Read-only Memories

Both static and dynamic RAM chips are volatile, which means that they retain information
only while power is turned on. There are many applications requiring memory devices that
retain the stored information when power is turned off. For example, Chapter 4 describes the
need to store a small program in such a memory, to be used to start the bootstrap process of
loading the operating system from a hard disk into the main memory.

Many embedded applications do not use a hard disk and require nonvolatile memories to
store their software. Different types of nonvolatile memories have been developed. Generally,
their contents can be read in the same way as for their volatile counterparts discussed above.
But, a special writing process is needed to place the information into a nonvolatile memory.
Since its normal operation involves only reading the stored data, a memory of this type is
called a read-only memory (ROM).

8.3.1 ROM

A memory is called a read-only memory, or ROM, when information can be written into it only once
at the time of manufacture. Figure 8.11 shows a possible configuration for a ROM cell. A logic value
0 is stored in the cell if the transistor is connected to ground at point P; otherwise, a 1 is stored. The
bit line is connected through a resistor to the power supply. To read the state of the cell, the word
line is activated to close the transistor switch. As a result, the voltage on the bit line drops to near
zero if there is a connection between the transistor and ground. If there is no connection to ground,
the bit line remains at the high voltage level, indicating a 1. A sense circuit at the end of the bit line
generates the proper output value. The state of the connection to ground in each cell is determined
when the chip is manufactured, using a mask with a pattern that represents the information to be
stored.

8.3.2 PROM

Some ROM designs allow the data to be loaded by the user, thus providing a programmable ROM
(PROM). Programmability is achieved by inserting a fuse at point P in Figure 8.11. Before it is
programmed, the memory contains all 0s. The user can insert 1s at the required locations by burning
out the fuses at these locations using high-current pulses. Of course, this process is irreversible.
PROMs provide flexibility and convenience not available with ROMs. The cost of preparing the masks
needed for storing a particular information pattern makes ROMs cost effective only in large volumes.
The alternative technology of PROMs provides a more convenient and considerably less expensive
approach, because memory chips can be programmed directly by the user.

8.3.3 EPROM Another type of ROM chip provides an even higher level of convenience. It allows the
stored data to be erased and new data to be written into it. Such an erasable, reprogrammable ROM
is usually called an EPROM. It provides considerable flexibility during the development phase of
digital systems. Since EPROMs are capable of retaining stored information for a long time, they can
be used in place of ROMs or PROMs while software is being developed. In this way, memory changes
and updates can be easily made. An EPROM cell has a structure similar to the ROM cell in Figure
8.11. However, the connection to ground at point P is made through a special transistor. The
transistor is normally turned off, creating an open switch. It can be turned on by injecting charge
into it that becomes trapped inside. Thus, an EPROM cell can be used to construct a memory in the
same way as the previously discussed ROM cell. Erasure requires dissipating the charge trapped in
the transistors that form the memory cells. This can be done by exposing the chip to ultraviolet light,
which erases the entire contents of the chip. To make this possible, EPROM chips are mounted in
packages that have transparent windows.

8.3.4 EEPROM

An EPROM must be physically removed from the circuit for reprogramming. Also, the stored
information cannot be erased selectively. The entire contents of the chip are erased when exposed
to ultraviolet light. Another type of erasable PROM can be programmed, erased, and reprogrammed
electrically. Such a chip is called an electrically erasable PROM, or EEPROM. It does not have to be
removed for erasure. Moreover, it is possible to erase the cell contents selectively. One
disadvantage of EEPROMs is that different voltages are needed for erasing, writing, and reading the
stored data, which increases circuit complexity. However, this disadvantage is outweighed by the
many advantages of EEPROMs. They have replaced EPROMs in practice.

8.3.5 Flash Memory

An approach similar to EEPROM technology has given rise to flash memory devices. A flash cell is
based on a single transistor controlled by trapped charge, much like an EEPROM cell. Also like an
EEPROM, it is possible to read the contents of a single cell. The key difference is that, in a flash
device, it is only possible to write an entire block of cells. Prior to writing, the previous contents of
the block are erased.

Flash devices have greater density, which leads to higher capacity and a lower cost per bit. They
require a single power supply voltage, and consume less power in their operation. The low power
consumption of flash memories makes them attractive for use in portable, battery-powered
equipment. Typical applications include hand-held computers, cell phones, digital cameras, and MP3
music players. In hand-held computers and cell phones, a flash memory holds the software needed
to operate the equipment, thus obviating the need for a disk drive. A flash memory is used in digital
cameras to store picture data. In MP3 players, flash memories store the data that represent sound.
Cell phones, digital cameras, and MP3 players are good examples of embedded systems. Single flash
chips may not provide sufficient storage capacity for the applications mentioned above. Larger
memory modules consisting of a number of chips are used where needed. There are two popular
choices for the implementation of such modules: flash cards and flash drives.

Flash Cards

One way of constructing a larger module is to mount flash chips on a small card. Such flash cards
have a standard interface that makes them usable in a variety of products. A card is simply plugged
into a conveniently accessible slot. Flash cards with a USB interface are widely used and are
commonly known as memory keys. They come in a variety of memory sizes. Larger cards may hold as
much as 32 Gbytes. A minute of music can be stored in about 1 Mbyte of memory, using the MP3
encoding format. Hence, a 32-Gbyte flash card can store approximately 500 hours of music.

Flash Drives

Larger flash memory modules have been developed to replace hard disk drives, and hence are
called flash drives. They are designed to fully emulate hard disks, to the point that they can be fitted
into standard disk drive bays. However, the storage capacity of flash drives is significantly lower.
Currently, the capacity of flash drives is on the order of 64 to 128 Gbytes. In contrast, hard disks
have capacities exceeding a terabyte. Also, disk drives have a very low cost per bit. The fact that
flash drives are solid state electronic devices with no moving parts provides important advantages
over disk drives. They have shorter access times, which result in a faster response. They are
insensitive to vibration and they have lower power consumption, which makes them attractive for
portable, battery-driven applications.