Machining and Machine Tools

ME 210
Supplementary Lecture Note

Module 2: Lathe
 Important Declaration

The supplementary lecture note is the synopsis of the lectures taken as a part of the
course and information collected from different sources including text books,
research papers, experience of the course coordinator and other acceptable
resources. The students are advised to be actively present in the classroom for
additional discussions on the various topics that are not included in this lecture note.

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3.1 Introduction

Lathe is one of the oldest machine tools and till date it is used widely in many
manufacturing industries. The course of time in lathe machine history is rewarded
with any advances in this tool with advanced design and automation. In general lathe
is used for removing of material for any types of materials but mostly widely used
materials include ductile material, and non-metallic materials like polymers, wood
etc. The credit of development of the first screw cutting lathe goes to Henry
Maudslay in the year 1797. Many operations can be performed on lathe that includes
turning, thread cutting, grooving, slotting, parting, facing etc. A typical lathe machine
is shown in Fig. 3.1 for reference.

Fig. 3.1: Diagram of a typical lathe with various components

3.2 Functions of lathe

One of the major functions of lathe is to remove material from a work piece to
give it the required shape and size as per the designed specification by forming
various different surfaces. This is accomplished by holding the workpiece rigidly and
securely on the machine and turning it against the cutting tool. The material removal
process takes place in the form of shearing of material with the formation of chip.

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3.3 Types of lathe

Lathe machines of various specifications, functions and designs have been

developed during the course of time suited for various machining conditions. The
types of popular and generally used lathe machine are as follows.

A. Speed lathe
a. Wood working
b. Centering
c. Polishing
d. Spinning
B. Engine lathe
a. Belt drive
b. Individual motor drive
c. Gear head lathe
C. Bench lathe
D. Tool room lathe
E. Capstan and Turret lathe
F. Special purpose lathe
a. Wheel lathe
b. Gap bed lathe
c. T – lathe
d. Duplicating lathe
G. Automatic lathe

A. The speed lathe

The peed lathe, in construction and operation is the simplest among all types
of lathe. It consists of a headstock, tail stock, and bed and tool post mounted on an
adjustable slide. There is no feed box, lead screw and conventional type of carriage.
This type of lathe is best known for its spindle speed that can range between 1200
rev/min to 3600 rev/min. This lathe is suitable for woodworking, spinning, centering
and polishing works.

B. The engine lathe or centre lathe

This is one of the most important among all types of lathe. The name is after
the principle of using an engine to drive the lathe in its early days. In the initial days,
steam engines were used to drive this type of lathe, which were later replaced with
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other power producing units. One of the characteristics of this lathe is the
transmission of power from source to the head stock spindle through means of
different transmission systems. This includes belt drives, motor drives and gear
drives. It has all the basic parts of a lathe as found in speed lathe.

C. The bench lathe

This is a small lathe usually mounted of a bench. It has practically all parts of
an engine lathe or speed lathe and it can perform all operations. The only
characteristic is its small size that occupies less floor area compared to other types
of lathe.

D. The tool room lathe

A tool room lathe having features similar to engine lathe is much more
accurately built and has wide range of spindle speed staring from a low speed to a
very high speed. This has additional parts like chuck, taper turning attachment,
steady and follower rest, coolant pump and hydraulic unit for movements, thread
chasing dial, relieving attachment etc. This lathe is mainly used for precision work on
tools, dies, gauges and in machining work where accuracy is needed. The cost of
the machine is more compared to other lathe.

E. Capstan and Turret lathe

These lathes are the development of the engine lathe and are used for
production work. The distinguishing feature of this lathe is the tailstock of an engine
lathe is replaced by a hexagonal turret, on the face of which multiple tools may be
fitted and fed into the workpiece. This type of lathe is best known for its repeatability.

F. Special purpose lathe

The name suggests the characteristics of this lathe as it can accommodate

and process jobs that are difficult or not possible to process with other lathes. Many
different types of this lathe is available and all have special purpose for which it is
designed. It can allow all necessary fitments of any lathe along with few special tools
used for special operations.

G. Automatic lathe

These lathes are the most advanced form of lathes available till date. This
includes automatic control features that made it suitable for heavy duty and mass
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productions uses. In this lathe parameters during lathe operations are monitored and
controlled with accuracy for better output.

3.4 The specification of lathe

The lathe is specified as per the following essential specifications.

A. Height of the centres: This is the vertical height of the centres of the lathe
namely live centre and dead centre from the bed of the lathe. This is measured up to
a hypothetical line passing through the centres from the bed. This signifies the
parallelism of the lathe bed with the axis of the lathe. Any deviation as per the length
bed should be known prior hand for better machining of long jobs.

B. The swing diameter over bed: This is the largest diameter of the job that can be
hold between the two lathe centres without interfacing with the lathe bed. This
signifies that the maximum diameter of the job possible to hold in lathe that will
revolve around the lathe axis without touching the bed.

C. The length between the centres: This is the measured length between the two
lathe centres and signifies the maximum job length that be hold in the length.

D. The swing diameter over the carriage: This is the maximum diameter of the job
that is hold in the lathe without touching the carriage or saddle. Usually this diameter
is less than swing diameter over the bed.

E. Maximum bar diameter: In some lathe there is a special hole in the headstock
unit for holding longer workpiece. This diameter signifies the maximum job diameter
possible to hold in the whole available in the headstock unit.

F. The length of the bed: This is the approximate floor size of the lathe. This is
required to make space arrangement during floor plan modelling and optimization
work.

Apart from these specifications, lathes have been specified according to many
other characteristics such as width of bed, depth of bed, swing over gap, spindle
nose diameter, range of spindle speeds, number of feed, thread specifications etc.
Figure 3.2 shows a typical lathe specifications chart.

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 Fig. 3.2: Lathe specification chart

3.5 Description and function of lathe parts

In lathe there are many vital parts or components available with specific
functions. Few of the important parts with their usage are illustrated below with the
diagram of a typical lathe shown in Fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.3: Schematic diagram of a centre lathe

3.5.1 The bed

The lathe bed forms the bed of the machine. The headstock and tailstock are
located at either end of the bed and the carriage rests over the lathe bed and slides
on it. The lathe bed, being the main guiding member of the machine tool, for
accurate machining work, must satisfy the following conditions.

a. It should be sufficiently rigid to prevent deflection under tremendous cutting

pressure transmitted through the tool post and carriage of the lathe bed.
b. It must be massive with sufficient depth and width to absorb vibration.

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 c. It must resist the twisting stress setup due to resultant of two forces – the
downward cutting force and the force tending to move the tool away from the
job in a horizontal direction. This is best done by diagonal ribbing or by
making box section casting as shown in Fig. 3.4.

Fig. 3.4: Bed design in lathe (a) box section lathe bed and (b) lathe bed with
diagonal ribs

The bed material should have high compressive strength, should be wear
resistant and absorb vibration. Cast iron alloyed with Nickel and Chromium forms a
good material suitable for lathe bed.

3.5.2 The headstock

The headstock is one of the vital components of a lathe. This houses the
power source, all the power transmission, gear box and the spindle. The headstock
is fixed at the leftmost end of lathe bed. The function of headstock is to provide
rotation to the job with the chuck mounted on it. A typical headstock spindle used in
lathe for rotation of the job is shown in Fig. 3.5.

Fig. 3.5: A typical headstock spindle with various parts: 1. Work driving spindle 2.
Headstock casing 3. Radial roller bearing 4. Journal ball bearing 5. Packing 6. Chuck
3.5.3 The tailstock

The tailstock is towards the rightmost end of the lathe bed and houses the
tailstock spindle for the purpose of locating the long components by the use of
centres. The tailstock is movable in the inner guideways provided on the bed to
accommodate the different length of workpiece. Tailstock also serves as the device
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for holding special tools during lathe operations such as centre drill, twist drill,
reamer etc. A typical tailstock is shown in Fig. 3.6.

Fig. 3.6: A typical tailstock with different parts

3.5.4 Carriage

The carriage of a lathe has several parts that serve to support, move and
control the cutting tool. It consists of the following parts. A typical carriage is shown
in Fig. 3.7.

1. Saddle: The saddle is an H-shaped casting that fits over the bed and slides along
the ways. It carries the slide and the tool post. Some means are generally provided
for locking the saddle to prevent any movement when surfacing operations are
carried out.

2. Cross slide: The cross slide consists of a casting, machined on the underside for
attachment to the slides and carries locations on the upper face for the tool post or
compound rest.

3. Compound slide or compound rest: The compound rest or compound slide is

mounted on the top of the cross slide and has a circular base graduated in degrees.
It is used for obtaining angular cuts and short taper as well as convenient positioning
of the tool to the work.

4. Tool post: This is located on the top of the compound rest to hold the tool and
enable it to be adjusted to a convenient working position. There are many types of
tool posts but few common are single crew tool post, four bolt tool post, open side
tool post and four way tool post.

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5. Apron: The apron is fastened to the saddle hangs over the front of the bed. It
contains gears, clutches and levers for operating carriage by hand and power feeds.
The apron also contains friction clutches for automatic feeds. In addition there is a
split nut, when engages with the lead screw different threads can be produced.

Fig. 3.7: Schematic of a typical carriage

3.5.5 Feed rod

The feed rod is a long shaft that has a keyway extending from the feed box
across and in front of the bed. The power is transmitted from the lathe spindle to the
apron gears through the feed rod through the large number of gears. The feed rod is
used to move the carriage or cross slide for turning, boring, facing and all other
operations except thread cutting.

3.5.6 Lead screw

The lead screw is a long threaded shaft used as a master screw, and is
brought into operation only when threads have to be manufactured. In all other
operations lead screw is disengaged from the gear box and remains stationary but
this may be used to provide motion for turning, boring etc. in lathes that are not
equipped with feed rod.

3.5.7 Chuck

The most common job holding device used in lathe is chuck. Apart from firmly
holding the job, the chuck also ensures the proper alignment of the job and spindle
to avoid abnormal vibrations during the rotation of the spindle and the job. Chucks

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are found in various designs and shape but most widely used are three jaw chuck,
independent jaw chuck (or four jaw chuck). Figure 3.8 shows schematics of both
these two chucks. The advantage of three jaw chuck is the quick way of centering
the job with the lathe axis.

Fig. 3.8: Chucks used in lathe for job holding

3.5.8 Faceplate

Sometimes instead of chuck it is suitable to use a faceplate for holding the

job. This has radial slots on the plate for the purpose of locating the components and
clamps the job by means of standard clamps. A typical faceplate is shown in Fig.
3.9.

Fig. 3.9: A typical faceplate used for job clamping in lathe

3.6 Operations performed on lathe (centre)

Lathe as a machine tool is capable of performing a large number of

operations with generation of various surfaces through different components setting.
Major operations performed on lathe machine are discussed below.

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3.6.1 Turning (straight)

Turning is by far the most generally used operation in lathe. In this, the work
held in the spindle is rotated while the tool is fed pas the workpiece in a direction
parallel to the axis of rotation. The surface thus generated is cylindrical surface.
Turning operation is schematically represented in Fig. 3.10.

Fig. 3.10: Turning operation in lathe

3.6.2 Facing

Facing is an operation for generating flat surfaces in lathes as shown in Fig.

3.11. The feed in this case is given in a direction perpendicular to the axis of
revolution. The tool used should thus have an approach angle suitable so that it
would not interfere with the workpiece during the tool feeding.

Fig. 3.11: Schematic of facing operation in lathe

3.6.3 Knurling

Knurling is a metal working operation done in a lathe. In this a knurling tool

having the requisite serrations is forced on the workpiece material, thus deforming
the top layer as shown in Fig. 3.12.
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 Fig. 3.12: Schematic of knurling operation in lathe

3.6.4 Parting and grooving

Parting and grooving similar operations that can be performed in lathe. In this,
a flat nose tool (parting tool) would plunge cut the workpiece with a feed in the
direction perpendicular to the axis of revolution as shown in Fig. 3.13. This
generation is usually used for cutting off the part from the parent material. When the
tool goes beyond the centre, the part would be severed. Otherwise, a rectangular
groove would be obtained.

Fig. 3.13: Schematic of parting operation in lathe with parting tool

3.6.5 Drilling

Drilling is the operation of making cylindrical holes into the solid material as
shown in Fig. 3.14. A twist drill is held in the quill of the tailstock and is fed into the
rotating workpiece by feeding the tailstock quill. Since the workpiece is rotating, the
workpiece of the hole is very well maintained even when the drill enters at an angle
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initially. This drilling operation is limited only to produce hole through the axis of
rotation only.

Fig. 3.14: Schematic of drilling operation in lathe

3.6.6 Boring

Boring is an operation of enlarging a hole already made by a single point

boring tool termed as boring bar as shown in Fig. 3.15. The operation is somewhat
similar to the external turning operation. Boring in lathe is preferred for better surface
finish.

Fig. 3.15: Schematic of boring bar

3.6.7 Taper turning

Taper turning in lathe is one of the most common applications. A number of

methods are available for producing tapers in a lathe. These are as follows.

A. using a compound slide

B. using form tools
C. offsetting the tailstock
D. using taper turning attachment

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A. Using the compound slide

The compound slide is an auxiliary slide underneath the toolpost and above
the carriage. It is possible to swivel the compound slide to the desired angle of taper
for producing taper surface as shown in Fig. 3.16. The tool is then made
perpendicular to the workpiece and feed is given manually by the operator. Some of
the features of this method are:

 short and steep tapers can be easily done

 limited movement of compound slide
 as the feed is given manually it leads to low productivity and poor surface
finish

Fig. 3.16: Taper turning using compound slide method in lathe

B. Using form tools

The earlier method for the production of taper suffers from limitation of low
productivity as the mounting and setting the job and tool takes countable time.
Another method for generating taper surface in lathe is by the use of form tool. In this
case a tool with predefined form angle is selected and feed is given directly to the
workpiece. This method is used for short taper and not suitable for long taper as this
leads to tool chattering and vibrations and thus poor surface finish. Moreover, this
process is affected by tool conditions such as cutting tool taper angle, cutting edge
conditions etc. A typical setup for this operation is shown in Fig. 3.17.

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 Fig. 3.17: Taper turning in lathe with form tool

C. Offsetting the tailstock

Fig. 3.18: Tailstock offset method for taper turning in lathe

In Fig. 3.18 schematically taper turning procedure with tailstock offsetting

method is shown. Referring to the figure,

𝐵𝐶
sin 𝛼 =
𝐴𝐵

𝑥 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝛼 = 𝐿 sin 𝛼

For a relatively small value of α, one can approximate as

𝐷−𝑑
sin 𝛼 ≈ tan 𝛼 ≈
2𝑙

Therefore,

𝐷−𝑑
𝑥=𝐿
2𝑙
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where,

𝑙 = length of workpiece

𝐿 = distance between centres

𝑥 = tailstock offset

𝛼 = half taper angle

𝐷 = larger taper diameter

𝑑 = smaller taper diameter

This method is suitable for small taper angle over a long job length. One of
the difficulty lies in this method in the centering of the job is difficult as the offset
leads to more thrust in radial direction of the lathe main spindle.

D. Using taper turning attachment

Apart from the aforementioned methods, another method for taper turning is
available with lathe and is known as taper turning using taper attachment. In this
method, a separate slideway is arranged at the rear of the cross slide. This slide can
be rotated at an angle to be set up. The clock that can slide in this taper slideway is
rigidly connected to the cross slide as shown in Fig. 3.19. The cross slide is made
floating by disconnecting it from the lead screw. As the carriage moved for feeding,
the block moves in the inclined track of the slide, and it gets the proportional cross
movement perpendicular to the feed direction. The cross slide and in turn the cutting
tool, also gets the proportional movement. Thus, the tool tip follows the taper
direction set in the attachment. However, in this position of the cross slide it cannot
be used for other turning operations.

Fig. 3.19: Taper turning in lathe using the taper attachment

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3.6.7 Chamfering

Chamfering, as illustrated schematically in Fig. 3.20, is the operation of

bevelling the extreme end of a workpiece. This is done to remove the burrs, to
protect the end of the workpiece from being damaged and to have better aesthetic
appeal. The operation may be performed after knurling, rough turning, drilling,
boring, thread cutting. Chamfering is an essential operation after thread cutting so
that the nut may pass freely on the threaded workpiece.

Fig. 3.20: Schematic representation of chamfering operation on lathe

3.7 Feed mechanism

The movement of the cutting tool relative to the work is referred as feed. A
lathe tool may have three types of feed – longitudinal, cross and angular. When the
cutting tool moves parallel to the lathe axis, the movement is termed as longitudinal
feed and is effected by the movement of the carriage. When the tool moves at the
right angle of the lathe axis with the help of the cross slide the movement is termed
as cross feed. When the movement of the cutting tool is at an angle to the lathe axis
with the help of the compound rest swivelled at an angle is referred as angular feed.

3.8 Thread cutting mechanism

The rotation of the lead screw is used to transverse the tool along with the
work to produce the screw threads. The half nut mechanism illustrated in Fig. 3.21
makes the carriage to engage or disengage with the lead screw. It comprises of a
pair of half nuts capable of moving in or out of mesh with the lead screw. The two
halves of the nuts connected in the slot in a circular disc by two pins. When the disc
is rotated by a hand attached to it, the pins being guided in the cam slots serve to
open or close the split nuts and thus engage or disengages with the lead screw. The
half nut slides within the guide or frame. Closing the half nut causes the carriage to
move a fixed distance for each revolution of the spindle. The direction in which it

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moves depends upon the position of the feed reverse lever on the headstock. The
split nut mechanism is used only for thread cutting.

Fig. 3.21: Half nut mechanism in lathe for thread cutting

Calculation of change of wheels for thread cutting

To calculate the wheels required for cutting a screw of certain pitch it is

necessary to know how the ratio is obtained, and exactly where the driving and
driven wheels are to be placed. Supposed the pitch of the lead screw is 12 mm and it
is required to cut a screw of 3 mm pitch, then the lathe spindle must rotate 4 times
the speed of the lead screw, that is

𝑆𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 4
=
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 1

Since, smaller gear turns faster than a larger gear with which it is connected. Thus,

𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑡
= =
𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤

For example, if a thread is having a pitch of 1 mm and pitch of lead screw is 6 mm,
then change of gears can be calculated as

𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑡 1 1 × 20 20

= = = =
𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 6 6 × 20 120

Thus, the driver gear, i.e., spindle will have 20 teeth and the driven gear on the lead
screw will have 120 teeth.

Depending on the space availability and availability of gears the gear trains
can be simple or compound. However, in compound gear train, intermediate gears
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do not have any influence on thread cutting and are only used for transmission of
motion in the same direction between driver and driven gears.

3.9 Important feature of Thread

The lathe is one of the most widely used machine tool for the production of
threads in small, medium and large scale. The lathe is capable to produce almost all
types of threads in the workpiece. A few features of the thread is essential to know to
work on lathe for the production of thread. Usually, features related to the thread
includes pitch of the thread, major diameter, and minor diameter. These are also
referred as the thread specifications that the lathe operator should be aware of
before processing the raw material. The different specifications associated with a
thread is shown in Fig. 3.22.

a. Pitch: It is the distance from one point on one thread to the corresponding
point on the adjacent thread.
b. Major diameter: It is the largest diameter of the screwed part measured at
right angle to the axis of the job.
c. Minor diameter: It is the smallest diameter of the screwed part measured at
right angle to the axis of the job.

Fig. 3.22: Schematic representation of a thread with its different specifications

Apart from the specifications of a thread, the threads are broadly classified
into two categories namely right hand thread and the left hand thread. The Fig. 3.23
represents the two types of the thread as mentioned. It is to note that the orientation
of the thread patterns about the central axis or the thread axis are different in each
cases.

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Fig. 3.23: Schematic representation of the left hand thread and the right hand thread

3.10 Process parameters during lathe operations

In any operations parameters that are responsible for affecting the outcome of
the process are referred as process parameters. Any deviation of any of thee the
process parameters or the deviation of combination of parameters from the desired
one leads to the product quality in various means. In lathe operations also selection
of suitable process parameters is essential for estimation of machinating time and
other characteristics of the process. In turning operations process parameters such
as cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut are significant. Among these parameters,
materials of the workpiece and tool, tool position and signatures, machine conditions
also affect the machining conditions. For an effective machining operation using
lathe combination of these parameters needs to be suitably selected for better
output.

3.10.1 Cutting speed

The cutting speed (𝜈) of a tool is the speed at which the material is removed
by the tool from the workpiece. In lathe, it is the peripheral speed of the workpiece
past the cutting tool expressed in meters per minute.

πDN
cutting speed (ν) = m/min
1000

where,

𝜈 = cutting speed in m/min

D = diameter of the workpiece in mm

N = rotational speed of workpiece in rev/min

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3.10.2 Feed (f)

The feed of a cutting tool in lathe work is the distance the tool advances for
each revolution of the work. Feed is expressed in millimetre per revolution (mm/rev)
of the workpiece. Increase in feed greatly reduced the cutting time but severely
reduces the tool life.

3.10.3 Depth of cut (d)

The depth of cut (𝑑) is the perpendicular distance measured from the
machined surface to the uncut surface of the workpiece. In a lathe the depth of cut is
expressed as follows.

𝐷1 − 𝐷2
Depth of cut =
2

where,

𝐷1 = diameter of the workpiece before machining

𝐷2 = diameter of the workpiece after machining

3.11 Machining time

The machining time in lathe work can be calculated for a particular operation if
the cutting speed, feed length of the workpiece is known.

If 𝑓 is the feed in mm/rev and 𝑙 is the length of the job in mm, then the number
of revolutions of the job required for a complete cut will be:

𝑙
time taken (T) = min
𝑓×𝑁

where,

𝑙 = length of the job in mm

𝑓 = feed in mm/min

𝑁 = job rotational speed in rev/min

Example 1: A grey cast iron is machined in a centre lathe in 1 minute with a single
cut. The shaft is 100 mm long and 75 mm in diameter. If the feed used is 0.30
mm/rev, what cutting speed was used?

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Solution:

Given,

Length of the job, 𝑙 = 100 mm

Diameter of the job, 𝐷 = 75 mm

Time taken for machining, 𝑇 = 1 min

Feed, 𝑓 = 0.30 mm/rev

To calculate cutting speed, 𝜈

Time taken for machining is

𝑙
𝑇= min
𝑓×𝑁

With the given information, N = 333.33 rev/min

From the equation of cutting speed, we have,

𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝜈= m/min
1000

Thus, 𝝂 = 78.53 m/min

3.12 Effect of process parameters on machining performance

Machining is affected by the aforementioned process parameters individually

or in combinations during the lathe operations. The following summarizes the effects
of these on machining performance.

Cutting speed: The selection of suitable cutting speed on lathe operations is crucial
as it defines the product quality in terms of surface finish, dimensional accuracy etc.
High cutting speeds are preferred for ductile materials and low or average cutting
speeds are preferred for brittle materials. But increase in cutting speed in general
reduces the tool life than lower cutting speed. To achieve higher surface finish during
turning, higher cutting speeds are generally followed over lower cutting speed that
generates poor surface finish.

Depth of cut: Depth of cut influences the machining operation in many aspects.
Primarily, a sensible depth of cut is given during the turning operations depending of

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the amount of machining to be performed. It also depends on the number of cutting
passes to be used for the machining. In general, a high depth of cut results in high
tool chatters that increase the risk of tool breakage and failure. Moreover, high depth
of cut is usually preferred for ductile materials and for brittle materials lower values of
depth of cut is preferred.

Feed: Feed and feed rate highly govern the machining performance. Relatively
reasonable feed rate is used during machining. The selection of feed rate depends
on many factors such as materials under processing; cutting speed selected, tool
conditions, use of cutting fluid or coolant, number of cutting passes, desired surface
finish, machine tool specifications etc. Thus, it is not possible to conclude or define a
general feed rate range for different materials. It needs experience and knowledge
for selection of a proper feed rate. In practice, it is believed that, higher feed rate
usually results in poor surface finish and poor dimensional accuracy.

4. Capstan and Turret lathes

A capstan or a turret lathe is a production lathe used to manufacture any

number of identical pieces in the minimum time. These lathes are development of
engine lathes. The capstan lathe was first developed in United States of America by
Pratt and Whitney somewhere around 1860. The semiautomatic lathes, capstan
lathe and turret lathe are very similar in construction, operation and application.
Figure 3.24 shows a schematic representation of basic configuration of capstan
lathe and Fig. 3.25 shows schematic of turret lathe.

Fig. 3.24: Basic configuration of capstan lathe

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 Fig. 3.25: Basic configuration of a turret lathe

4.1 Difference between capstan and turret lathe and engine lathe

Although capstan and turret lathes are the development of engine lathe but
bears some differences owing to its construction and operation. These differences
are highlighted as follows.

i. The headstock of the turret lathe is similar to that of the engine lathe in
construction but possesses wide range of speeds and is much heavier than
the engine lathe.
ii. The tool post mounted on the cross slide of a turret lathe is a four way tool
post which holds four tools which may be indexed by 90° and each tool may
be brought into operation in a regular order. In addition to this, there is a rear
tool post mounted upon the carriage which holds another tool whereas, in
engine lathe the practice is to hold only one tool at a time during operation.
iii. In turret lathe the tailstock of an engine is replaced by a turret. This is a six
sided block each side of which may carry one or more tools. Thus, in place of
a tailstock in centre lathe which can accommodate only one tool of limited
size, the six faces of the turret holds one or more tools. These tools may be
indexed one after another to perform different operations in a regular order.
This is quite advantageous is mass production work.
iv. The feed movement of each tool set on square or hexagonal turret may be
regulated by stops and feed trips. They enable the same tool to perform
operations on each workpiece to a predetermined amount making duplication
of work without further measurement.

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 v. In a turret lathe, combination cuts can be taken. Two or more tool may be
mounted on the same face of the turret making it possible to machine more
than one surface at a time. This feature reduces total operational time. In
centre lathe this type or arrangement is quite uncommon.
vi. Capstan and turret lathes are not usually fitted with leadscrew for cutting
threads similar to an engine lathe. The threads are usually cut by dieheads
and taps. A short length leadscrew called ‘cashing screw’ are sometimes
provided for cutting threads by a chaser in a turret lathe.

4.2 Difference between capstan and turret lathe

The following summarizes the basic difference between a turret and capstan
lathe.

Turret lathe Capstan lathe

1 In turret lathe the main turret is
directly installed on the saddle Capstan lathe is ram type turret lathe and
and the saddle is move along the the movement of the ram is limited.
entire length of the lathe bed.
In turret lathe the turret tool head Turret head is mounted on a slide called
2 is directly mounted on the saddle as ram which is mounted on the saddle in
and they appear like a single unit. case of capstan lathes.
In turret lathe saddle is moved for But in case of capstan lathe saddle is
3
providing feed to the tool. fixed at a point but ram is moved.
Saddle is move along the entire The short strokes of the ram have some
4 length so it is used to machining limitations so this lathe is used to
of large work pieces. machining of small work piece only.
It has slower operation because
It has fast working operations because
5 of heavy weight of all the
lighter in construction.
components.
In turret lathe limit dogs are used In case of capstan lathe feed stop screws
6 to control the movement of the are provided at the rear side of the turret
tool. for controlling the tool movement.
It is used to machine large work Relatively less feed and depth of cut are
7 piece so large depth of cut and provided for machining because used for
feed is provided for machining. small work pieces.
In turret lathes external threads
are generally cut by a single point But in case of capstan lathe external
or a multipoint chasing tool which threads are cut using a self-opening die
8
is installed on the front slide and which is mounted on the one face of the
moved by a short lead screw and turret.
a swing type half nut.
Turret lathe is mostly single
spindle and horizontal type lathe But the capstan lathe is usually single
9
but may be vertical and multi spindle and horizontal axis type only.
spindle type in some cases.
In turret lathes power operated In case of capstan lathe hand operated
10 jaw chucks are used to hold the collect chucks are used for holing the work
work piece. piece.
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4.3 Turret indexing mechanism

A simple line sketch of the mechanism is shown in Fig. 3.26. The schematic
represents an inverted plan of the turret assembly. The turret 1 is mounted on the
spindle 5, which rests rest on a bearing on the turret saddle. The index plate 2, the
bevel gear 3, and an indexing ratchet 4 are keyed to the spindle 5. The plunger 14
fitted within the housing and mounted on the saddle locks the index plate by spring
15 pressure and prevents any rotary movement of the turret as the tool feeds into the
work. A pin 13 fitted on the plunger 14 projects out of the housing. An actuating cam
10 and the indexing pawl 7 are attached to the lathe bed 9 at the desired position.
Both the cam and the spring are spring loaded. As the turret reaches the backward
position, the actuating cam lifts the plunger 14 out of the groove in the index plate
due to the riding of the pin 13 on the bevelled surface of the cam 10 and thus
unlocks the index plate 2. The spring loaded pawl 7 which by this time engages a
groove of the ratchet plate 4, causes the ratchet to rotate as the turret head move
backward. When the index plate or the turret rotates through one sixth of revolution,
the pin 13 and the plunger 14 drops out of the cam 10 and the plunger locks the
index plate at the next groove. The turret is thus indexed by one sixth of revolution
and again locked into the new position automatically. The turret holding the nest tool
is now fed forward and the pawl is released from the ratchet plate by the spring
pressure.

The bevel pinion 6 meshes with the bevel gear 3 mounted on the turret
spindle. The extension of the pinion shaft carries a plate holding six adjustable stop
rods 8. As the turret rotates one sixth of the revolution, the bevel gear 3 causes the
plate to rotate. The ratio of the teeth between the pinion and the gear are so chosen
that when the tool mounted on the face of the turret is indexed to bring it to the
cutting position, the particular stop rod for controlling the longitudinal travel of the tool
is aligned with the stop 12. The setting of the stop rods 8 for limiting the feed of each
operation may be adjusted by unscrewing the loc nuts and rotating the stop rods on
the plate. Thus six stop rods may be adjusted for controlling the longitudinal travel of
the tools mounted on six faces of the turret.

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 Fig. 3.26: Schematic of turret indexing mechanism

4.4 Bar feeding mechanism

The capstan and turret lathe while working on bar work require some
mechanism for bar feeding. The long bars which protrude out of the headstock
spindle require to be fed through the spindle up to the bar stop after the first piece is
completed and the collect chuck is opened. In simple cases, the bar might be
pushed by hand. But the process unnecessarily increases the total operational time,
because the spindle and the ling bar must come to a dead stop before any
adjustment can be made. Various types of bar feeding mechanisms have been
therefore designed which push the bar forward immediately after the collect releases
the work without stopping the machine, enabling the setting time to be reduced to the
minimum. Fig. 3.27 illustrates a simple bar feeding mechanism. The bar 6 is passed
through the bar chuck 3, spindle of the machine and then through the collet chuck.
The bar chuck 3 rotates in the sliding bracket body 2 which is mounted on a ling side
bar. The bar chuck 3 grips the bar centrally by two set screws 5 and rotates with the
bar in the sliding bracket body 2. One end of the chain 8 is connected to the pin 9
fitted on the sliding bracket 10 and the other end supports a weight 4, the chain
running over the two fixed pulleys 7 and 11 mounted on the slide. The weight 4
constantly exerts end thrust on the bar chuck while it revolves on the sliding bracket
and forces the bar through the spindle, the moment the collet chuck is released.
Thus bar feeding may be accomplished without stopping the machine.

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 Fig. 3.27: Schematic of bar feeding mechanism

4.5 Tool holding devices and cutting tools in capstan and turret lathe

Capstan and turret lathes are used for production of various components in
mass production system. For this variety tools and tool holding devices are used in
general. Tool holding devices and tools are mounted on the turret face and in the
tool post mounted on the compound slide in the lathes. Few essential tool holding
devices are listed below.

i. Straight cutter holder

ii. Plain or adjustable angle cutter holder
iii. Multiple cutter holder
iv. Offset cutter holder
v. Combination tool holder
vi. Slide tool holder
vii. Knee tool holder
viii. Boring bar holder
ix. Drill holder
x. Reamer holder
xi. Knurling tool holder
xii. Recessing tool holder
xiii. Form tool holder

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xiv. Tap holder
xv. Die holder
xvi. Balanced tool holder
xvii. Bar ending tool holder

The different tools mounted on the tool holders on the turret face and tools
mounted on the compound slide are similar in construction as that of centre lathe
tools. The tools mounted on the compound slide loosely perform turning, facing,
necking and parting off operations. The standard tools are listed below.

i. Turning tool
ii. Facing tool
iii. Parting tool
iv. Chamfering tool
v. Grooving and recessing tool
vi. Forming tool
vii. Drill
viii. Boring tool
ix. Counter bore
x. Reamer
xi. External thread cutting tool
xii. Internal thread cutting tool

4.6 Turret tooling layout

In order to perform any work in a capstan and turret lathe, proper planning for
systematic operations should be carried out in advance before setting the work on
the lathe. The tooling layout is basically a representation ordered and systematic
operations need to be performed during the production of a job. With the example of
production of a hexagonal head bolt the idea of tooling layout would be clearer.

A. The capacity chart of the machine is made available. The chart supplied by
manufacturers contains every working details of the machine such as
maximum and minimum diameter of the job that can be mounted, maximum
length of stroke of the turret and saddle, maximum length of the cross slide
movement, tools available, swing diameter over the carriage, bore diameter
on the turret face, bore diameter of the spindle, maximum size of the collet
chuck, number of spindle speed, feed etc.

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 B. The drawing of the finished hexagonal bolt is taken into consideration.
C. The tools and equipment such as bar stop, roller steady turning tool holder,
roller steady ending tool holder, self-opening die head, chamfering tool,
parting tool are collected.
D. The sketch of the work and tools are superimposed on the capacity chart to
decide the length of the travel of the tool and the positions of stops.
E. Proper speeds and feeds for each operation are calculated.
F. Setting and machining operations are performed in the following order:
a. Setting of the bar stops: The bar stop is set a distance of 70 mm
(length of the bolt is 60 mm including the head height) from the
collet face by using a slip gauge. An extra length of 10 mm than the
bolt length is allowed, 4 mm for parting off and 6 mm for clearance
off the collet face so that the parting off tool may penetrate deep
into the work without any interference.

Fig. 3.28: Setting of bar stop (1. Workstop 2. Position of bar stop 3. Hexagonal bar)

b. Setting of the roller steady box turning tool: The roller steady box
turning tool is set on the next turret face for turning a diameter of 16
mm. The stop for turning the tool is set 20 mm from the collet face
by a slip gauge. The rollers are set slightly behind the cutting
edges, approximately 1.5 mm.

Fig. 3.29: Setting of box turning tool (1. Roller 2. Turning tool 3. Position of stop rod)

c. Setting of bar ending tool: the bar ending tool is set on the next
turret face and is brought into operation after turning the bar. The
stop is adjusted in the position by using a slip gauge.

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 Fig. 3.30: Setting of bar ending tool (1. Roller 2. Bar ending 3. Position of stop rod)

d. Setting of die opening die head: The self-opening die head is

mounted on the next face of the turret and the dies are fitted into it
to cut a thread of 16 mm diameter. The stop is adjusted in a
position keeping in view the pulling out length of the die head for
self-releasing.

Fig. 3.31: Setting of self-opening die head (1. Die head 2. Position of stop rod 3.
Pulling out length)

e. Setting of chamfering tool: The chamfering tool is mounted on the

four station turret on the cross slide and the extreme longitudinal
position of the saddle is adjusted by a stop.

Fig. 3.32: Setting of chamfering tool (1. Position of stop on cross slide 2. Chamfering
tool 3. Turret saddle stop)

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 f. Setting of parting off tool: The parting of tool is set on the rear tool
post on the cross slide and the longitudinal position of the parting
off tool is adjusted by the stop set a distance of 6 mm from the
turret face.

Fig. 3.33: Setting of parting off tool (1. Parting off tool 2. Position of stop rod)

4.7 Tooling schedule chart

A tooling schedule chart for each workpiece is of great importance in capstan

or turret lathe work for ready reference. A tooling schedule chart for the above
operations is given below.

Machine – 75 mm capstan lathe Material: A hexagonal mild

steel bar
Operation
Description of operation Tool positions Tools
No.
1 Hold in collet 1st turret position
Bar stop
2 Turn to 16 mm diameter 2nd turret position
Roller steady box
turning tool
3 Form end of bolt rd
3 turret position Roller steady bar
ending tool
4 Thread 16 mm th
4 turret position Self-opening die
head with chasers
for 16 mm
5 Chamfer Front cross slide Chamfering tool
tool post
6 Parting off Rear tool post Parting off tool

**********

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