EECS 142/242M

Lecture 12: Intercept Point, Gain Compression and

Blocking
Prof. Ali M. Niknejad

University of California, Berkeley

Copyright c 2011 by Ali M. Niknejad

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 1/?? – p.

 Gain Compression

dVo
dVi dVo
dVi

Vo Vo

Vi Vi

The large signal input/output relation can display gain

compression or expansion. Physically, most amplifier
experience gain compression for large signals.
The small-signal gain is related to the slope at a given point. For
the graph on the left, the gain decreases for increasing
amplitude.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 2/?? – p.

 1 dB Compression Point
Po,−1 dB

¯ ¯
¯ Vo ¯
¯ ¯
¯ Vi ¯

Vi Pi,−1 dB

Gain compression occurs because eventually the output signal

(voltage, current, power) limits, due to the supply voltage or bias
current.
If we plot the gain (log scale) as a function of the input power,
we identify the point where the gain has dropped by 1 dB. This
is the 1 dB compression point. It’s a very important number to
keep in mind.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 3/?? – p.

 Apparent Gain
Recall that around a small deviation, the large signal curve is
described by a polynomial

so = a1 si + a2 s2i + a3 s3i + · · ·

For an input si = S1 cos(ω1 t), the cubic term generates

1
S13 cos3 (ω1 t) = S13 cos(ω1 t) (1 + cos(2ω1 t))
2
 
3 1 2
= S1 cos(ω1 t) + cos(ω1 t) cos(2ω1 t)
2 4
Recall that 2 cos a cos b = cos(a + b) + cos(a − b)
 
1 1
= S13 cos(ω1 t) + (cos(ω1 t) + cos(3ω1 t))
2 4

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 4/?? – p.

 Apparent Gain (cont)

Collecting terms
 
3 1
= S13 cos(ω1 t) + cos(3ω1 t)
4 4

The apparent gain of the system is therefor

So,ω1 a1 S1 + 43 a3 S13
G= =
Si,ω1 S1
 
3 2 3 a3 2
= a1 + a3 S1 = a1 1 + S = G(S1 )
4 4 a1 1
If a3 /a1 < 0, the gain compresses with increasing amplitude.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 5/?? – p.

 1-dB Compression Point

Let’s find the input level where the gain has dropped by 1 dB
 
3 a3 2
20 log 1 + S = −1 dB
4 a1 1

3 a3 2
S1 = −0.11
4 a1
s
4 a1 √
S1 = × 0.11 = IIP 3 − 9.6 dB
3 a3

The term in the square root is called the third-order intercept

point (see next few slides).

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 6/?? – p.

 Intercept Point IP2

Pout
(dBm)
OIP2 IP2
0

-10
10 dBc
-20

d
nd

2n
Fu
20 dBc
-30

-40

IIP2
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 Pin
(dBm)

The extrapolated point where IM2 = 0 dBc is known as the

second order intercept point IP2 .
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 7/?? – p.
 Properties of Intercept Point IP2

Since the second order IM distortion products increase like s2i ,

we expect that at some power level the distortion products will
overtake the fundamental signal.
The extrapolated point where the curves of the fundamental
signal and second order distortion product signal meet is the
Intercept Point (IP2 ).
At this point, then, by definition IM2 = 0 dBc.
The input power level is known as IIP2 , and the output power
when this occurs is the OIP2 point.
Once the IP2 point is known, the IM2 at any other power level
can be calculated. Note that for a dB back-off from the IP2
point, the IM2 improves dB for dB

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 8/?? – p.

 Intercept Point IP3

Pout
(dBm)
OIP3 IP3
10

-10
u nd 20 dBc
F
-20

rd
dBc

Thi
-30

IIP3
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 Pin
(dBm)

The extrapolated point where IM3 = 0 dBc is known as the

third-order intercept point IP3 .
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 9/?? – p.
 Properties of Intercept Point IP3

Since the third order IM distortion products increase like s3i , we

expect that at some power level the distortion products will
overtake the fundamental signal.
The extrapolated point where the curves of the fundamental
signal and third order distortion product signal meet is the
Intercept Point (IP3 ).
At this point, then, by definition IM3 = 0 dBc.
The input power level is known as IIP3 , and the output power
when this occurs is the OIP3 point.
Once the IP3 point is known, the IM3 at any other power level
can be calculated. Note that for a 10 dB back-off from the IP3
point, the IM3 improves 20 dB.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 10/?? –p

 Intercept Point Example

From the previous graph we see that our amplifier has an

IIP3 = −10 dBm.
What’s the IM3 for an input power of Pin = −20 dBm?
Since the IM3 improves by 20 dB for every 10 dB back-off, it’s
clear that IM3 = 20 dBc
What’s the IM3 for an input power of Pin = −110 dBm?
Since the IM3 improves by 20 dB for every 10 dB back-off, it’s
clear that IM3 = 200 dBc

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 11/?? –p

 Calculated IIP 2/IIP 3

We can also calculate the IIP points directly from our power
series expansion. By definition, the IIP 2 point occurs when
a2
IM2 = 1 = Si
a1

Solving for the input signal level

a1
IIP2 = Si =
a2

In a like manner, we can calculate IIP3

s
3 a3 2 4 a1
IM3 = 1 = Si IIP3 = Si =
4 a1 3 a3

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 12/?? –p

 Blocker or Jammer
channel
Interference
Signal
LNA

Consider the input spectrum of a weak desired signal and a

“blocker”
Si = S1 cos ω1 t + s2 cos ω2 t
| {z } | {z }
Blocker Desired

We shall show that in the presence of a strong interferer, the

gain of the system for the desired signal is reduced. This is true
even if the interference signal is at a substantially different
frequency. We call this interference signal a “jammer”.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 13/?? –p

 Blocker (II)

Obviously, the linear terms do not create any kind of

desensitization. The second order terms, likewise, generate
second harmonic and intermodulation, but not any fundamental
signals.
In particular, the cubic term a3 Si3 generates the jammer
desensitization term

Si3 = S13 cos3 ω1 t + s32 cos3 ω2 t + 3S12 s2 cos2 ω1 t cos ω2 t+

3s21 S2 cos2 ω2 t cos ω1 t

The first two terms generate cubic and third harmonic.
The last two terms generate fundamental signals at ω1 and ω2 .
The last term is much smaller, though, since s2 ≪ S1 .

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 14/?? –p

 Blocker (III)

The blocker term is therefore given by

1
a3 3S12 s2 cos ω2 t
2

This term adds or subtracts from the desired signal. Since

a3 < 0 for most systems (compressive non-linearity), the effect
of the blocker is to reduce the gain

a1 s2 + a3 23 S12 s2
App Gain =
s2
 
3 2 3 a3 2
= a1 + a3 S1 = a1 1 + S
2 2 a1 1

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 15/?? –p

 Out of Band 3 dB Desensitization

Let’s find the blocker power necessary to desensitize the

amplifier by 3 dB. Solving the above equation
 
3 a3 2
20 log 1 + S1 = −3 dB
2 a1

We find that the blocker power is given by

POB = P−1 dB + 1.2 dB

It’s now clear that we should avoid operating our amplifier with
any signals in the vicinity of P−1 dB , since gain reduction occurs
if the signals are larger. At this signal level there is also
considerable intermodulation distortion.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 16/?? –p

 Series Inversion

Often it’s easier to find a power series relation for the input in
terms of the output. In other words

Si = a1 So + a2 So2 + a3 So3 + · · ·

But we desire the inverse relation

So = b1 Si + b2 Si2 + b3 Si3 + · · ·

To find the inverse relation, we can substitute the above

equation into the original equation and equate coefficient of like
powers.

Si = a1 (b1 Si + b2 Si2 + b3 Si3 + · · · ) + a2 ( )2 + a3 ( )3 + · · ·

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 17/?? –p

 Inversion (cont)
Equating linear terms, we find, as expected, that a1 b1 = 1, or
b1 = 1/a1 .
Equating the square terms, we have

0 = a1 b2 + a2 b21

a2 b21 a2
b2 = − =− 3
a1 a1
Finally, equating the cubic terms we have
2a22 a3
b3 = 5 − 4
0 = a1 b3 + a2 2b1 b2 + a3 b31 a1 a1
It’s interesting to note that if one power series does not have
cubic, a3 ≡ 0, the inverse series has cubic due to the first term
above.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 18/?? –p

 Cascade

IIP 2 GA
V
IIP 3 GA
P
IIP 2A IIP 2B
IIP 3A IIP 3B

Another common situation is that we cascade two non-linear

systems, as shown above. we have

y = f (x) = a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + · · ·

z = g(y) = b1 y + b2 y 2 + b3 y 3 + · · ·
We’d like to find the overall relation

z = c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + · · ·

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 19/?? –p

 Cascade Power Series
To find c1 , c2 , · · · , we simply substitute one power series into the
other and collect like powers.
The linear terms, as expected, are given by

c1 = b1 a1 = a1 b1

The square terms are given by

c2 = b1 a2 + b2 a21

The first term is simply the second order distortion produced by

the first amplifier and amplified by the second amplifier linear
term. The second term is the generation of second order by the
second amplifier.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 20/?? –p

 Cascade Cubic

Finally, the cubic terms are given by

c3 = b1 a3 + b2 2a1 a2 + b3 a31

The first and last term have a very clear origin. The middle
terms, though, are more interesting. They arise due to second
harmonic interaction. The second order distortion of the first
amplifier can interact with the linear term through the second
order non-linearity to produce cubic distortion.
Even if both amplifiers have negligible cubic, a3 = b3 ≡ 0, we
see the overall amplifier can generate cubic through this
mechanism.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 21/?? –p

 Cascade Example

In the above amplifier, we can decompose the non-linearity as a

cascade of two non-linearities, the Gm non-linearity
2 3
id = Gm1 vin + Gm2 vin + Gm3 vin + ···

And the output impedance non-linearity

vo = R1 id + R2 i2d + R3 i3d + · · ·

The output impedance can be a non-linear resistor load (such

as a current mirror) or simply the load of the device itself, which
has a non-linear component.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 22/?? –p

 IIP 2 Cascade

Commonly we’d like to know the performance of a cascade in

terms of the overall IIP 2. To do this, note that IIP 2 = c1 /c2

c2 b1 a2 + b2 a21 a2 b2
= = + a1
c1 b1 a1 a1 b1

This leads to
1 1 a1
= +
IIP 2 IIP 2A IIP 2B
This is a very intuitive result, since it simply says that we can
input refer the IIP 2 of the second amplifier to the input by the
voltage gain of the first amplifier.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 23/?? –p

 IIP 2 Cascade Example
Example 1: Suppose the input amplifiers of a cascade has
IIP 2A = +0 dBm and a voltage gain of 20 dB. The second
amplifier has IIP 2B = +10 dBm.
The input referred IIP 2B
i = 10 dBm − 20 dB = −10 dBm

This is a much smaller signal than the IIP 2A , so clearly the

second amplifier dominates the distortion. The overall distortion
is given by IIP 2 ≈ −12 dB.

Example 2: Now suppose IIP 2B = +20 dBm. Since

IIP 2B
i = 20 dBm − 20 dB = 0 dBm, we cannot assume that
either amplifier dominates.
Using the formula, we see the actual IIP 2 of the cascade is a
factor of 2 down, IIP 2 = −3 dBm.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 24/?? –p

 IIP3 Cascade

Using the same approach, let’s start with

 
c3 b1 a3 + b2 a1 a2 2 + b3 a31 a3 b3 2 b 2
= = + a1 + 2a2
c1 ba a1 a1 b1 b1

The last term, the second harmonic interaction term, will be

neglected for simplicity. Then we have

1 1 a21
= 2 +
IIP 3 2 IIP 3A IIP 32B

Which shows that the IIP 3 of the second amplifier is input

referred by the voltage gain squared, or the power gain.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 25/?? –p

 LNA/Mixer Example

A common situation is an LNA and mixer cascade. The mixer

can be characterized as a non-linear block with a given IIP 2
and IIP 3.
In the above example, the LNA has an IIP 3A = −10 dBm and a
power gain of 20 dB. The mixer has an IIP 3B = −20 dBm.
If we input refer the mixer, we have
IIP 3Bi = −20 dBm − 20 dB = −40 dBm.

The mixer will dominate the overall IIP 3 of the system.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 26/?? –p

 Example: Disto in Long-Ch. MOS

ID = IQ + io
W
ID = 1
2 µCox L (VGS −VT )2
vi
W
VQ io +IQ = 1
2 µCox L (VQ +vi −VT )2

Ignoring the output impedance we have

W 
= 1
2 µCox (VQ − VT )2 + vi2 + 2vi (VQ − VT )
L
W 1 W 2
= IQ + µCox vi (VQ − VT ) + 2 µCox vi
|{z} | L {z } | {z L }
dc
linear quadratic

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 27/?? –p

 Ideal Square Law Device

An ideal square law device only generates 2nd order distortion

W 2
io = gm vi + 21 µCox vi
L
a1 = gm

1 W 1 gm
a2 = 2 µCox L = 2 VQ − VT
a3 ≡ 0
The harmonic distortion is given by

1 a2 1 gm 1 1 vi
HD2 = vi = vi =
2 a1 4 VQ − VT gm 4 VQ − VT

HD3 = 0

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 28/?? –p

 Real MOSFET Device
14 600
Triode CLM DIBL SCBE
12

10
400

Mobility
Rout kΩ
8

4
200

0 1 2 3 4
0
Vds (V) Effective Field

The real MOSFET device generates higher order distortion

The output impedance is non-linear. The mobility µ is not a
constant but a function of the vertical and horizontal electric field
We may also bias the device at moderate or weak inversion,
where the device behavior is more exponential
There is also internal feedback

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 12 p. 29/?? –p