BM 2016 11
BM 2016 11
BM 2016 11
A consumer-perceived consumer-
based brand equity scale
Received (in revised form): 15th March 2016
Sally Baalbaki
research interests include branding, cross-cultural marketing, consumer behavior and sales. Her research has appeared in the
Journal of International Diversity, The American Journal of Business and Management, The Global Education Journal, The Technology
Management Journal, and The Diversity, Culture, Change Journal.
Francisco Guzmán
research focuses on branding toward social values and branding and sustainability; particularly on public-private
collaborations, sponsorships, corporate social responsibility, green marketing and strategic corporate brand building. His
research has appeared in a range of journals such as the Journal of International Marketing, European Journal of Marketing,
Industrial Marketing Management, Journal of Marketing Management, Journal of Brand Management, Journal of Political Marketing,
and Harvard Business Review América Latina, among others. He is currently co-editor of the Journal of Product and Brand
Management.
© 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1350-231X Journal of Brand Management Vol. 23, 3, 229–251
www.palgrave-journals.com/bm/
Baalbaki and Guzmán
measuring and managing brand equity has important in today’s marketplace where
grown rapidly in the eyes of practitioners consumers are actively participating in
and academics alike (for example, Aaker and brand identity creation (Vallaster and von
Keller, 1990; Aaker, 1991, 1996; Keller, Wallapach, 2013). Past research shows that
1993; Ailawadi et al, 2003; Netemeyer et al, brand identity is not solely created by com-
2004; Erdem et al, 2006). This has resulted panies anymore (Prahalad and Ramaswamy,
in ‘several often-divergent view-points on 2004; Csaba and Bengtsson, 2006; Schau
the dimensions of brand equity, the factors et al, 2009; Ind et al, 2013). Given that
that influence it, the perspectives from branding has become a collaborative, value
which it should be studied, and the ways to co-creation activity (Brodie et al, 2006;
measure it’ (Ailawadi et al, 2003, p. 1). One Merz et al, 2009), this article explores the
aspect that academics seem to agree on is dimensions that consumers use to assess
that brand equity is a multi-dimensional the value of a brand, and develops, validates
construct. and proposes a new consumer-perceived
Aaker’s (1991) and Keller’s (1993) consumer-based brand equity scale.
conceptualizations of brand equity are the The objective of this article is to develop
most well-known and commonly adopted. a brand equity conceptualization and scale
Neither author, though, operationalized a determined by dimensions that consumers
scale for measurement. Moreover, Aaker’s perceive. Despite the importance of the
(1991) brand equity dimensions are ques- concept, and the need for brand equity
tionable (Christodoulides et al, 2015) and measures, the literature lacks an empiri-
‘are accepted largely on the basis of face cally based consumer-perceived brand
validity and no attempt is made to argue equity scale. A multi-step scale develop-
their relative importance or possible inter- ment process was adopted in order to
relation’ (Shocker, 1993, p. 257). Many develop and validate the consumer-perceived
academics have thus taken to the task of consumer-based brand equity scale, which is
quantifying brand equity. All have used made up of four dimensions: quality, pre-
Aaker (1991) and Keller’s (1993) con- ference, social influence and sustainability.
ceptualizations, and have not taken into This new robust scale contributes to the
account what characteristics of a brand are theoretical understanding of consumer-
important to consumers – that is, brand based brand equity measurement, and assists
equity dimensions. In other words, the brand managers in measuring brand equity
literature lacks an empirically based con- and understanding how consumers value
sumer-perceived brand equity scale. Since brands in order to develop successful brand
brands are psychological concepts in con- strategies.
sumers’ minds (Bedbury and Fenichell,
2002) – that is, brands are what people per-
ceive them to be – the consumer is an active LITERATURE REVIEW
participant or partner in the creation of
equity for the brand (Blackston, 2000). Brand equity
Thus, taking into account the dimensions Although there is no universally accepted
that consumers use to assess the value of a definition of brand equity, most authors
brand is critical to understand, manage, and agree with Farquhar’s (1989) definition that
measure brand equity directly and more brand equity denotes ‘the added value with
effectively. which a given brand endows a product’
Furthermore, this approach for assessing (p. 24). Strong brand equity leads to oppor-
the value of a brand seems evermore tunities for successful brand extensions,
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A consumer-perceived consumer-based brand equity scale
resilience against competitor’s promotional brand equity as ‘a set of brand assets and
efforts, and creation of barriers of entry to liabilities linked to a brand, its name and
competition (Farquhar, 1989) – that is, it symbol, that add to or subtract from the
provides a competitive advantage. A more value provided by a product or service to a
formal definition of brand equity is pro- firm and/or to that firm’s customers’. Aaker
posed by Ailawadi et al (2003, p. 1): ‘the proposes four dimensions of brand equity:
outcomes that accrue to a product with its brand awareness, brand loyalty, brand associa-
brand name compared with those that tions and perceived quality. Keller (1993)
would accrue if the same product did not defines CBBE by stating that the power of
have the brand name’. a brand rests in consumer’s minds; on what
Brand equity emanates from three differ- they have learned, felt, seen and heard
ent perspectives. The first is the cognitive about the brand through time. Hence,
psychology perspective, which defines CBBE is ‘the differential effect of brand
brand equity as the differential consumer knowledge on consumer response to the
response to a brand’s marketing mix that marketing of the brand’ (Keller, 1993, p. 2).
results from consumers’ associations to a
brand (that is, Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1993;
Anderson, 2007). The second is the Brand equity measurement
information economics perspective, which Brand equity has been measured according
defines brand equity as the increased utility to the three previously discussed perspec-
that a brand name gives to a product (that is, tives: at the customer level (Aaker, 1991;
Wernerfelt, 1988; Erdem and Swait, 1998). Keller, 1993; Shocker et al, 1994; Lassar
The third is the financial markets perspec- et al, 1995; Aaker and Joachimsthaler,
tive, which defines brand equity as a finan- 2000; Berry, 2000; Chen, 2001; Bendixen
cial measure of a firm’s market value minus et al, 2003; Baker et al, 2005; Srinivasan
its tangible asset value (that is, Simon et al, 2005; Tong and Hawley, 2009;
and Sullivan, 1993). A fourth category of Christodoulides et al, 2012), the company
brand equity has been recently proposed: or firm level (Farquhar et al, 1991;
employee-based brand equity is ‘the differential Cobb-Walgren et al, 1995; Dyson et al,
effect that brand knowledge has on an 1996; Kapferer, 1997; Doyle, 2001; Kim
employee’s response to their work envir- et al, 2003; Ferjani et al, 2009; King and
onment’ (King and Grace, 2009, p. 130). Grace, 2009), and the financial market level
All these different perspectives are relevant (Simon and Sullivan, 1993; Aaker and
and complementary to each other, as Jacobson, 1994; Barth et al, 1998). Many
nowadays the value of a brand is created in a authors have also developed models that
participative way by multiple stakeholders encompass all aspects of brand equity (Srivastava
(Merz et al, 2009; Payne et al, 2009; Hatch et al, 1998; Epstein and Westbrook, 2001;
and Schultz, 2010). Recent research has Keller and Lehmann, 2003; Burmann et al,
identified that customer-based brand equity 2009).
(CBBE) scales do not adequately explain There are two complementary approa-
FBBE, and thus call for treating both con- ches to measurement: (i) a direct approach,
structs independently (Nguyen et al, 2015). which measures CBBE by assessing the
Therefore, this research exclusively focuses actual impact of brand knowledge on cus-
on the consumer-based value perspective. tomer response to different marketing ele-
The two most influential conceptualiza- ments, and (ii) an indirect approach, which
tions of brand equity are Aaker’s (1991) and assesses potential sources of CBBE by iden-
Keller’s (1993). Aaker (1991, p.15) defines tifying and tracking customers’ brand
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Baalbaki and Guzmán
knowledge structure. Examples of the direct however, does not break down the
approach include the financial or market- non-attribute based component of brand
outcome-based measures of brand equity equity for further insights. Jourdan (2002)
such as revenue premium (Ailawadi et al, improves the reliability and validity of
2003; Ferjani et al, 2009), brand equity as a Park and Srinivasan’s (1994) measurement.
price premium measure (Holbrook, 1992; He notes that Park and Srinivasan’s calcula-
Randall et al, 1998), and brand equity as tion of differences of utilities includes an
a measure of brand extendibility (Randall error term. Therefore, Jourdan (2002) uses a
et al, 1998). Examples of the indirect repeated measures experimental design to
approach include the measurement of brand show that an error component is not negli-
equity that takes an overall picture of the gible in this case. Although this method has
brand and looks at it through its dimensions. advantages over its predecessors, the com-
Most authors that have used the indirect plex experimental design used makes it dif-
approach have developed scales to measure ficult to put into practice.
brand equity at different levels and using Leuthesser et al (1995) begin with the
different contexts (Lassar et al, 1995; Yoo assumption that personal evaluation of a
and Donthu, 2001; Vazquez et al, 2002; de given brand on a number of attributes is
Chernatony et al, 2004; Christodoulides always biased since consumers are pre-
et al, 2006; Christodoulides et al, 2012; disposed toward brands they know. This
Veloutsou et al, 2013). predisposition is manifest through the psy-
chological ‘halo effect’, which the authors
believe is the basis of brand equity. In order
Direct approaches to isolate the outcome of the ‘halo effect’
Srinivasan (1979), Park and Srinivasan, the authors use two techniques: ‘partialling
(1994) and Jourdan (2002) use a multi- out’ and ‘double centering’. This method,
attribute model to measure consumer-based however, does not indicate the under-
brand equity. Srinivasan (1979) measures lying dimensions of consumer-based brand
brand equity – ‘brand-specific effect’ – by equity, measures equity at the aggregate
comparing actual choice preferences with rather than at the individual level, and is
consumer preferences obtained through difficult to use by brand managers.
conjoint analysis. The difference between Kamakura and Russell (1993) use a
overall preference and the preference esti- segment-wise logit model to examine
mated by the model is quantified into a consumers’ actual purchase behavior. The
monetary scale. The limitation of this authors use real purchase data from super-
method is that it provides only segment- market checkout counters in their empirical
level estimates of brand equity that do not estimation of a model of Brand Value. They
shed light on the sources of brand value. go on to identify two major sources of
Park and Srinivasan (1994) develop a sur- brand equity: Brand Value (which provides
vey-based method for measuring and a good diagnostic for a brand’s competi-
understanding a brand’s equity in a product tive position) and Intangible Brand Value
category. They obtain a brand equity mea- (which isolates the utility associated with
sure at the individual level by dividing intangible factors such as brand associations
brand equity into attribute-based (based and perceptual distortions). This approach,
on consumers’ evaluations of the brand’s however, evaluates consumer-based brand
physical characteristics), and non-attribute- equity at the aggregate level, similar to
based (based on symbolic associations attached Srinivasan (1979), and can only be used
to the brand) components. Their method, when scanner data is available.
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A consumer-perceived consumer-based brand equity scale
Swait et al (1993) build on the informa- (MBBE). They argue that consumer pre-
tion economics paradigm by using the ference for a branded product is a result
entire value attached to a brand rather than of the incremental profit generated by a
isolating specific parameters. They argue branded product versus a private-label
that any measure of brand equity should product. Without the need to collect
reflect total utility because the effect of consumer brand association data, they
brand equity occurs throughout the com- present a method that provides dollar-
ponents of the utility function. Hence, metric values for brand equity while taking
they propose a measure of consumer-based into account the effects of brand awareness
brand equity called ‘Equalization Price’ and market availability as sources of brand
(EP). EP is a measure of the implicit value of equity. Their approach is novel and effec-
a brand in a market where some degree tive in terms of determining FBBE, but
of differentiation exists versus its implicit not CBBE.
value in a market characterized by no brand
differentiation. Swait et al (1993) propose a
method that permits the calculation of Indirect approaches
consumer-based brand equity at the indivi- Indirect approaches to the measurement of
dual level, identifies the sources of brand brand equity take an overall picture of the
associations and determines their weighted brand and look at it through its manifest
importance in terms of consumer utility. dimensions. For example, Lassar et al (1995)
Nevertheless, the model assumes that all propose five CBBE dimensions perfor-
consumers have identical preferences, so mance, value, social image, trustworthiness
unless it is being tested in homogeneous and commitment. They use survey data
consumer choice markets this method is from consumers collected in two product
inappropriate. categories: TV monitors and watches. Their
Shankar et al (2008) develop a model 17-item Likert scale has adequate levels of
of brand equity based on a customer survey internal consistency and discriminant valid-
and financial measures. They describe two ity. However, the scale does not include any
parts to brand equity, offering value and behavioral components of brand equity
relative brand importance. The authors such as loyalty. Also, the authors do not
propose certain drivers of brand image that report any tests on the scale’s external
can be captured through a consumer survey: validity.
brand reputation, brand uniqueness, brand Vazquez et al (2002), develop a measure-
fit, brand associations, brand trust, brand ment instrument of brand equity that has
innovation, brand regard and brand fame. four basic dimensions: product functional
This method combines both financial and utility, product symbolic utility, brand
consumer data, but does not take into con- name functional utility and brand name
sideration that some companies’ financial symbolic utility. Their 22-item scale shows
measures may be unavailable at the brand a reasonable degree of reliability and validity
level. In addition, this is an aggregate mea- for the sports shoes sector and is relatively
sure of brand equity because only relative easy to administer. Kocak et al (2007) try to
brand importance is measured at the indivi- replicate the results of Vazquez et al (2002)
dual level. in Turkey. They use the exact same 22-item
Ferjani et al (2009) combine a model- scale, which was originally developed and
ing approach and a conjoint methodology tested in Spain, in the sports shoes sector as
to understand the relationships between well. Kocak et al (2007) find that the original
CBBE and market-based brand equity scale does not work for the Turkish sample,
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Baalbaki and Guzmán
234 © 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1350-231X Journal of Brand Management Vol. 23, 3, 229–251
© 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1350-231X Journal of Brand Management Vol. 23, 3, 229–251
Direct approach
1 Srinivasan 1979 Measurement Use the multi-attribute model to N.A. N.A. ‘Brand-specific effect’ is the component of a brand’s overall
measure consumer-based prefernce that is not explained by the multi-attribute model
brand equity.
2 Kamakura and Russell 1993 Scale Looked at perceived quality and N.A. Perceived quality, brand intangible value The implied utility or value assigned to a brand by consumer
brand intangible value of
CBBE
3 Swait et al 1993 Scale EP as a measure of brand equity N.A. N.A. Propose a measure of consumer-based brand equity called EP which
is the monetary expression of the utility a consumer attributes
Indirect approach
1 Lassar et al 1995 Measuring CBBE Keller (1993) Performance, social image, value, trust Brand equity stems from the greater confidence that consumers place in
worthiness and attachment a brand than they do in its competitors. This confidence translates
into consumers’ loyalty and their willingness to pay a premium price
for the brand
2 Yoo and Donthu 2001 MBE scale Aaker (1991, 1996) Brand loyalty, perceived quality and brand Consumers’ different response between a focal brand and an unbranded
and Keller (1993) awareness/associations product when both have the same level of marketing stimuli and
product attributes
3 Vazquez et al 2002 Developing and validating a Kamakura and Product utility (product functional utility, The overall utility that the consumer associates to the use and
measurement instrument for Russell (1993) product symbolic utility) and brand consumption of the brand; including associations expressing both
consumer-based brand equity and Cobb- name utility (brand name functional functional and symbolic utilities
Walgren et al utility, brand name symbolic utility)
(1995)
4 Washburn and Plank 2002 Modifications of the Yoo and Donthu Aaker (1991, 1996) Brand loyalty, perceived quality and brand Consumers’ different response between a focal brand and an unbranded
(2001) scale and Keller (1993) awareness/associations product when both have the same level of marketing stimuli and
product attributes
5 de Chernatony et al 2004 Developed a brand performance Depth interviews Brand loyalty, satisfaction, reputation Marketing Science Institute (MSI) definition of Brand Equity
measure for financial services
brands
6 Netemeyer et al 2004 Developing and validating measures of Aaker (1991, 1996) Perceived quality, perceived value for the From Keller: CBBE occurs when the consumer is familiar with the brand
facets of CBBE and Keller (1993) cost, uniqueness, and the willingness to and holds some favorable, strong and unique associations in memory
pay a price premium for a brand
7 Pappu et al 2005 An improvement to the measurement Aaker (1991, 1996) Brand awareness, brand associations, From Farquhar: value endowed by the brand to the product
of consumer-based brand equity and Keller (1993) perceived quality and brand loyalty
8 Christodoulides et al 2006 Conceptualizing and measuring the Qualitative research Emotional connection, online experience, Online Retail/Service (ORS) Brand equity is defined as a relational type
equity of online brands responsive service nature, trust and of intangible asset that is co-created through the interaction between
fulfillment consumers and the e-tail brand
9 Kocak et al 2007 Replication of the consumer-based Vasquez et al (2002) Product utility and brand name utility From Vazquez et al: overall utility that consumer associates to the use
equity scale developed by Vazquez (revised scale from 22 to 16 items) and consumption of the brand, including associations expressing both
et al (2002) functional and symbolic utilities
10 Guizani et al 2009 Working paper; development of a Aaker (1991, 1996) Brand loyalty, perceived brand quality, From Farquhar: value added by the brand name to the product
scale for consumer brand equity and Keller (1993) brand knowledge and social value
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A consumer-perceived consumer-based brand equity scale
© 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1350-231X Journal of Brand Management Vol. 23, 3, 229–251 239
Baalbaki and Guzmán
Brand preference
I consider myself to be loyal to (X) Yoo and Donthu (2001)
(X) would be my first choice Yoo and Donthu (2001)
I will not buy other brands if (X) is available at the store Yoo and Donthu (2001)
I feel that (X) is trustworthy Qualitative research
(X) is an honest brand Qualitative research
I feel comfortable when I buy (X) Qualitative research
(X) is a dependable brand Qualitative research
I am committed to buying (X) Berry (2000)
Perceived quality
The quality of (X) is extremely high Yoo and Donthu (2001)
The functionality of (X) is very high Yoo and Donthu (2001)
The reliability of (X) is very high Qualitative research
(X) is consistent in the quality it offers Qualitative research
The durability of (X) is very high Qualitative research
The performance of (X) is very high Qualitative research
Perceived value
(X) has consistent quality Sweeney and Soutar (2001)
(X) is well made Sweeney and Soutar (2001)
(X) has an acceptable standard of quality Sweeney and Soutar (2001)
(X) has poor workmanship Sweeney and Soutar (2001)
(X) would not last a long time Sweeney and Soutar (2001)
(X) performs consistently Sweeney and Soutar (2001)
(X) is a brand I would enjoy Sweeney and Soutar (2001)
(X) would make me want to use it Sweeney and Soutar (2001)
(X) is a brand that I would feel relaxed about using Sweeney and Soutar (2001)
(X) would make me feel good Sweeney and Soutar (2001)
(X) would be economical Sweeney and Soutar (2001)
(X) is reasonably priced Sweeney and Soutar (2001)
(X) offers value for money Sweeney and Soutar (2001)
(X) is a good product for the price Sweeney and Soutar (2001)
(X) would help me to feel acceptable Sweeney and Soutar (2001)
(X) would improve the way I am perceived Sweeney and Soutar (2001)
(X) would make a good impression on other people Sweeney and Soutar (2001)
(X) would give its owner social approval Sweeney and Soutar (2001)
Sustainability
(X) is an environmentally safe brand Qualitative research
(X) is a sustainable brand Qualitative research
(X) is a healthy brand Qualitative research
(X) is a brand with a good reputation Qualitative research
(X) is an environmentally responsible brand Qualitative research
(X) is a socially responsible brand Brown and Dacin (1997)
(X) is more beneficial to society’s welfare than other brands Brown and Dacin (1997)
(X) does not contribute something to society Brown and Dacin (1997)
average variance explained of 85 per cent factors were above the cut-off point (see
between the 3 brands. At this point, only Churchill, 1979; Parasuraman et al, 1988;
initial testing of the internal reliability of the Spector, 1992). Following the examination
extracted factors was performed in the form of the EFA results and analysis of the relia-
of Cronbach’s coefficient alpha (α). The bility and conceptual coherency of the
cut-off value adopted was 0.70 and all indicated factors, the six identified factors
240 © 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1350-231X Journal of Brand Management Vol. 23, 3, 229–251
A consumer-perceived consumer-based brand equity scale
Male Female < = 30 > 30 < = High school > High school
were: quality, preference, sustainability, social received equal responses in both population
influence, durability and perceived value. Given groups (see Table 6).
that the pre-test was the first time this
survey was used, the emergence of multi-
ple dimensions is not surprising given its
Assessment of the reliability and
exploratory nature. Furthermore, the sam-
validity of the scale
ple size was relatively small (90 responses),
The proposed dimensions were assessed
so a larger sample size should yield a clearer
in terms of reliability and validity (Spector,
picture of the dimensions. It is important to
1992). The analysis for all three brands
note, though, that all four dimensions that
(see Tables 7, 8 and 9) yielded a 21-item
originated in the qualitative research were
factor structure made up of four factors:
re-validated in this pre-test (quality, pre-
quality, preference, sustainability and social
ference, sustainability and perceived value).
influence. The scale was reduced from six to
four dimensions due to the fact that the
items in the previously labeled ‘perceived
Data collection value’ and ‘durability’ dimensions did not
In order to test and validate the initial factors meet the .70 Cronbach’s α cut-off. There-
identified, a second survey using two differ- fore, the resultant four dimensions were
ent samples; a student sample and a consumer labeled: quality, preference, sustainability and
sample, was used. Data were collected simul- social influence.
taneously from the two samples (477 stu- The student sample and the consumer
dents and 403 consumers). The student sample were analyzed separately. For the
sample was made up of marketing under- student sample, the descriptive statistics can
graduate students, 57 per cent of which be found in Table 10. The reliability coef-
were female, 94 per cent were less than ficients for the resulting factors are high for
30 years old, and 94 per cent had higher all three brands (ranging from 0.70 to 0.97).
than a high school degree. The consumer In addition, the inter-item correlations
group was a nation-wide representative for the 21 items are acceptable with each
sample and data was collected using an item above the cut-off point of 0.30.
omnibus survey. In the consumer sample, The descriptive statistics for the consumer
52 per cent were female, 24 per cent were sample can be found in Table 11. Con-
less than 30 years old and 74 per cent had firmatory factor analysis (CFA) was
higher than a high school degree. Care was employed for both samples to test the
taken to make sure that each of the three measurement structure and examine how
brands (iPhone, BlackBerry and HTC) well the data set fits the hypothesized
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Baalbaki and Guzmán
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A consumer-perceived consumer-based brand equity scale
The reliability of (Brand X) is very high 4.17 1.48 4.39 1.447 5.42 1.427
(Brand X) is consistent in the quality it offers 4.2 1.483 4.54 1.451 5.55 1.419
The performance of (Brand X) is very high 4.09 1.495 4.56 1.473 5.7 1.384
The quality of (Brand X) is extremely high 4.22 1.499 4.51 1.483 5.63 1.379
The functionality of (Brand X) is very high 4.19 1.541 4.62 1.509 5.77 1.283
(Brand X) has consistent quality 4.19 1.526 4.6 1.348 5.42 1.503
(Brand X) performs consistently 4.15 1.443 4.42 1.379 5.37 1.401
(Brand X) has an acceptable standard of quality 4.4 1.463 4.73 1.395 5.63 1.41
(Brand X) is well made 4.34 1.467 4.75 1.42 5.53 1.48
(Brand X) would be my first choice 1.98 1.506 2.85 1.76 4.73 2.261
I consider myself to be loyal to (Brand X) 1.98 1.594 2.84 1.791 4.17 2.364
I will not buy other brands if (Brand X) is available at the store 1.83 1.336 2.55 1.508 4.07 2.267
I am committed to buying (Brand X) 2.14 1.544 3.06 1.484 4.33 2.241
(Brand X) is an environmentally safe brand 3.96 1.065 4.08 1.077 4.37 1.324
(Brand X) is an environmentally responsible brand 4.03 1.106 4.16 1.101 4.52 1.326
(Brand X) is a sustainable brand 4.07 1.298 4.39 1.213 4.96 1.488
(Brand X) is a healthy brand 4.02 1.182 4.24 1.276 4.87 1.424
(Brand X) improves the way I am perceived by others 3.05 1.637 3.62 1.474 3.79 2.044
(Brand X) would make a good impression on other people 3.35 1.68 3.89 1.555 4.23 1.936
(Brand X) would give its owner social approval 3.36 1.74 3.78 1.569 4.18 1.95
(Brand X) helps me feel accepted 3.01 1.609 3.61 1.532 3.9 1.946
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Baalbaki and Guzmán
The reliability of (Brand X) is very high 4.47 1.466 4.66 1.356 4.91 1.632
(Brand X) is consistent in the quality it offers 4.54 1.461 4.65 1.381 4.94 1.593
The performance of (Brand X) is very high 4.48 1.525 4.66 1.391 4.93 1.601
The quality of (Brand X) is extremely high 4.55 1.44 4.65 1.416 4.88 1.679
The functionality of (Brand X) is very high 4.57 1.528 4.66 1.339 4.99 1.634
(Brand X) has consistent quality 4.47 1.446 4.72 1.377 4.93 1.541
(Brand X) performs consistently 4.46 1.357 4.67 1.3 4.85 1.533
(Brand X) has an acceptable standard of quality 4.57 1.445 4.79 1.358 5 1.509
(Brand X) is well made 4.55 1.357 4.74 1.402 5.04 1.549
(Brand X) would be my first choice 2.94 1.799 3.83 1.58 3.7 2.156
I consider myself to be loyal to (Brand X) 2.51 1.764 3.73 1.618 3.15 2.085
I will not buy other brands if (Brand X) is available at the store 2.72 1.678 3.72 1.579 3.43 2.086
I am committed to buying (Brand X) 2.9 1.613 3.76 1.588 3.62 2.108
(Brand X) is an environmentally safe brand 4.08 1.313 4.34 1.17 4.28 1.273
(Brand X) is an environmentally responsible brand 4.07 1.242 4.35 1.152 4.37 1.34
(Brand X) is a sustainable brand 4.14 1.332 4.43 1.2 4.7 1.374
(Brand X) is a healthy brand 4.02 1.359 4.37 1.14 4.45 1.42
(Brand X) improves the way I am perceived by others 3.36 1.584 3.94 1.405 3.86 1.837
(Brand X) would make a good impression on other people 3.72 1.552 4.16 1.304 4.1 1.765
(Brand X) would give its owner social approval 3.67 1.577 4.05 1.337 3.99 1.866
(Brand X) helps me feel accepted 3.52 1.59 3.96 1.334 3.8 1.86
Brand Sample Cronbach’s α χ2 RMSEA GFI AGFI NFI NNFI CFI IFI RFI RMR
iPhone Consumer 0.949 624.14 0.108 0.72 0.66 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.94 0.059
BlackBerry Consumer 0.948 608.66 0.106 0.73 0.66 0.95 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.94 0.067
HTC Consumer 0.951 721.59 0.128 0.67 0.59 0.92 0.94 0.95 0.95 0.91 0.091
iPhone Student 0.952 435.65 0.072 0.82 0.77 0.96 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.95 0.041
BlackBerry Student 0.939 557.49 0.091 0.78 0.72 0.94 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.93 0.071
HTC Student 0.950 505.72 0.086 0.78 0.73 0.95 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.94 0.053
244 © 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1350-231X Journal of Brand Management Vol. 23, 3, 229–251
A consumer-perceived consumer-based brand equity scale
0.05 level (a common occurrence, given can be seen as a set of common underlying
the well-known sensitivity of this statistic dimensions of the research construct – that
(Bagozzi and Yi, 1988), other structure diag- is, factors explaining consumer-perceived
nostics (that is, NFI, NNFI, CFI, IFI and RFI) consumer-based brand equity.
were generally supportive and appeared to fall
within the acceptable ranges (Hair et al, 2009).
Reliability was assessed by using Cronbach’s Predictive validity
α, which ranged from 0.939–0.952, and The considerable degree of inter-factor
therefore, all samples have a reliability greater correlations and evidence of internal relia-
than 0.70 (Nunnally, 1978). Consequently, bility (see Cronbach α’s for all scales
the results indicate appreciable goodness-of- in Table 12) attest to the stability of this
fit; and hence, it is judged that the structure is scale in terms of predictive validity. Thus,
well supported for iPhone, BlackBerry and overall, the four factors identified predict
HTC for both samples. consumer-perceived consumer-based brand
equity.
DISCUSSION
Convergent validity The scale to measure consumers’-perceived
Convergent validity was examined through consumer-based brand equity developed in
CFA where the average extracted variance this study is made up of four dimensions
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Baalbaki and Guzmán
Table 13: The new consumer-perceived brand equity scale consumer’s first choice, how the consumer
Quality The reliability of (Brand X) is very high
is loyal to a specific brand, how a consumer
(Brand X) is consistent in the quality it offers will not buy other brands if that specific
The performance of (Brand X) is very high brand is available at the store, and how a
The quality of (Brand X) is extremely high
The functionality of (Brand X) is very high consumer is committed to buying that
(Brand X) has consistent quality brand. Loyalty is a factor that was previously
(Brand X) performs consistently
(Brand X) has an acceptable standard of quality included in the Aaker (1991) and Keller
(Brand X) is well made (1993) conceptualizations. However, the
Preference (Brand X) would be my first choice
I consider myself to be loyal to (Brand X)
proposed preference dimension is based on
I will not buy other brands if (Brand X) is available consumer derived items identified in the
at the store
I am committed to buying (Brand X)
qualitative research phase of this study,
Sustainability (Brand X) is an environmentally safe brand and measured by combining scale items
(Brand X) is an environmentally responsible brand from Yoo and Donthu (2001) and Berry
(Brand X) is a sustainable brand
(Brand X) is a healthy brand (2000), allowing for conceptualizing this
Social influence (Brand X) improves the way I am perceived new factor.
by others
(Brand X) would make a good impression on
other people
(Brand X) would give its owner social approval
(Brand X) helps me feel accepted
Social influence
Social influence is a dimension that has
never been included in any previous brand
(quality, preference, social influence and sus- equity scale. Consumers perceive that a
tainability) each supported by four to nine brand improves the way they are perceived
items. The scale dimensions discussed in the by others, makes a good impression on
ensuing sections are labeled according to differ- other people, gives its owner social approval
ent characteristics consumers value in a brand, and helps them feel accepted. The four
through which the brand acquires its equity. consumer derived items that make up the
dimension of social influence were mea-
sured with scale items from Sweeney and
Quality Soutar’s (2001) consumer-perceived value
Quality is ‘the consumer’s judgment about a scale. Although these items do in fact signify
product’s overall excellence or superiority’ value to the consumers, in this case, this
(Zeithaml, 1988, p. 3). Quality – brand dimension describes ways in which con-
quality – describes how consumers perceive a sumers gain value by using (purchasing) a
brand in terms of its consistency, acceptable brand in order to achieve social approval
standards, performance, reliability, function- (Thompson and Arsel, 2004) and build their
ality and being well made. Quality as a persona (Kapferer, 1997).
dimension was included in the previous
conceptualizations of Aaker (1991) and
Keller (1993). However, the quality dimen- Sustainability
sion in this new scale contains consumer The sustainability dimension is fully made
derived items that have never before been up of consumer perceived items identified
included together in any brand equity scale. in the qualitative research of this study.
Hence, the scale items used for measuring
them were newly generated for the purpose
Preference of this research: ‘(X) is an environmentally
A preferred brand commands loyalty. safe brand’, ‘(X) is an environmentally
Preference describes how a brand is a responsible brand’, ‘(X) is a sustainable
246 © 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1350-231X Journal of Brand Management Vol. 23, 3, 229–251
A consumer-perceived consumer-based brand equity scale
brand’ and ‘(X) is a healthy brand’. This study benefits brand research in sev-
Nowadays, consumers are more aware of eral ways. The scale can be used to re-assess
brands and companies that are envir- and measure the equity of brands from a
onmentally safe, environmentally respon- consumer derived perspective, and to analyze
sible, sustainable and healthy. A consumer is how brand equity’s potential antecedents
more loyal to a brand and believes it is of impact how consumers value a brand.
higher quality if it is sustainable (Simmons However, the impact of each of the scale’s
and Becker-Olsen, 2006; Nan and Heo, dimensions on consequent variables needs to
2007; Lai et al, 2010). Sustainability is be identified. Further research could focus
becoming part of the brand identity of on studying the nomological relationships
many products and brands that consumers between consumer-perceived consumer-
purchase on a daily basis. Companies such as based brand equity and new identified vari-
Toms Shoes, Ben and Jerry’s and Warby ables. The scale can also be used to aid in
Parker are good examples of brands that studies of brand value and brand extensions.
have integrated sustainability and social For example, it serves to measure the effec-
responsibility into their mission. Sustain- tiveness of a co-branding effort by measuring
ability is thus a current and important the equity of each brand separately and then
dimension that has not been included in any measuring the brand equity as a co-brand.
brand equity scale before. We can also use this new measure in testing
the perceived sustainability of different
brands in different product categories. This
THEORETICAL AND MANAGERIAL could in turn lead to new positioning strate-
CONTRIBUTIONS gies for many brands.
This research identifies consumer-perceived Also, there may be a potential causal
dimensions that make up consumer-based order among the dimensions of brand
brand equity. The proposed scale is simple equity. According to Levidge and Steiner
to use and will be valued by academics and (1961), the hierarchy of effects model sug-
practitioners alike. This work not only fol- gests that perceived quality precedes brand
lows Churchill’s (1979) scale development loyalty – brand preference in the new scale.
method, but also enhances it by merging Hence, if there is a strong order among the
qualitative with quantitative data from the dimensions, then in order to manage
consumer. The CFA supports the goodness- resources more efficiently, managers should
of-fit of the data set and the hypothesized consider strategies that place focus on each
structure. The study contributes to the lit- of the four dimensions at different times, or
erature and adds to the broad discussion on as part of a phased approach.
current conceptualizations and measures Another important use for this scale is
of brand equity. Previous studies have pro- that it can possibly be used to rank brands
vided results of consumer-based brand based on their perceived consumer value.
equity based on Aaker’s (1991) and Keller’s In other words, a brand equity index can be
(1993) conceptualizations and using stu- determined to rank brands according to the
dents or convenience samples to test their four dimensions (that is, a brand might
scales, leading to a lack in methodological be high or low on each of the dimensions).
rigor (see Tables 1 and 2). This is the first Ranking brands could allow for new
study that develops a consumer-perceived segmentation strategies. Given that the
conceptualization and scale that is tested and products from the category used, smart
validated with both student and consumer phones, are expensive, and have short useful
samples. lives – from a branding perspective – , the
© 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1350-231X Journal of Brand Management Vol. 23, 3, 229–251 247
Baalbaki and Guzmán
proposed scale seems suitable for measuring replication and validation. Although our
the brand equity of other goods and con- attempt is consistent with the literature
sumer personal accessories, ranging from and directions from academic experts, we
clothing to consumer beverages and furni- acknowledge the lack of (true experimental)
ture to automobiles, whose value has been control over the identified factors. One
widely established in consumer markets. exception to this is the use of a consumer
Further research could assess the scale’s sample in addition to the student sample to
effectiveness for other product categories. test and validate the scale. However, a larger
In order to enhance the measurement of sample would be more appropriate for
brand equity from a consumer perspective, future studies to re-validate the scale.
the findings of this study encourage man- Another limitation of this study is that
agers to re-assess their brand equity with only one product category was used. As a
respect to quality, preference, social influ- result, participants saw one of three brands,
ence and sustainability. Most firms, due to a again limiting generalizability. This research
lack of availability of a good scale, have should encourage researchers to revise and
been measuring brand equity using one- revalidate the scale. It would be desirable to
dimensional measures. The proposed scale is replicate this study using additional product
valid, reliable and also parsimonious. Its ease categories and brands. However, limiting the
of use will allow managers to track the study allowed the research to limit, and bet-
equity of their brands on a regular basis. ter control for, extraneous and confounding
variables. Finally, developing a scale that is
based on qualitative findings, although
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE methodologically sound, implies that the
RESEARCH DIRECTIONS scale may be dynamic over time. As con-
Although the study described to this point sumer values evolve, what they find to be
makes a contribution to the marketing valuable in a brand may also evolve. There-
literature and serves as a springboard for fore, future research will help revise and
future research, some considerations are re-validate the scale over time and categories.
necessary. First, although a consumer sample In addition to replication studies with
was used in the study, a student sample was other product categories and brands, this
also employed as a comparison sample. This study points to a number of interest-
student sample encompasses all of the requi- ing directions for future research. Some
site caveats regarding representativeness and research directions include: testing and vali-
generalizability. Also, respondents from this dating the scale using a larger nation-wide
student sample were geographically con- sample and comparing that to nation-wide
centrated in the Southwestern United States, samples in various other countries (cross-
and they were younger than the population cultural studies), testing and validating the
at large. However, students of this age group scale using other product categories and
do represent a segment of consumers who brands including services and industrial
purchase smart phones (that is, iPhone, goods, testing the dimensions to see if they
BlackBerry and HTC). may be extended into sub-dimensions,
There was also a limitation in the sample using the identified factors to determine if
size as the consumer sample and student any of them can help explain how con-
sample were limited in the number of sumers respond to brand/product-crises,
respondents (student sample = 477, con- testing a second order CFA model to assess
sumer sample = 403). These limitations pose the causal order among the dimensions to
generalizability questions without further identify brands’ strengths, and testing the
248 © 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1350-231X Journal of Brand Management Vol. 23, 3, 229–251
A consumer-perceived consumer-based brand equity scale
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