 132.8125 0.78 1577.77℃/s
Remarks: For constant current and voltage
1. With increase in welding speed, energy per unit length decreases.
2. With decrease in energy per unit length, relative thickness of plate increases and
corresponding cooling rate also increases.

Table 3.5 Variation of current with energy per unit length

V=10v, V w =1.5 mm/s ,∧varying current , then H el=0.85 ( 101.5× I ) J /mm

Variation in Energy per unit Relative Cooling rate
Current, A length, H el J /mm thickness Rc , at T c =550 ℃
number, τ
75 425 0.434 92.96℃/s
100 566.6 0.376 52.3℃/s
125 708.3 0.336 33.46℃/s
150 850 0.307 23.24℃/s
175 991.67 0.284 17.07℃/s
Remarks
1. With increase in current, energy per unit length increases.
2. With increase in energy per unit length, relative thickness of plate decreases and
corresponding cooling rate also decreases.

Table 3.6 Variation of voltage with energy per unit length

125 ×V
I =125 A , v w =1.5 mm/s ,∧varying voltage , then H el=0.85 ∙ J /mm
1.5
Energy per unit Relative Cooling rate
Voltage(V) length ( J /mm ¿ ¿ thickness number Rc at T c =55 0 ℃
8 566.6 0.376 52.29℃/s
10 708.3 0.336 33.46℃/s
12 850 0.307 23.24℃/s
14 991.7 0.284 17.07℃/s
16 1133.3 0.265 13.07℃/s
Remarks
1. With increase in voltage, energy per unit length increases.
2. With increase in energy per unit length, relative thickness decreases and
corresponding cooling rate also decreases.