UNIT III

Knowledge and Reasoning

o An intelligent agent needs knowledge about the real world for taking decisions and reasoning to
act efficiently.

o Knowledge-based agents are those agents who have the capability of maintaining an internal state
of knowledge, reason over that knowledge, update their knowledge after observations and take
actions. These agents can represent the world with some formal representation and act
intelligently.

o Knowledge-based agents are composed of two main parts:

o Knowledge-base and

o Inference system.

A knowledge-based agent must able to do the following:

o An agent should be able to represent states, actions, etc.

o An agent Should be able to incorporate new percepts

o An agent can update the internal representation of the world

o An agent can deduce the internal representation of the world

o An agent can deduce appropriate actions.

The architecture of knowledge-based agent:

The above diagram is representing a generalized architecture for a knowledge-based agent. The
knowledge-based agent (KBA) take input from the environment by perceiving the environment. The
input is taken by the inference engine of the agent and which also communicate with KB to decide as per
the knowledge store in KB. The learning element of KBA regularly updates the KB by learning new
knowledge.

Knowledge base: Knowledge-base is a central component of a knowledge-based agent, it is also known

as KB. It is a collection of sentences (here 'sentence' is a technical term and it is not identical to sentence
in English). These sentences are expressed in a language which is called a knowledge representation
language. The Knowledge-base of KBA stores fact about the world.

Knowledge-base is required for updating knowledge for an agent to learn with experiences and take
action as per the knowledge.

Inference system
Inference means deriving new sentences from old. Inference system allows us to add a new sentence to
the knowledge base. A sentence is a proposition about the world. Inference system applies logical rules to
the KB to deduce new information.

Inference system generates new facts so that an agent can update the KB. An inference system works
mainly in two rules which are given as:

o Forward chaining

o Backward chaining

Operations Performed by KBA

Following are three operations which are performed by KBA in order to show the intelligent behavior:

1. TELL: This operation tells the knowledge base what it perceives from the environment.

2. ASK: This operation asks the knowledge base what action it should perform.

3. Perform: It performs the selected action.

The knowledge-based agent takes percept as input and returns an action as output. The agent maintains
the knowledge base, KB, and it initially has some background knowledge of the real world. It also has a
counter to indicate the time for the whole process, and this counter is initialized with zero.

Each time when the function is called, it performs its three operations:

o Firstly it TELLs the KB what it perceives.

 o Secondly, it asks KB what action it should take

o Third agent program TELLS the KB that which action was chosen.

The MAKE-PERCEPT-SENTENCE generates a sentence as setting that the agent perceived the given
percept at the given time.

The MAKE-ACTION-QUERY generates a sentence to ask which action should be done at the current
time.

MAKE-ACTION-SENTENCE generates a sentence which asserts that the chosen action was executed.

Various levels of knowledge-based agent:

A knowledge-based agent can be viewed at different levels which are given below:

1. Knowledge level

Knowledge level is the first level of knowledge-based agent, and in this level, we need to specify what the
agent knows, and what the agent goals are. With these specifications, we can fix its behavior. For
example, suppose an automated taxi agent needs to go from a station A to station B, and he knows the
way from A to B, so this comes at the knowledge level.

2. Logical level:

At this level, we understand that how the knowledge representation of knowledge is stored. At this level,
sentences are encoded into different logics. At the logical level, an encoding of knowledge into logical
sentences occurs. At the logical level we can expect to the automated taxi agent to reach to the destination
B.

3. Implementation level:

This is the physical representation of logic and knowledge. At the implementation level agent perform
actions as per logical and knowledge level. At this level, an automated taxi agent actually implement his
knowledge and logic so that he can reach to the destination.

Approaches to designing a knowledge-based agent:

There are mainly two approaches to build a knowledge-based agent:

1. Declarative approach: We can create a knowledge-based agent by initializing with an empty

knowledge base and telling the agent all the sentences with which we want to start with. This
approach is called Declarative approach.
 2. Procedural approach: In the procedural approach, we directly encode desired behavior as a program
code. Which means we just need to write a program that already encodes the desired behavior or
agent.

However, in the real world, a successful agent can be built by combining both declarative and procedural
approaches, and declarative knowledge can often be compiled into more efficient procedural code.

Knowledge representation
Humans are best at understanding, reasoning, and interpreting knowledge. Human knows things, which is
knowledge and as per their knowledge they perform various actions in the real world. But how machines
do all these things comes under knowledge representation and reasoning. Hence we can describe
Knowledge representation as following:

o Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of Artificial intelligence which
concerned with AI agents thinking and how thinking contributes to intelligent behavior of agents.

o It is responsible for representing information about the real world so that a computer can
understand and can utilize this knowledge to solve the complex real world problems such as
diagnosis a medical condition or communicating with humans in natural language.

o It is also a way which describes how we can represent knowledge in artificial intelligence.
Knowledge representation is not just storing data into some database, but it also enables an
intelligent machine to learn from that knowledge and experiences so that it can behave
intelligently like a human.

What to Represent:
Following are the kind of knowledge which needs to be represented in AI systems:

o Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain. E.g., Guitars contains strings, trumpets
are brass instruments.

o Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world.

o Performance: It describe behavior which involves knowledge about how to do things.

o Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know.

o Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what we represent.
 o Knowledge-Base: The central component of the knowledge-based agents is the knowledge base.
It is represented as KB. The Knowledgebase is a group of the Sentences (Here, sentences are used
as a technical term and not identical with the English language).

Knowledge: Knowledge is awareness or familiarity gained by experiences of facts, data, and

situations. Following are the types of knowledge in artificial intelligence:

Types of knowledge

1. Declarative Knowledge:

o Declarative knowledge is to know about something.

o It includes concepts, facts, and objects.

o It is also called descriptive knowledge and expressed in declarativesentences.

o It is simpler than procedural language.

2. Procedural Knowledge

o It is also known as imperative knowledge.

o Procedural knowledge is a type of knowledge which is responsible for knowing how to do

something.

o It can be directly applied to any task.

o It includes rules, strategies, procedures, agendas, etc.

 o Procedural knowledge depends on the task on which it can be applied.

3. Meta-knowledge:

o Knowledge about the other types of knowledge is called Meta-knowledge.

4. Heuristic knowledge:

o Heuristic knowledge is representing knowledge of some experts in a filed or subject.

o Heuristic knowledge is rules of thumb based on previous experiences, awareness of approaches,

and which are good to work but not guaranteed.

5. Structural knowledge:

o Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to problem-solving.

o It describes relationships between various concepts such as kind of, part of, and grouping of
something.

o It describes the relationship that exists between concepts or objects.

The relation between knowledge and intelligence:

Knowledge of real-worlds plays a vital role in intelligence and same for creating artificial intelligence.
Knowledge plays an important role in demonstrating intelligent behavior in AI agents. An agent is only
able to accurately act on some input when he has some knowledge or experience about that input.

Let's suppose if you met some person who is speaking in a language which you don't know, then how you
will able to act on that. The same thing applies to the intelligent behavior of the agents.

As we can see in below diagram, there is one decision maker which act by sensing the environment and
using knowledge. But if the knowledge part will not present then, it cannot display intelligent behavior.
AI knowledge cycle:
An Artificial intelligence system has the following components for displaying intelligent behavior:

 Perception
 Learning
 Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
 Planning
 Execution

The above diagram is showing how an AI system can interact with the real world and what components
help it to show intelligence. AI system has Perception component by which it retrieves information from
its environment. It can be visual, audio or another form of sensory input. The learning component is
responsible for learning from data captured by Perception comportment. In the complete cycle, the main
components are knowledge representation and Reasoning. These two components are involved in
showing the intelligence in machine-like humans. These two components are independent with each other
but also coupled together. The planning and execution depend on analysis of Knowledge representation
and reasoning.

Approaches to knowledge representation:

There are mainly four approaches to knowledge representation, which are given below:

1. Simple relational knowledge:

o It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses the relational method, and each fact about a set
of the object is set out systematically in columns.
 o This approach of knowledge representation is famous in database systems where the relationship
between different entities is represented.

Player Weight Age

Player1 65 23

Player2 58 18

Player3 75 24

o This approach has little opportunity for inference.

Example: The following is the simple relational knowledge representation.

2. Inheritable knowledge:
o In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data must be stored into a hierarchy of classes.

o All classes should be arranged in a generalized form or a hierarchal manner.

o In this approach, we apply inheritance property.

o Elements inherit values from other members of a class.

o This approach contains inheritable knowledge which shows a relation between instance and class,
and it is called instance relation.

o Every individual frame can represent the collection of attributes and its value.

o In this approach, objects and values are represented in Boxed nodes.

o We use Arrows which point from objects to their values.

o Example:
3. Inferential knowledge:
o Inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in the form of formal logics.

o This approach can be used to derive more facts.

o It guaranteed correctness.

Example: Let's suppose there are two statements:

o Marcus is a man

o All men are mortal

man(Marcus)
∀ x = man (x) ----------> mortal (x)s

4. Procedural knowledge:
o Procedural knowledge approach uses small programs and codes which describes how to do
specific things, and how to proceed.

o In this approach, one important rule is used which is If-Then rule.

o In this knowledge, we can use various coding languages such as LISP language and Prolog
language.

o We can easily represent heuristic or domain-specific knowledge using this approach.

o But it is not necessary that we can represent all cases in this approach.

Requirements for knowledge Representation

system:
A good knowledge representation system must possess the following properties.

1. Representational Accuracy- KR system should have the ability to represent all kind of
required knowledge.
2. Inferential Adequacy: KR system should have ability to manipulate the representational
structures to produce new knowledge corresponding to existing structure.
3. Inferential Efficiency: The ability to direct the inferential knowledge mechanism into
the most productive directions by storing appropriate guides.
4. Acquisitional efficiency- The ability to acquire the new knowledge easily using
automatic methods.

Techniques of knowledge representation

There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which are given as follows:

1. Logical Representation

2. Semantic Network Representation

3. Frame Representation

4. Production Rules

1. Logical Representation

Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules which deals with propositions and has no
ambiguity in representation. Logical representation means drawing a conclusion based on various
conditions. This representation lays down some important communication rules. It consists of precisely
defined syntax and semantics which supports the sound inference. Each sentence can be translated into
logics using syntax and semantics.

Syntax:

o Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can construct legal sentences in the logic.

o It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge representation.

o How to write those symbols.

Semantics:

o Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the sentence in the logic.

o Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each sentence.

Logical representation can be categorised into mainly two logics:

a. Propositional Logics
 b. Predicate logics

Advantages of logical representation:

1. Logical representation enables us to do logical reasoning.

2. Logical representation is the basis for the programming languages.

Disadvantages of logical Representation:

1. Logical representations have some restrictions and are challenging to work with.

2. Logical representation technique may not be very natural, and inference may not be so efficient.

3. Semantic Network Representation

Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge representation. In Semantic networks,
we can represent our knowledge in the form of graphical networks. This network consists of nodes
representing objects and arcs which describe the relationship between those objects. Semantic networks
can categorize the object in different forms and can also link those objects. Semantic networks are easy to
understand and can be easily extended.

This representation consist of mainly two types of relations:

a. IS-A relation (Inheritance)

a. Kind-of-relation

Example: Following are some statements which we need to represent in the form of nodes and arcs.

Statements:

a. Jerry is a cat.

b. Jerry is a mammal

c. Jerry is owned by Priya.

d. Jerry is brown colored.

e. All Mammals are animal.

In the above diagram, we have represented the different type of knowledge in the form of nodes and arcs.
Each object is connected with another object by some relation.

Drawbacks in Semantic representation:

1. Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime as we need to traverse the complete
network tree to answer some questions. It might be possible in the worst case scenario that after
traversing the entire tree, we find that the solution does not exist in this network.

2. Semantic networks try to model human-like memory (Which has 1015 neurons and links) to store
the information, but in practice, it is not possible to build such a vast semantic network.

3. These types of representations are inadequate as they do not have any equivalent quantifier, e.g.,
for all, for some, none, etc.

4. Semantic networks do not have any standard definition for the link names.

5. These networks are not intelligent and depend on the creator of the system.

Advantages of Semantic network:

1. Semantic networks are a natural representation of knowledge.

2. Semantic networks convey meaning in a transparent manner.

3. These networks are simple and easily understandable.

3. Frame Representation
A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of attributes and its values to describe an
entity in the world. Frames are the AI data structure which divides knowledge into substructures by
representing stereotypes situations. It consists of a collection of slots and slot values. These slots may be
of any type and sizes. Slots have names and values which are called facets.
 Slots Filter

Facets: The various aspects of a slot is known as Facets. Facets are features of frames which enable us to
put constraints on the frames. Example: IF-NEEDED facts are called when data of any particular slot is
needed. A frame may consist of any number of slots, and a slot may include any number of facets and
facets may have any number of values. A frame is also known as slot-filter knowledge representation in
artificial intelligence.

Frames are derived from semantic networks and later evolved into our modern-day classes and objects. A
single frame is not much useful. Frames system consist of a collection of frames which are connected. In
the frame, knowledge about an object or event can be stored together in the knowledge base. The frame is
a type of technology which is widely used in various applications including Natural language processing
and machine visions.

Example: 1
Let's take an example of a frame for a book

Slots Filters

Title Artificial Intelligence

Genre Computer Science

Author Peter Norvig

Edition Third Edition

Year 1996

Page 1152

Example 2:
Let's suppose we are taking an entity, Peter. Peter is an engineer as a profession, and his age is 25, he
lives in city London, and the country is England. So following is the frame representation for this:
 Name Peter

Profession Doctor

Age 25

Marital status Single

Weight 78

Advantages of frame representation:

1. The frame knowledge representation makes the programming easier by grouping the related data.

2. The frame representation is comparably flexible and used by many applications in AI.

3. It is very easy to add slots for new attribute and relations.

4. It is easy to include default data and to search for missing values.

5. Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.

Disadvantages of frame representation:

6. In frame system inference mechanism is not be easily processed.

7. Inference mechanism cannot be smoothly proceeded by frame representation.

8. Frame representation has a much generalized approach.

4. Production Rules
Production rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs which mean, "If condition then action". It has
mainly three parts:

o The set of production rules

 o Working Memory

o The recognize-act-cycle

Propositional logic
Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic where all the statements are made by
propositions. A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or false. It is a
technique of knowledge representation in logical and mathematical form.

Example:
1. a) It is Sunday.
2. b) The Sun rises from West (False proposition)
3. c) 3+3= 7(False proposition)
4. d) 5 is a prime number.

Following are some basic facts about propositional logic:

o Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1.

o In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic, and we can
use any symbol for a representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.
o Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.
o Propositional logic consists of an object, relations or function, and logical
connectives.
o These connectives are also called logical operators.
o The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the propositional logic.
o Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two sentences.
o A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and it is also called a
valid sentence.
o A proposition formula which is always false is called Contradiction.
o A proposition formula which has both true and false values is called
o Statements which are questions, commands, or opinions are not propositions
such as "Where is Rohini", "How are you", "What is your name", are not
propositions.
 Syntax of propositional logic:
The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the knowledge
representation. There are two types of Propositions:

a. Atomic Propositions
b. Compound propositions

o Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It

consists of a single proposition symbol. These are the sentences which must
be either true or false.

Example:

1. a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.

2. b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.
o Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by
combining simpler or atomic propositions, using parenthesis and logical
connectives.

Example:

1. a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."

2. b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."

Logical Connectives:
Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler propositions or representing a
sentence logically. We can create compound propositions with the help of logical
connectives. There are mainly five connectives, which are given as follows:

1. Negation: A sentence such as ¬ P is called negation of P. A literal can be

either Positive literal or negative literal.
2. Conjunction: A sentence which has ∧ connective such as, P ∧ Q is called a
conjunction.
 Example: Rohan is intelligent and hardworking. It can be written as,
P=Rohan is intelligent

Q= Rohan is hardworking. → P∧ Q.

3. Disjunction: A sentence which has ∨ connective, such as P ∨ Q. is called

disjunction, where P and Q are the propositions.
Example: "Ritika is a doctor or Engineer",
Here P= Ritika is Doctor. Q= Ritika is Doctor, so we can write it as P ∨ Q.
4. Implication: A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication. Implications
are also known as if-then rules. It can be represented as
If it is raining, then the street is wet.
Let P= It is raining, and Q= Street is wet, so it is represented as P → Q
5. Biconditional: A sentence such as P⇔ Q is a Biconditional sentence,
example If I am breathing, then I am alive
P= I am breathing, Q= I am alive, it can be represented as P ⇔ Q.

Following is the summarized table for Propositional Logic

Connectives:

Truth Table:
In propositional logic, we need to know the truth values of propositions in all
possible scenarios. We can combine all the possible combination with logical
connectives, and the representation of these combinations in a tabular format is
called Truth table. Following are the truth table for all logical connectives:
Truth table with three propositions:
We can build a proposition composing three propositions P, Q, and R. This truth
table is made-up of 8n Tuples as we have taken three proposition symbols.

Precedence of connectives:
Just like arithmetic operators, there is a precedence order for propositional
connectors or logical operators. This order should be followed while evaluating a
propositional problem. Following is the list of the precedence order for operators:

Precedence Operators

First Precedence Parenthesis

Second Precedence Negation

Third Precedence Conjunction(AND)

Fourth Precedence Disjunction(OR)

Fifth Precedence Implication

Six Precedence Biconditional

Rules of Inference
Inference:
In artificial intelligence, we need intelligent computers which can create new logic
from old logic or by evidence, so generating the conclusions from evidence and
facts is termed as Inference.

Inference rules:
Inference rules are the templates for generating valid arguments. Inference rules are
applied to derive proofs in artificial intelligence, and the proof is a sequence of the
conclusion that leads to the desired goal.

In inference rules, the implication among all the connectives plays an important role.
Following are some terminologies related to inference rules:

o Implication: It is one of the logical connectives which can be represented as P

→ Q. It is a Boolean expression.
o Converse: The converse of implication, which means the right-hand side
proposition goes to the left-hand side and vice-versa. It can be written as Q →
P.
o Contrapositive: The negation of converse is termed as contrapositive, and it
can be represented as ¬ Q → ¬ P.
o Inverse: The negation of implication is called inverse. It can be represented as
¬ P → ¬ Q.

Types of Inference rules:

1. Modus Ponens:
The Modus Ponens rule is one of the most important rules of inference, and it states
that if P and P → Q is true, then we can infer that Q will be true. It can be
represented as:
Example:

Statement-1: "If I am sleepy then I go to bed" ==> P→ Q

Statement-2: "I am sleepy" ==> P
Conclusion: "I go to bed." ==> Q.
Hence, we can say that, if P→ Q is true and P is true then Q will be true.

Proof by Truth table:

2. Modus Tollens:
The Modus Tollens rule state that if P→ Q is true and ¬ Q is true, then ¬ P will also
true. It can be represented as:

ADVERTISEMENT

Statement-1: "If I am sleepy then I go to bed" ==> P→ Q

Statement-2: "I do not go to the bed."==> ~Q
Statement-3: Which infers that "I am not sleepy" => ~P

Proof by Truth table:

3. Hypothetical Syllogism:
The Hypothetical Syllogism rule state that if P→R is true whenever P→Q is true, and
Q→R is true. It can be represented as the following notation:

Example:

Statement-1: If you have my home key then you can unlock my home. P→Q
Statement-2: If you can unlock my home then you can take my money. Q→R
Conclusion: If you have my home key then you can take my money. P→R

Proof by truth table:

4. Disjunctive Syllogism:
The Disjunctive syllogism rule state that if P∨Q is true, and ¬P is true, then Q will be
true. It can be represented as:

Example:

Statement-1: Today is Sunday or Monday. ==>P∨Q

Statement-2: Today is not Sunday. ==> ¬P
Conclusion: Today is Monday. ==> Q

Proof by truth-table:
5. Addition:
The Addition rule is one the common inference rule, and it states that If P is true,
then P∨Q will be true.

Example:

Statement: I have a vanilla ice-cream. ==> P

Statement-2: I have Chocolate ice-cream.
Conclusion: I have vanilla or chocolate ice-cream. ==> (P∨Q)

Proof by Truth-Table:

6. Simplification:
The simplification rule state that if P∧ Q is true, then Q or P will also be true. It can
be represented as:

Proof by Truth-Table:
7. Resolution:
The Resolution rule state that if P∨Q and ¬ P∧R is true, then Q∨R will also be true. It
can be represented as

Proof by Truth-Table:

First-Order Logic in Artificial intelligence

In propositional logic, we can only represent the facts, which are either true or false. PL is not sufficient
to represent the complex sentences or natural language statements. The propositional logic has very
limited expressive power. Consider the following sentence, which we cannot represent using PL logic.

o "Some humans are intelligent", or

o "Sachin likes cricket."

To represent the above statements, PL logic is not sufficient, so we required some

more powerful logic, such as first-order logic.

First-Order logic:
 o First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial
intelligence. It is an extension to propositional logic.
o FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language statements in a
concise way.
o First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate
logic. First-order logic is a powerful language that develops information
about the objects in a more easy way and can also express the relationship
between those objects.
o First-order logic (like natural language) does not only assume that the world
contains facts like propositional logic but also assumes the following things in
the world:
o Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pits,
wumpus, ......
o Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent, or
n-any relation such as: the sister of, brother of, has color, comes
between
o Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of, ......
o As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts:
a. Syntax
b. Semantics

Syntax of First-Order logic:

The syntax of FOL determines which collection of symbols is a logical expression in
first-order logic. The basic syntactic elements of first-order logic are symbols. We
write statements in short-hand notation in FOL.

Basic Elements of First-order logic:

Following are the basic elements of FOL syntax:

Constant 1, 2, A, John, Mumbai, cat,....

Variables x, y, z, a, b,....

Predicates Brother, Father, >,....

Function sqrt, LeftLegOf, ....

Connectives ∧, ∨, ¬, ⇒, ⇔

Equality ==

Quantifier ∀, ∃

Atomic sentences:
o Atomic sentences are the most basic sentences of first-order logic. These
sentences are formed from a predicate symbol followed by a parenthesis with
a sequence of terms.
o We can represent atomic sentences as Predicate (term1, term2, ......, term
n).

Example: Ravi and Ajay are brothers: => Brothers(Ravi, Ajay).

Chinky is a cat: => cat (Chinky).

Complex Sentences:
o Complex sentences are made by combining atomic sentences using
connectives.

First-order logic statements can be divided into two parts:

o Subject: Subject is the main part of the statement.

o Predicate: A predicate can be defined as a relation, which binds two atoms
together in a statement.
Consider the statement: "x is an integer.", it consists of two parts, the first part x is
the subject of the statement and second part "is an integer," is known as a predicate.

Quantifiers in First-order logic:

o A quantifier is a language element which generates quantification, and
quantification specifies the quantity of specimen in the universe of discourse.
o These are the symbols that permit to determine or identify the range and
scope of the variable in the logical expression. There are two types of
quantifier:
a. Universal Quantifier, (for all, everyone, everything)
b. Existential quantifier, (for some, at least one).

Universal Quantifier:
Universal quantifier is a symbol of logical representation, which specifies that the
statement within its range is true for everything or every instance of a particular
thing.

The Universal quantifier is represented by a symbol ∀, which resembles an inverted

A.

Example:
All man drink coffee.

Let a variable x which refers to a cat so all x can be represented in UOD as below:
∀x man(x) → drink (x, coffee).

It will be read as: There are all x where x is a man who drink coffee.

Existential Quantifier:
Existential quantifiers are the type of quantifiers, which express that the statement
within its scope is true for at least one instance of something.

It is denoted by the logical operator ∃, which resembles as inverted E. When it is

used with a predicate variable then it is called as an existential quantifier.

If x is a variable, then existential quantifier will be ∃x or ∃(x). And it will be read as:

o There exists a 'x.'

o For some 'x.'
o For at least one 'x.'
Example:
Some boys are intelligent.

∃x: boys(x) ∧ intelligent(x)

It will be read as: There are some x where x is a boy who is intelligent.

Properties of Quantifiers:
o In universal quantifier, ∀x∀y is similar to ∀y∀x.
o In Existential quantifier, ∃x∃y is similar to ∃y∃x.
o ∃x∀y is not similar to ∀y∃x.

Unification
o Unification is a process of making two different logical atomic expressions
identical by finding a substitution. Unification depends on the substitution
process.
o It takes two literals as input and makes them identical using substitution.
 o Let Ψ1 and Ψ2 be two atomic sentences and 𝜎 be a unifier such that, Ψ1𝜎 =
Ψ2𝜎, then it can be expressed as UNIFY(Ψ1, Ψ2).
o Example: Find the MGU for Unify{King(x), King(John)}

Let Ψ1 = King(x), Ψ2 = King(John),

Substitution θ = {John/x} is a unifier for these atoms and applying this

substitution, and both expressions will be identical.

o The UNIFY algorithm is used for unification, which takes two atomic
sentences and returns a unifier for those sentences (If any exist).
o Unification is a key component of all first-order inference algorithms.
o It returns fail if the expressions do not match with each other.
o The substitution variables are called Most General Unifier or MGU.

E.g. Let's say there are two different expressions, P(x, y), and P(a, f(z)).

In this example, we need to make both above statements identical to each other.
For this, we will perform the substitution.

P(x,y)………..(i) y
P(a, f(z))......... (ii)

o Substitute x with a, and y with f(z) in the first expression, and it will be
represented as a/x and f(z)/y.
o With both the substitutions, the first expression will be identical to the
second expression and the substitution set will be: [a/x, f(z)/y].

Conditions for Unification:

Following are some basic conditions for unification:

o Predicate symbol must be same, atoms or expression with different

predicate symbol can never be unified.
o Number of Arguments in both expressions must be identical.
 o Unification will fail if there are two similar variables present in the same
expression.

Unification Algorithm:
Algorithm: Unify(Ψ1, Ψ2)
Step. 1: If Ψ1 or Ψ2 is a variable or constant, then:
a) If Ψ1 or Ψ2 are identical, then return NIL.
b) Else if Ψ1is a variable,
a. then if Ψ1 occurs in Ψ2, then return FAILURE
b. Else return { (Ψ2/ Ψ1)}.
c) Else if Ψ2 is a variable,
a. If Ψ2 occurs in Ψ1 then return FAILURE,
b. Else return {( Ψ1/ Ψ2)}.
d) Else return FAILURE.
Step.2: If the initial Predicate symbol in Ψ1 and Ψ2 are not same, then
return FAILURE.
Step. 3: IF Ψ1 and Ψ2 have a different number of arguments, then return
FAILURE.
Step. 4: Set Substitution set(SUBST) to NIL.
Step. 5: For i=1 to the number of elements in Ψ1.
a) Call Unify function with the ith element of Ψ1 and ith element of
Ψ2, and put the result into S.
b) If S = failure then returns Failure
c) If S ≠ NIL then do,
a. Apply S to the remainder of both L1 and L2.
b. SUBST= APPEND(S, SUBST).
Step.6: Return SUBST.

Resolution
Resolution is a theorem proving technique that proceeds by building refutation proofs,
i.e., proofs by contradictions. It was invented by a Mathematician John Alan Robinson in
the year 1965.

Resolution is used, if there are various statements are given, and we need to prove a
conclusion of those statements. Unification is a key concept in proofs by resolutions.
Resolution is a single inference rule which can efficiently operate on the conjunctive
normal form or clausal form.
Clause: Disjunction of literals (an atomic sentence) is called a clause. It is also known as a
unit clause.

Conjunctive Normal Form: A sentence represented as a conjunction of clauses is said to

be conjunctive normal form or CNF.

The resolution inference rule:

The resolution rule for first-order logic is simply a lifted version of the propositional rule.
Resolution can resolve two clauses if they contain complementary literals, which are
assumed to be standardized apart so that they share no variables.

Where li and mj are complementary literals.

This rule is also called the binary resolution rule because it only resolves exactly
two literals.

Example:
We can resolve two clauses which are given below:

[Animal (g(x) V Loves (f(x), x)] and [￢ Loves(a, b) V ￢Kills(a, b)]

Where two complimentary literals are: Loves (f(x), x) and ￢ Loves (a, b)

These literals can be unified with unifier θ= [a/f(x), and b/x] , and it will
generate a resolvent clause:

[Animal (g(x) V ￢ Kills(f(x), x)].

Steps for Resolution:

1. Conversion of facts into first-order logic.
2. Convert FOL statements into CNF
3. Negate the statement which needs to prove (proof by contradiction)
 4. Draw resolution graph (unification).

To better understand all the above steps, we will take an example in which we will
apply resolution.

Example:
a. John likes all kind of food.
b. Apple and vegetable are food
c. Anything anyone eats and not killed is food.
d. Anil eats peanuts and still alive
e. Harry eats everything that Anil eats.
Prove by resolution that:
f. John likes peanuts.

Step-1: Conversion of Facts into FOL

In the first step we will convert all the given statements into its first order logic.

Step-2: Conversion of FOL into CNF

In First order logic resolution, it is required to convert the FOL into CNF as CNF
form makes easier for resolution proofs.

o Eliminate all implication (→) and rewrite

 a. ∀x ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
b. food(Apple) Λ food(vegetables)
c. ∀x ∀y ¬ [eats(x, y) Λ ¬ killed(x)] V food(y)
d. eats (Anil, Peanuts) Λ alive(Anil)
e. ∀x ¬ eats(Anil, x) V eats(Harry, x)
f. ∀x¬ [¬ killed(x) ] V alive(x)
g. ∀x ¬ alive(x) V ¬ killed(x)
h. likes(John, Peanuts).
o Move negation (¬)inwards and rewrite
. ∀x ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
a. food(Apple) Λ food(vegetables)
b. ∀x ∀y ¬ eats(x, y) V killed(x) V food(y)
c. eats (Anil, Peanuts) Λ alive(Anil)
d. ∀x ¬ eats(Anil, x) V eats(Harry, x)
e. ∀x ¬killed(x) ] V alive(x)
f. ∀x ¬ alive(x) V ¬ killed(x)
g. likes(John, Peanuts).
o Rename variables or standardize variables
. ∀x ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
a. food(Apple) Λ food(vegetables)
b. ∀y ∀z ¬ eats(y, z) V killed(y) V food(z)
c. eats (Anil, Peanuts) Λ alive(Anil)
d. ∀w¬ eats(Anil, w) V eats(Harry, w)
e. ∀g ¬killed(g) ] V alive(g)
f. ∀k ¬ alive(k) V ¬ killed(k)
g. likes(John, Peanuts).
 o Eliminate existential instantiation quantifier by elimination.
In this step, we will eliminate existential quantifier ∃, and this process is
known as Skolemization. But in this example problem since there is no
existential quantifier so all the statements will remain same in this step.
o Drop Universal quantifiers.
In this step we will drop all universal quantifier since all the statements are
not implicitly quantified so we don't need it.
. ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
a. food(Apple)
b. food(vegetables)
c. ¬ eats(y, z) V killed(y) V food(z)
d. eats (Anil, Peanuts)
e. alive(Anil)
f. ¬ eats(Anil, w) V eats(Harry, w)
g. killed(g) V alive(g)
h. ¬ alive(k) V ¬ killed(k)
i. likes(John, Peanuts).

o Distribute conjunction ∧ over disjunction ¬.

This step will not make any change in this problem.

Step-3: Negate the statement to be proved

In this statement, we will apply negation to the conclusion statements, which will
be written as ¬likes(John, Peanuts)

Step-4: Draw Resolution graph:

Now in this step, we will solve the problem by resolution tree using substitution.
For the above problem, it will be given as follows:
Hence the negation of the conclusion has been proved as a complete
contradiction with the given set of statements.

Explanation of Resolution graph:

o In the first step of resolution graph, ¬likes(John, Peanuts) ,
and likes(John, x) get resolved(canceled) by substitution of {Peanuts/x},
and we are left with ¬ food(Peanuts)
o In the second step of the resolution graph, ¬ food(Peanuts) ,
and food(z) get resolved (canceled) by substitution of { Peanuts/z}, and
we are left with ¬ eats(y, Peanuts) V killed(y) .
o In the third step of the resolution graph, ¬ eats(y, Peanuts) and eats
(Anil, Peanuts) get resolved by substitution {Anil/y}, and we are left
with Killed(Anil) .
o In the fourth step of the resolution graph, Killed(Anil) and ¬ killed(k) get
resolve by substitution {Anil/k}, and we are left with ¬ alive(Anil) .
 o In the last step of the resolution graph ¬ alive(Anil) and alive(Anil) get
resolved.

Probabilistic reasoning

Uncertainty:
Till now, we have learned knowledge representation using first-order logic and
propositional logic with certainty, which means we were sure about the
predicates. With this knowledge representation, we might write A→B, which
means if A is true then B is true, but consider a situation where we are not sure
about whether A is true or not then we cannot express this statement, this
situation is called uncertainty.

So to represent uncertain knowledge, where we are not sure about the

predicates, we need uncertain reasoning or probabilistic reasoning.

Causes of uncertainty:
Following are some leading causes of uncertainty to occur in the real world.

1. Information occurred from unreliable sources.

2. Experimental Errors
3. Equipment fault
4. Temperature variation
5. Climate change.

Probabilistic reasoning:
Probabilistic reasoning is a way of knowledge representation where we apply the
concept of probability to indicate the uncertainty in knowledge. In probabilistic
reasoning, we combine probability theory with logic to handle the uncertainty.

We use probability in probabilistic reasoning because it provides a way to handle

the uncertainty that is the result of someone's laziness and ignorance.
In the real world, there are lots of scenarios, where the certainty of something is
not confirmed, such as "It will rain today," "behavior of someone for some
situations," "A match between two teams or two players." These are probable
sentences for which we can assume that it will happen but not sure about it, so
here we use probabilistic reasoning.

Need of probabilistic reasoning in AI:

o When there are unpredictable outcomes.

o When specifications or possibilities of predicates becomes too large to
handle.
o When an unknown error occurs during an experiment.

In probabilistic reasoning, there are two ways to solve problems with uncertain
knowledge:

o Bayes' rule
o Bayesian Statistics
o As probabilistic reasoning uses probability and related terms, so before understanding
probabilistic reasoning, let's understand some common terms:
o Probability: Probability can be defined as a chance that an uncertain event will occur. It
is the numerical measure of the likelihood that an event will occur. The value of
probability always remains between 0 and 1 that represent ideal uncertainties.

Bayes' theorem
Bayes' theorem is also known as Bayes' rule, Bayes' law, or Bayesian reasoning,
which determines the probability of an event with uncertain knowledge.

In probability theory, it relates the conditional probability and marginal

probabilities of two random events.

Bayes' theorem was named after the British mathematician Thomas Bayes.
The Bayesian inference is an application of Bayes' theorem, which is
fundamental to Bayesian statistics.

It is a way to calculate the value of P(B|A) with the knowledge of P(A|B).

 Bayes' theorem allows updating the probability prediction of an event by
observing new information of the real world.

Example: If cancer corresponds to one's age then by using Bayes' theorem, we

can determine the probability of cancer more accurately with the help of age.

Bayes' theorem can be derived using product rule and conditional probability of
event A with known event B:

As from product rule we can write:

1. P(A ⋀ B)= P(A|B) P(B) or

Similarly, the probability of event B with known event A:

1. P(A ⋀ B)= P(B|A) P(A)

Equating right hand side of both the equations, we will get:

The above equation (a) is called as Bayes' rule or Bayes' theorem. This equation
is basic of most modern AI systems for probabilistic inference.

It shows the simple relationship between joint and conditional probabilities. Here,

P(A|B) is known as posterior, which we need to calculate, and it will be read as

Probability of hypothesis A when we have occurred an evidence B.

P(B|A) is called the likelihood, in which we consider that hypothesis is true, then
we calculate the probability of evidence.

P(A) is called the prior probability, probability of hypothesis before considering

the evidence

P(B) is called marginal probability, pure probability of an evidence.

In the equation (a), in general, we can write P (B) = P(A)*P(B|Ai), hence the Bayes'
rule can be written as:

Where A1, A2, A3,........, An is a set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive events.

Applying Bayes' rule:

Bayes' rule allows us to compute the single term P(B|A) in terms of P(A|B), P(B),
and P(A). This is very useful in cases where we have a good probability of these
three terms and want to determine the fourth one. Suppose we want to perceive
the effect of some unknown cause, and want to compute that cause, then the
Bayes' rule becomes:

Bayesian Belief Network

Bayesian belief network is key computer technology for dealing with probabilistic
events and to solve a problem which has uncertainty. We can define a Bayesian
network as:

"A Bayesian network is a probabilistic graphical model which represents a set of

variables and their conditional dependencies using a directed acyclic graph."

It is also called a Bayes network, belief network, decision network,

or Bayesian model.

Bayesian networks are probabilistic, because these networks are built from
a probability distribution, and also use probability theory for prediction and
anomaly detection.

Real world applications are probabilistic in nature, and to represent the

relationship between multiple events, we need a Bayesian network. It can also be
used in various tasks including prediction, anomaly detection, diagnostics,
automated insight, reasoning, time series prediction, and decision making
under uncertainty.

Bayesian Network can be used for building models from data and experts
opinions, and it consists of two parts:

o Directed Acyclic Graph

o Table of conditional probabilities.

The generalized form of Bayesian network that represents and solve decision
problems under uncertain knowledge is known as an Influence diagram.

A Bayesian network graph is made up of nodes and Arcs (directed links),

where:

o Each node corresponds to the random variables, and a variable can

be continuous or discrete.
 o Arc or directed arrows represent the causal relationship or conditional
probabilities between random variables. These directed links or arrows
connect the pair of nodes in the graph.
These links represent that one node directly influence the other node, and
if there is no directed link that means that nodes are independent with
each other
o In the above diagram, A, B, C, and D are random variables
represented by the nodes of the network graph.
o If we are considering node B, which is connected with node A by
a directed arrow, then node A is called the parent of Node B.
o Node C is independent of node A.

The Bayesian network has mainly two components:

o Causal Component
o Actual numbers

Each node in the Bayesian network has condition probability

distribution P(Xi |Parent(Xi) ), which determines the effect of the parent on that
node.

Bayesian network is based on Joint probability distribution and conditional

probability. So let's first understand the joint probability distribution:

Joint probability distribution:

If we have variables x1, x2, x3,....., xn, then the probabilities of a different
combination of x1, x2, x3.. xn, are known as Joint probability distribution.

P[x1, x2, x3,....., xn], it can be written as the following way in terms of the joint
probability distribution.

= P[x1| x2, x3,....., xn]P[x2, x3,....., xn]

= P[x1| x2, x3,....., xn]P[x2|x3,....., xn]....P[xn-1|xn]P[xn].

In general for each variable Xi, we can write the equation as:
P(Xi|Xi-1,........., X1) = P(Xi |Parents(Xi ))

Fuzzy Logic
The term fuzzy refers to things that are not clear or are vague. In the real world many times we encounter
a situation when we can’t determine whether the state is true or false, their fuzzy logic provides very
valuable flexibility for reasoning. In this way, we can consider the inaccuracies and uncertainties of any
situation.
Fuzzy Logic is a form of many-valued logic in which the truth values of variables may be any real
number between 0 and 1, instead of just the traditional values of true or false. It is used to deal with
imprecise or uncertain information and is a mathematical method for representing vagueness and
uncertainty in decision-making.
Fuzzy Logic is based on the idea that in many cases, the concept of true or false is too restrictive, and that
there are many shades of gray in between. It allows for partial truths, where a statement can be partially
true or false, rather than fully true or false.
Fuzzy Logic is used in a wide range of applications, such as control systems, image processing, natural
language processing, medical diagnosis, and artificial intelligence.
In the boolean system truth value, 1.0 represents the absolute truth value and 0.0 represents the absolute
false value. But in the fuzzy system, there is no logic for the absolute truth and absolute false value. But
in fuzzy logic, there is an intermediate value too present which is partially true and partially false.

Data Minning
Data mining, also known as knowledge discovery in data (KDD), is the process of uncovering patterns
and other valuable information from large data sets. Given the evolution of data warehousing technology
and the growth of big data, adoption of data mining techniques has rapidly accelerated over the last
couple of decades, assisting companies by transforming their raw data into useful knowledge. However,
despite the fact that that technology continuously evolves to handle data at a large scale, leaders still face
challenges with scalability and automation.

Data mining has improved organizational decision-making through insightful data analyses. The data
mining techniques that underpin these analyses can be divided into two main purposes; they can either
describe the target dataset or they can predict outcomes through the use of machine learning algorithms.
These methods are used to organize and filter data, surfacing the most interesting information, from fraud
detection to user behaviors, bottlenecks and even security breaches.

When combined with data analytics and visualization tools, like Apache Spark, delving into the world of
data mining has never been easier and extracting relevant insights has never been faster. Advances
within artificial intelligence only continue to expedite adoption across industries.

Data mining techniques

Data mining works by using various algorithms and techniques to turn large volumes of data into useful
information. Here are some of the most common ones:

Association rules: An association rule is a rule-based method for finding relationships between variables
in a given dataset. These methods are frequently used for market basket analysis, allowing companies to
better understand relationships between different products. Understanding consumption habits of
customers enables businesses to develop better cross-selling strategies and recommendation engines.

Neural networks: Primarily leveraged for deep learning algorithms, neural networks process training data
by mimicking the interconnectivity of the human brain through layers of nodes. Each node is made up of
inputs, weights, a bias (or threshold) and an output. If that output value exceeds a given threshold, it
“fires” or activates the node, passing data to the next layer in the network. Neural networks learn this
mapping function through supervised learning, adjusting based on the loss function through the process of
gradient descent. When the cost function is at or near zero, we can be confident in the model’s accuracy
to yield the correct answer.

Decision tree: This data mining technique uses classification or regression methods to classify or predict
potential outcomes based on a set of decisions. As the name suggests, it uses a tree-like visualization to
represent the potential outcomes of these decisions.

K- nearest neighbor (KNN): K-nearest neighbor, also known as the KNN algorithm, is a non-parametric
algorithm that classifies data points based on their proximity and association to other available data. This
algorithm assumes that similar data points can be found near each other. As a result, it seeks to calculate
the distance between data points, usually through Euclidean distance, and then it assigns a category based
on the most frequent category or average.

Dempster Shafer Theory

Dempster-Shafer Theory was given by Arthur P. Dempster in 1967 and his student Glenn Shafer in
1976. This theory was released because of the following reason:-
 Bayesian theory is only concerned about single evidence.
 Bayesian probability cannot describe ignorance.
DST is an evidence theory, it combines all possible outcomes of the problem. Hence it is used to solve
problems where there may be a chance that a piece of different evidence will lead to some different
result.
The uncertainty in this model is given by:-
1. Consider all possible outcomes.
2. Belief will lead to belief in some possibility by bringing out some evidence. (What is this supposed to
mean?)
3. Plausibility will make evidence compatible with possible outcomes.
Example: Let us consider a room where four people are present, A, B, C, and D. Suddenly the lights go
out and when the lights come back, B has been stabbed in the back by a knife, leading to his death. No
one came into the room and no one left the room. We know that B has not committed suicide. Now we
have to find out who the murderer is.

To solve these there are the following possibilities:

 Either {A} or {C} or {D} has killed him.
 Either {A, C} or {C, D} or {A, D} have killed him.
 Or the three of them have killed him i.e; {A, C, D}
 None of them have killed him {o} (let’s say).
There will be possible evidence by which we can find the murderer by the measure of plausibility.
Using the above example we can say:
Set of possible conclusion (P): {p1, p2….pn}
where P is a set of possible conclusions and cannot be exhaustive, i.e. at least one (p) I must be true.
(p)I must be mutually exclusive.