PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT Early Childhood (2 to 6 years)

1. Early foundations are critical The helplessness and dependency of a child is replaced
by his growing independence
2. Development and learning result from interaction of
Become aware of some simple concepts of social and
heredity and the environment
physical realities
3. Development proceeds in definite and predictable
Middle Childhood (6 to 12 years)
directions
Children become increasingly independent from their
4. There are individual differences in development parents as they learn to do things themselves and gain
self-control
5. Each phase of development has hazard
Children’s cognitive skills develop and they also begin
6. Development is aided by stimulation to develop an understanding of what is right and wrong
7. Domains of children’s development – physical, social, Puberty
emotional, and cognitive – are closely related This is the stage where the child’s body matures into an
8. Development is affected by cultural changes adult body capable of sexual reproduction to enable
fertilization
9. There are social expectations for every stage of
development Adolescence (12 to 20 years)
Dominated by seeking independence from parents and
developing one’s own identity
ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Thought processes are more logical, complex and
1. Nature vs. Nurture – Which has a more significant
idealistic
influence on human development? The individual’s
biological inheritance or his environmental experiences? Young Adulthood (20 to 40 years)
2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity – Does development Establishing financial independence and consolidating
involve gradual, cumulative change or distinct changes? career
3. Passivity vs. Activity – Are we a byproduct of our life Time in which individuals select a partner, develop an
experiences or we have the authority to control our life? ongoing intimate relationship and begin a family
4. Early Experience vs. Later Experience – Are we Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years)
what our first experiences have made us or do we
develop into someone different as we age? This is a period of expanding social and personal
involvements and responsibilities, advancing a career,
STAGES IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT and supporting offspring in their development to become
mature individuals
Prenatal Stage (Conception until Birth)
Late Adulthood (65 years and older)
The human embryo develops during pregnancy, from
fertilization until birth The period of considerable adjustment to changes in
one’s life and self-perceptions
Infancy (Birth to 2 weeks)
The bond that develops between the infant and their
primary caregiver is important in terms of the infant’s
later emotional development
Babyhood (2 weeks to 2 years)
A time of rapid growth and change and of decrease
dependency, increase individuality, and beginning of
socialization
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS 4. Achieving emotional independence of parents and
Havighurst (1972) defines a developmental tasks as one other adults
that arises at a certain period in life.
5. Preparing for marriage and family life
Three sources of Developmental Tasks
6. Preparing for an economic career
 Tasks that arise from physical maturation
7. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a
 Tasks that arise from personal sources guide to behaviour; developing ideology
 Tasks that have their source in the pressure of society 8. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior
Infancy and Early Childhood Early Adulthood
1. Learning to walk 1. Selecting a mate
2. Learning to take solid foods 2. Learning to live with a marriage partner
3. Learning to talk 3. Starting a family
4. Learning to control the elimination of body wastes 4. Rearing children
5. Learning sex differences and sexual modesty 5. Managing a home
6. Forming concepts and learning language to describe 6. Getting started in an occupation
social and physical reality
7. Taking on civic responsibilities
7. Getting ready to read
8. Finding a congenial (suitable) social group
Middle Childhood
Middle Adulthood
1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
1. Achieving adult civic and social responsibility
2. Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a
2. Establishing and maintaining an economic standard of
growing organism
living
3. Learning to get along with age-mates
3. Assisting teenage children to become responsible and
4. Learning an appropriate masculine and feminine happy adults
social role
4. Developing adult leisure time activities
5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and
5. Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person
calculating
6. Accepting and adjusting to the physiologic
6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
changes or middle age
7. Developing conscience, morality and a scale of values
7. Adjusting to aging parent
8. Achieving personal independence
Late Adulthood
9. Developing attitudes toward social groups and
institutions 1. Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health
Adolescence 2. Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
1. Achieving new and more mature relations with 3. Adjusting to death of a spouse
agemates of both sexes
4. Establishing an explicit affiliation with one’s age
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role group
3. Accepting one’s physique and using the body 5. Meeting social and civil obligations
effectively 6. Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangement
 helix carrying the genetic instructions used in the
growth, development, functioning, and reproduction of
all known living organisms and many viruses.
Chromosomes – a threadlike structure of nucleic acids
and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells,
carrying genetic information in the form of genes.
Genotype – determine the features or trait of an
organism
Allele – variants of a gene
(Dominant and Recessive Allele)
Homozygous – contain two identical alleles
Heterozygous – two alleles are different
Phenotype – expression of the genotype; depends on a
complex interaction between genes and the environment
Polygenic traits – influenced by multiple genes
interacting with the environment in complex ways
Dominant traits – traits that are passed on from
generation to generation; appeared in all first-generation
offspring
Recessive traits – appeared in about 1-quarter of the
second-generation offspring
Punnett Square
– devised by Reginald C. Punnett
– used to predict the possible genotypes of an offspring
that may affect the expression of the phenotype
Gregor Mendel – Father of Genetics
• He formulated three laws that explain how traits are
transferred from generation to generation
Law of Dominance – the presence of one dominant gene
may mask or prevent the expression of recessive gene.

BIOLOGICAL THEORY
Law of Segregation – a pair of genes is separated during
• Explained children’s development in terms of innate
the formation of gametes with every independent trait or
biological processes
characteristics developing
• Heredity plays an important role in growth and
Law of Independent Assortment – the separation of
development of the individual
gene pairs on a given pair of chromosomes and the
Genes – hereditary factor that carry the traits that were distribution of the genes during meiosis are entirely
contributed by the parents independent of the distribution of other gene pairs on the
other pair of chromosomes. Each trait can hence be
DNA – (Deoxyribonucleic acid) a molecule composed of paired with the other trait in the pair
two chains that coil around each other to form a double
 gives the necessary social stimuli given in due course.
From the theory, it is extracted that once the child has
ECOLOGICAL THEORY
acquired the full development of his nervous system, he
• Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) can master multiple individual and social capacities.

• There are systems that help human development Gesell’s observations of children allowed him to
describe developmental milestones in ten major areas:
Microsystem – locale in which the individual lives; help motor characteristics, personal hygiene, emotional
shape the individual (family, peers, neighbourhood) expression, fears and dreams, self and sex, interpersonal
Mesosystem – relationship between and among the parts relations, play and pastimes, school life, ethical sense,
of microsystem and philosophic outlook. His training in physiology and
his focus on developmental milestones led Gesell to be a
Exosystem – includes the other people and places the strong proponent of the “maturational” perspective of
individual may not interact with but still has a large child development.
effect
• That is, he believed that child development occurs
Macrosystem – Most distant set of people but still has a according to a predetermined, naturally unfolding plan
great influence of growth.
Chronosystem – result of the individual’s experience in COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY
his life; includes the transitions and shifts in one's
lifespan. This may also involve the sociohistorical Jean Piaget
contexts that may influence a person. Self-initiated discovery
MATURATION THEORY • Cognitive development occurs through the interaction
• The maturation theory was introduced in 1925 by the of innate capacities and environmental events
American psychologist Arnold Lucius Gesell, who was • He proposed this theory that accounts for the steps and
also a pediatrician and educator. sequences of children’s intellectual development
• The studies carried out by Gesell focused on finding Two Major Principles that guide intellectual growth and
out how development occurred during childhood and biological development
adolescence, both in children without any
psychopathology or those who showed a different ➢Organization
pattern of learning and development than expected.
➢Adaptation
• According to their theory of maturation, all children go
through the same stages of development in the same Organization – refers to the mind’s natural tendency to
order but not necessarily presenting them at the same organize information
time. That is, each child goes at their own pace, but the Schema – (simplest level) mental representation of some
expected thing is that they do the learning in the same physical or mental action that can be performed on an
sequence. object, event, or phenomenon.
Arnold Gesell considered that genetics and the Adaptation – building mental representation through
environment play a very important role in the direct interaction. This happens through:
development of the person, however his research
focused especially on the physiological part of Assimilation – cognitive process of fitting new
development. Using his language, the term ‘maturation’ information into existing cognitive schemas, or ideas,
for Gesell refers to a more biological process that is not and understanding
so much social, in which the influence of genes is given
SS- supporting or similar information
more weight than environmental factors to which the
person be exposed. Accommodation – it involves altering and modifying
one’s existing cognitive schemas, or ideas, as a result of
• However, the theory holds that each baby has its own
new information or new experience in order to adapt.
maturation rate, which will be optimized if the social
environment is aware of how the child is developing and C- change insisting knowledge
• All mental processes involve assimilation and
accommodation
• Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance
between assimilation and accommodation which is
achieved through equilibration. Concrete Operational Stage (7 – 11 years old)
Children go through four distinct stages – Children gain a better understanding of mental
operations (seriation and law of conservation)
Sensorimotor Stage
– Elimination of Egocentrism
Preoperational Stage
– They begin to think logically about concrete events but
Concrete Operational Stage
have difficulty in understanding abstract or hypothetical
Formal Operational Stage concepts.
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth – 2 years old) – Uses inductive logic (based on experience)
– Infant’s knowledge of the world is limited to his or her – Trial and error
sensory perceptions and motor activities
– The stage is called concrete because children can think
– Babies utilize skills and abilities they were born with logically much more successfully if they can manipulate
to learn more about the environment (looking, sucking, real (concrete) materials or pictures of them.
grasping and listening)
– Children at this stage will tend to make mistakes or be
Object Permanence – a child’s understanding that overwhelmed when asked to reason about abstract or
objects continue to exist even though they cannot be hypothetical problems.
seen or heard
Formal Operational Stage (11 years old and up)
Towards the end of this stage the general symbolic
– Develop the ability to think about abstract concepts
function begins to appear where children show in their
play that they can use one object to stand for another. – Uses deductive logic (involves hypothetical situations)
– Language starts to appear because they realize that – Instead of relying solely on previous experiences,
words can be used to represent objects and feelings. children begin to consider possible outcomes and
consequences of actions
– The child begins to be able to store information that it
knows about the world, recall it and label it. – Systematically solve a problem
Preoperational Stage (2 – 7 years old) SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
– Language development is one of the highlights of this • Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)
period
• Looked into the fundamental role of socio-cultural
– Children in this stage is characterized as egocentric interaction in the development of cognition
Cause: limited information/processing capabilities • Placed more emphasis on social contributions (social
interaction) to the process of development
– Children become increasingly adept (highly skilled) at
using symbols (Pretend play) The interactions with others significantly increase not
only the quantity of information and the number of skills
– They lack seriation and law of conservation
a child develops; it also affects the development of
– Their thinking is influenced by the way things appear higher order mental functions such as formal reasoning.
rather than logical reasoning. Vygotsky argued that higher mental abilities could only
develop through the interaction with more advanced
– children at this stage also demonstrate animism. This
others.
is the tendency for the child to think that non-living
objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a • Vygotsky proposed that children are born with
person. elementary mental abilities (attention, sensation,
memory and perception) and that higher mental Mental Age – represents the number of test items a child
functions develop from these through the influence of gets correct which is compared with the average number
social interactions. of items children at the same age get correct
Tools of intellectual adaptation is Vygotsky’s term for Chronological Age
methods of thinking and problem-solving strategies that
Intelligence Quotient – represents a score obtained by
children internalize through social interactions with the
dividing a child’s
more knowledgeable members of society
MA by their CA and multiplying by 100
Zone of Proximal Development
IQ = MA/CA x 100
- the distance between a student’s ability to perform a
task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration
and the student’s ability solving the problem
independently MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE THEORY

- learning occur in this zone • Howard Gardner

- the area where the most sensitive instruction or • Human beings have multiple intelligence
guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop Verbal/Linguistic intelligence – well-developed verbal
skills they will then use on their own -developing higher skills and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings and
mental functions rhythms of words.
More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) – supports the child Logical-Mathematical intelligence – ability to think
while learning conceptually and abstractly, and capacity to discern
Scaffolding – supporting the learner’s development and logical or numerical pattern
providing support structures to get to the next stage Spatial intelligence – capacity to think in images and
Assisted learning pictures, to visualise accurately and abstractly.
Musical intelligence – ability to produce and appreciate
rhythm, pitch and timber.
LEARNING STYLE
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence – ability to control one’s
• One’s preferred way to learn something body movements and to handle objects skillfully
1. Visual Learners Interpersonal intelligence – capacity to detect and
respond appropriately to the moods, motivations and
2. Auditory Learners
desires of others
3. Tactile-Kinesthetic Learners
Intrapersonal intelligence – capacity to be self-aware
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN COGNITIVE and in tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs
DEVELOPMENT
Naturalist intelligence – ability to recognize and
• The most common method of assessing individual categorize plants, animals and other objects in nature.
differences in cognitive development are standardized
Existential intelligence – sensitivity and capacity to
tests for intelligence and academic achievement
tackle deep questions about human existence.
Alfred Binet – Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
MNEMONIC DEVICES
(previously known as the Binet-Simon Intelligence
• can be used to aid our retrieval by helping us organize
Test)
and add meaningfulness to new
He claimed that a person’s intelligence ability could be
material
inferred from his performance on a series of cognitive
tasks LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AND LITERACY
1. Language is a social phenomenon.
 2. Children acquire language without direct “overextend words”
instruction and within a short span of time.
“telegraphic speech” – 18-24 months
3. All language use symbol systems with socially
constructed rules for combining sounds into Holophrastic – using single words or simple fixed
words, for making meaning with words, and for expression (mamam, instead of pahingi ako ng tubig”)
arranging words into sentences
Overextend – uses a single word to label multiple
4. Just because language is so complex, children different things (using the term “dog” to other animals.
cannot learn the system all at once Pamangkin : vegetable - talong
5. Language is linked to identity Telegraphic speech – three-word short phrases (ako
uhaw tubig – instead of nauuhaw po ako, pahingi po ng
6. Language abilities grow by using language in
tubig.)
meaningful contexts
• Toddler’s vocabularies continue to grow
PATTERN OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
gradually
Infants-Most of their communication is through crying
 50 words – 20 months
Between 2-3 months- Infants begin cooing and making
 Over a hundred words – 24 months
soft, exaggerated vowel sounds to show pleasure or
excitement At the age of 5, young children show an improvement in
the phonological or syntactic components of language
Between 3-4 months- Babies will add more verbal
sounds and start to make the constant sounds of b, k, m, Phonological – use of sounds to produce a word
g and p
Syntactic – arrangement of words and phrases
4 months- Babies will begin to put vowel sounds and
consonant sounds together to form nonsense words; their HOW TO NURTURE CHILDREN’S LANGUAGE
brains learn how to interpret and process the DEVELOPMENT
communication they hear 1. Recognize the child as an individual. Avoid comparing
5 months - Babies are learning the musical sound and the child’s language abilities with others.
speech patterns of their caregiver’s native language; 2. Talk to the child about different things. This will help
begin imitating. Babies are using non-verbal cues to the child begin to develop as awareness of how things
communicate their thoughts and feelings to those around work in this world.
them
3. Encourage the child to talk with others – to share
6 months- Babbling ideas, to ask questions. Ask questions that prompt the
7 months -Babies begin taking turns “speaking” with child to explore more deeply or to clarify thinking.
others 4. Listen to them.
8 months - Babies begin to connect sounds they and 5. Facilitate children’s search for relationships between
their caregivers make to actual ideas and thoughts that ideas – similarities, opposites, cause, sequence,
can be universally understood; adding new consonant examples, a lot more. If the child can discover such
letters such as t and w examples in the real world, it will be easier for them to
Between 9-12 months - Babies begin to say their real recognize those in the books and come up with written
words, such as “mama” and “dada” compositions.

(note: receptive language is much more developed than 6. Model paraphrasing to children. Occasionally ask
their expressive language); begin communicating by them if they can put across the same idea using different
pointing or nodding words.

Toddler - They continue to acquire words and increase 7. Involve the whole family in children’s vocabulary
in the number of words they understand study. Find out what words the child is learning.

“holophrastic speech”