Colegio de

Postgraduados

Bioplastics: Environment-friendly materials and

their production technologies
López-Velázquez, Liliana Y.1,2; Bucio-Galindo, Adolfo1*; Canché-Escamilla, Gonzalo2

1
Colegio de Postgraduados Campus Tabasco, Km. 3.5 Periférico Carlos A. Molina S/N, H. Cárdenas,Tabasco,
C.P. 86500, México.
2
Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán, A.C., Calle 43 No. 130 x 32 y 34, Chuburná de Hidalgo,
C.P. 97205, Mérida, Yucatán, México.
* Correspondence: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Objective: To analyze the recent contributions of bioplastics in addressing environmental problems caused
by plastic pollution.
Design/Methodology/Approach: A literature review was carried out on the definitions of plastics and
bioplastics, the sources of raw materials, processing technologies and methods to assess biodegradation.
Current practices for final disposal and/or reuse were also examined. Special emphasis was placed on polylactic
acid (PLA), one of the most widely used biodegradable materials today.
Results: Over the years, there have been significant developments in the definitions of plastics and bioplastics,
as well as in the sources of raw materials and processing technologies used to create final plastic products.
By using bioplastics instead of conventional plastics, it is possible to reduce the dependence on petroleum
and mitigate the pollution associated with plastic production and disposal. Furthermore, the enhanced
biodegradability of bioplastics ensures that they break down more readily in natural environments, reducing
the accumulation of plastic waste and its detrimental impact on ecosystems. The production of bioplastics
using plant fibers, biological materials, and polymeric waste materials presents an opportunity for integration
into the productive activities of the agro-industrial sector. This integration brings several benefits and synergies
Citation: López-Velázquez, L. Y., between agriculture and industry.
Bucio-Galindo, A., &Canché-Escamilla, Study limitations/Implications: We provide a report based on the literature.
G. (2023). Bioplastics: Environment-
Findings/Conclusions: there is a notable current trend in the utilization of bioplastics as a viable substitute
friendly materials and their production
for conventional plastics. In order to assess the biodegradability and compostability of these materials, specific
technologies. Agro Productividad. https://
doi.org/10.32854/agrop.v16i4.2373
testing and certification standards have been established by reputable organizations. These standards serve as
a reliable framework for evaluating the environmental impact and degradation characteristics of bioplastics.
Academic Editors: Jorge Cadena By adhering to these guidelines, manufacturers can ensure that their bioplastic products meet the necessary
Iñiguez and Libia Iris Trejo Téllez criteria for sustainable use.

Received: September 05, 2022. Keywords: Bioplastics, Plant residues, Waste.

Accepted: March 19, 2023.
Published on-line: June 15, 2023.

Agro Productividad, 16(5). May. 2023.

pp: 17-24.
INTRODUCTION
The increasing levels of plastic pollution both in land and water degrade the
This work is licensed under a
Creative Commons Attribution-Non-
environment (García and Robertson, 2017). Conventional plastics exhibit inherent
Commercial 4.0 International license. resistance to degradation due to their high molecular weight, complex three-dimensional

Image by Frank at Pixabay

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AGRO PRODUCTIVIDAD 2023. https://doi.org/10.32854/agrop.v16i4.2373 18

structure, minimal water content, and hydrophobic nature. These characteristics impede
degradation processes caused by factors such as exposure to light, water, and the activities
of living organisms or their enzymes (Kale et al., 2015; Chamas et al., 2020). When burned,
plastics generate CO2 and other toxic gases (Wu et al., 2021), such as dioxins (Kale et
al., 2015). A significant amount of plastic waste ends up in landfills. While recycling
technologies do exist for certain types of plastics, such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
and polyethylene (PE), but effective recycling requires proper separation and collection
of these materials (Song et al., 2009). However, it is important to note that the costs of
recycling can be high, and the quality of recycled plastic products may be lower compared
to their virgin counterparts (García and Robertson, 2017).
One effective approach to minimize the reliance on traditional plastics is by substituting
them with biodegradable (Ferreira et al., 2019) and compostable (Sabapathy et al., 2020)
alternatives. These innovative materials can be broken down by microbial extracellular
enzymes (Bano et al., 2017; Sabapathy et al., 2020) or through exposure to light, water,
and oxygen (Siracusa, 2019). As a result, they generate carbon dioxide (CO2), water
(H2O), methane (CH4), and other light compounds (Siracusa, 2019), which have a reduced
environmental impact compared to traditional plastics.

Definition of plastics
Plastics are polymers, which are large molecules composed of repeating subunits
called monomers whose composition does not change when molded through heat and
pressure (WWF, 2018). They are characterized by low density, low electrical conductivity,
transparency, which allows their transformation into a variety of products. Polyethylene,
polypropylene, and polyvinyl chloride are affordable, versatile, and extensively utilized
plastics. They are commonly employed for short-term applications. Polycarbonates,
polyether ether ketones, and polyimides are durable plastics that have a longer-term
applications with a higher cost compared to other plastics (Feldman, 2008; Ramos, 2018).
All these products come from the petrochemical industry and constitute over 80% of
globally-used plastics (Urbanek et al., 2018).

Classification of plastics by a degradability criteria. Plastics can be classified

into recalcitrant and biodegradable. Recalcitrant plastics are derived from petroleum,
transformed by synthesis into polymers with a high molecular weight, and do not degrade
easily. Biodegradable plastics undergo degradation within a few months.

Bioplastics: definition and production

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) defines biodegradable
polymers as materials that are susceptible to degradation by biological activity, with
the degradation accompanied by a decrease in their molar mass (Haider et al., 2019).
According to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), biodegradable
polymers can be distinguished from other plastics by their ability to decompose into carbon
dioxide, water, inorganic compounds, and biomass at a similar rate to other recognized
compostable materials. Additionally, it is crucial for these polymers not to leave any
AGRO PRODUCTIVIDAD 2023. https://doi.org/10.32854/agrop.v16i4.2373 19

noticeable or harmful residues behind, ensuring their environmental compatibility (Food

Packaging Forum, 2021). The determination of biodegradability and compostability of
materials relies on specific testing and certification standards, such as those established
by ASTM. These standards provide a systematic framework for evaluating and verifying
the environmental characteristics of materials in order to ensure accurate assessment of
their biodegradability and compostability. The European Bioplastics Organization defines
bioplastics as those included in one of the following categories: a) of biological origin; b)
biodegradable; or c) both. This categorization includes products containing raw materials
derived from petroleum. Thus, some bioplastics, such as Bio-PET, are naturally occurring
polymers combined with petroleum-derived polymers and are not biodegradable (Van
Crevel, 2016). Some bioplastics are made of polymers of plant or animal origin, such
as polysaccharides (cellulose, starch, chitin, and lignin); others contain proteins (gelatin,
casein, gluten); and still others, lipids (Arikan and Ozsoy, 2015). Other biodegradable
polymers are synthesized from precursors of microbial fermentation and subsequently
polymerized through chemical and physical transformations (Arikan and Ozsoy, 2015).
Most biodegradable polymers are aliphatic polyesters, like polylactic acids (PLA) and
polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), manufactured from precursors of microbial origin that are
biodegradable and compostable (Van Crevel, 2016; Sabapath et al., 2020). Others are
plant-based polymers such as thermoplastic starches (TPS) and polybutylene succinate
(PBS) (Zhao et al., 2020). Production of bioplastics is currently growing (Figure 1) (Verbeek
and Uitto, 2017). In Mexico, the agricultural products —sugar cane, citrus fruits, and
bananas (INEGI, 2019) (Figure 2)— generate waste that can be used in the production of
bioplastics (Riera et al., 2018; Rivera-Mackintosh and Nevárez-Moorillón, 2019).

Polylactic (PLA) production

PLA is a biodegradable aliphatic polyester known for its thermoplastic properties
(Figure 3). It is derived through the polymerization process of lactic acid. Lactic acid, the
precursor for PLA, can be obtained through either chemical synthesis or fermentation
methods (Li et al., 2020). Chemical synthesis primarily results in the production of DL-

Figure 1. Comparative forecast for the production of biodegradable bioplastics from 2020 to 2025.
Abbreviations: PLA, polylactic Acid; PBAT, polybutylene adipate; PBS, polybutylene succinate; PHA,
polyhydroxyalkanoates (elaborated with data from the European Bioplastics Organization, https://www.
european-bioplastics.org/bioplastics/materials/).
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Figure 2. National agricultural survey. Source: INEGI, 2019.

Figure 3. Bioplastics: biodegradable and from biological origin (renewable sources). PLA, polylactic acid;
PHA, polyhidroxyalkanoates.

lactic acid, whereas microbial fermentation can yield D- or L-lactic acid or a combination
of isomers, depending on the bacterial species and the substrate employed. When PLA
is derived from either the L-isomer or the D-isomer, the polymer exhibits a crystalline
structure and greater stability compared to the amorphous polymer obtained from
a racemic mixture. The choice of isomer in PLA production can influence its physical
and chemical properties, making it important to consider the desired characteristics for
specific applications (Calabia and Tokiwa, 2007). To produce lactic acid, whether it is the
D or L isomer, maintaining pure bacterial cultures is essential to prevent contamination.
Achieving aseptic conditions is crucial during this process. However, the sterilization of
culture media can be an expensive step. In the production of polylactic acid, lactic acid
is purified and subjected to condensation to form lactides. Lactides are cyclic dimers that
undergo polymerization to form the desired polylactic acid. However, direct condensation
is hindered by the presence of water and impurities. This can result in the production of
polymers with low molecular weight and inferior mechanical properties.
To address this issue, chain extenders are utilized to facilitate longer chain polymerization,
resulting in improved mechanical properties.
PLA properties. PLA has good transparency, gloss, crease retention, twist retention,
heat sealability, flavor and aroma barrier properties, low heat sealing temperature, and a
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suitable surface for printing (Levytskyi et al., 2021). It is insoluble in water and resistant
to moisture and grease. Its mechanical properties depend on molecular weight and
crystallinity. Current applications include transparent packaging films and food-grade
disposable thermoformed articles. It can also be spun into fibers for fabrics and textiles.
The recent production of biocomposites with a matrix of cellulose microfibers from sugar
cane straw and polylactic acid (Figure 4) has led to renewed properties, such as a higher
melting point and an increase in the elasticity modulus, which reduces the biocomposite’s
elongation index (López Velazquez et al., 2020). PLA has properties similar to polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) and is also used for packaging, but unlike PET, it is compostable. PLA is
non-enzymatically degraded, the resulting monomers being degraded by microorganisms,
and it is also compostable (Siracusa, 2019). Polylactide degradation occurs at 60 °C,
in the presence of oxygen and moisture, by hydrolysis and photooxidation or thermal
oxidation mechanisms (Chamas et al., 2020) —although it also depends on pH, the
polymer’s molecular weight, and crystallinity (Levytskyi et al., 2021).

Processing of bioplastics
The melting temperature of PLA falls within the range of 169-180 °C, which allows
the processing of this polymer by the following methods: a) extrusion; b) blowing; c)
thermoforming; and d) injection molding (Contreras et al. 2018; Levytskyi et al., 2021).
A) Extrusion: a die is used to melt the materials through friction forces (Figure 5), with a
subsequent final cooling phase that allows the materials to harden. B) Blowing: this process
follows the plastic’s extrusion using a circular die with a hole in the center to blow the
extruded material, which inflates like a balloon (Figure 5). The bubble of molten plastic cools
with the external air and solidifies along the tube. This method is used to produce bottles.
C) Thermoforming: this hot molding method includes variants based on thermoplastic
heating (Figure 5). Molding can take place using vacuum, blowing, or mechanical means
(vacuum, temperature, and pressure), and said methods can be combined. The machinery
employed, besides being simple, is economical and compact, so that this method is widely
used to manufacture large-sized and thin-walled molds of complex configurations (Figure
5). D) Injection: in this process, a thermoplastic is melted using heat. A machine injects

Figure 4. Biocomposite made of cellulose microfibers from sugarcane straw and polylactic acid.
AGRO PRODUCTIVIDAD 2023. https://doi.org/10.32854/agrop.v16i4.2373 22

Figure 5. Technologies for the processing of bioplastics/biomaterials.

heat into the mold’s cavities with an adequate pressure and temperature. Subsequently,
the materials cool into a solid plastic shape with dimensions similar to those of the mold.
To evaluate and define the optimal use of bioplastics, one must examine their physical,
mechanical, and chemical properties.

Biodegradability
According to the ASTM, a compostable material should disappear within 12 weeks
without leaving fragments, residues, heavy metals, or toxins that may affect plant growth.
Tables 1 and 2 present the main differences between biodegradable and conventional
plastics.

Table 1. Differences between biodegradable and conventional plastics.

Characteristics Biodegradable plastics Conventional plastics
Natural polymers such as starch,
cellulose and chitin extracted from
living organisms such as plants, animals
Source of raw materials Petroleum derivatives
or produced by microorganisms.
Polymers synthesized from natural
compounds
Examples PLA, PHA, PBS, PBAT PE, PP, PET
Uses Food packaging, textiles, Wide use
Decay time 6 months Up to 500 years
Wastes and microplastics in
Type of pollution generated Minimum
land, water and air
Type of treatment for degradation Composting burning
With data from: Intención del uso del plástico biodegradable en hogares y su incidencia en la contaminación
ambiental, Arana and Miranda (2019), Emadian et al., 2017, and Goel et al., (2021).
AGRO PRODUCTIVIDAD 2023. https://doi.org/10.32854/agrop.v16i4.2373 23

Table 2. Biodegradability of bioplastics in different environments.

Test
Temperature/Relative Biodegradability Methods of
Bioplastic Environment period
humidity (%) assessment
(days)
Compost 58 °C, 60 % RH 13-84 CO2 28-60
PLA
Soil 25 °C, 30% 60% RH 10% Weigth loss 28-98
Soil/compost (90/10%) 25 °C, 65% RH 40–50 CO2 15
PHA
Soil 35 °C, 60 % RH 35-48 Weigth loss, CO2 60, 280
Compost 58 °C, 70 % HR 80 CO2 110
PHB Soil 30 °C, 80 % HR 64-98 Weigth loss 180-300
Sea water 25 °C 80-99 Weigth loss, CO2 14-49
Compost (termoplástic) 58 °C 73.1 CO2 56
Starch
soil (plastic made from starch) 20 °C, 60 % HR 14.2 CO2 110
based
Marine environment 26 °C 100 Weigth loss 50
Compost (celulose acetate) 53 °C 100 CO2 18
Celullose
soil (celulose) 25 °C 100 Weigth loss 180
PLA, polylactic acid; PHB, polyhydroxybutyrate. With data from: Intención del uso del plástico biodegradable en hogares y su incidencia en la
contaminación ambiental, Arana and Miranda (2019), Emadian et al., 2017, and Goel et al., (2021).

It is crucial to assess the limitations and characteristics of bioplastics to understand their

potential applications and performance. Testing the mechanical properties, resistance, and
permeability of bioplastics to water and gases helps evaluate their suitability for specific
uses. Bioplastics, derived from diverse sources, exhibit variations in their properties
compared to traditional plastics. It is important to consider their origin, lifetime, and
beneficial properties for the environment, and for the producers involved. In many cases,
production costs need to be optimized.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To CONACyT for the scholarship awarded to the first author. To the memory of Dr. Sergio Salgado
García (may he rest in peace), who made this research possible.

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