Chapter Concept of stress

2 2.1 Normal Stress

2.2 Shearing Stress
2.3 Bearing Stress in Connections
2.4 Allowable
Stress and
Factor of
Safety
2.5 Stress Under General Loading
2.6 Maximum Stresses

2.1 Normal Stress

Distributed forces within a load-carrying
member can be represented by a statically
equivalent system consisting of a force and a
moment vector acting at any arbitrary point
(usually the centroid) of a section.
Assumptions:
Consider a prismatic bar, the
axial forces produce a uniform
stretching of the bar, it is called
the bar is in tension. aa: cross
section perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis, and A : cross
section area.
 The material of the bar
is homogeneous Fig. 2.1:
(uniform density) and Concept
isotropic (same
directional properties)
 The bar is prismatic
(uniform cross section),
with no stress raisers
such as holes, notches, or threads, etc.
 The bar should have no residual stresses and
should not be subjected to temperature changes
 The axial force P acts through the centroid of the
cross section (centric loading, to avoid buckling
 The section (where stress is computed) is remote
from a loaded end (Saint – Venant´s principle)
The intensity of the force (force per unit area) is called
stress, assuming that the stress has uniform distribution, then
ΔF P
σ = lim σ ave = .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .(2)
ΔA→ 0 ΔA A
The normal stress at a particular point may not be equal to the average stress but the resultant of the
stress distribution must satisfy:
P= σ ave A =∫ dF =∫ σ dA .. .. . .. .. . .(3 )
A

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When the bar is stretched, the resulting stress are tensile stress, if the bar is compressed, the stress
are compressive stress. Sign convention of the normal stress is : tensile stress as positive and
compressive stress as negative.
Stress Units:
N 2 6 9
SI unit: 2 (Pa, Pascal), N /mm (MPa), 1 MPa=10 Pa , 1 GPa=10 Pa
m
Ib
USCS unit: 2
(psi) , kips /¿ 2 (ksi), 1 ksi=10 3 psi
¿
1 psi=6 , 895 Pa∧1 ksi=6.895 MPa

Example 2.1
Given: Two solid cylindrical rods (1) and (2) are joined together at flange B and
loaded, as shown in Fig. 1.3. The diameter of rod (1) is d1 = 24 mm and the diameter
of rod (2) is d2 = 42 mm.
Find: Using the method of section, determine the normal stresses in rods (1) and (2)?
Assumptions: The two rods are welded together B. the weight of the bar
is neglected.
SOLUTION:

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 2.2 Shear Stress
Three kinds of shearing stresses:
• Direct shear (mostly due to normal loads) – discussed in this chapter
• Torsional shear (mostly due to torsional loads) – discussed later.
• Shear stress or flexural shear (due to transverse loads) – discussed later.
The resultant of the internal shear force distribution is
defined as the shear of the section and is equal to the load
P.
P F
τ ave= = . . .. .. .. . .. .. . ..( 4 )
A A in the case of single shear
P F
τ ave= = . .. .. . .. .. . .. .(5)
A 2A in the case of double
shear
P F
τ ave= = . . .. .. . .. .. . .. ..(6 )
A nA in the case of nth bolts

Example 2.2:
Given: For the connection shown in Fig. P1.19, if the
diameter of each bolt is 7/8 in, and the load is P is 45 kips.
Find:
1.Determine the average shear stress in the bolts?
2.The tensile stress in the plate (2x0.2 in2) at a section passes
through three bolts?
Assumptions: the weight of the bolted joint can be neglected.
SOLUTIONS:

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 2.3 Bearing Stress
Bearing stress is a compressive stress that occurs as a
result of contact (point or surface) between two loaded
members.
Bolts, rivets, and pins create stresses on the points of contact
or bearing surfaces of the members they connect.

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The resultant of the force distribution on the surface is equal
and opposite to the force exerted on the pin. Corresponding
average force intensity is called the bearing stress,
σ bearing = Axial load, P / Projected area, A P ,
P P
σ b = = . . .. .. . .. .. . .. .(7)
A p td

Pin
is
also
in
she
ar
Example 2.3:

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 2.4 Allowable Stress & Factor of Safety
Structural members or machines must be designed such that the working stresses are less than the
ultimate strength of the material. The factor of safety, ns, is the ratio of maximum load that
produces failure of the member to the load allowed under service conditions:
failure load
n s= … … … … ..(4 )
allowable load
The allowable load is also called the service load or working load. This ratio, must always greater
than unity, ns >1. The factor of safety may also be defined by:
material strength
n s= … … … ..(5)
allowable strength
The allowable stress is also known as the applied stress, working stress, or design stress, and it

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represent the required strength.
Factor of safety considerations:
• uncertainty in material properties
• uncertainty of loadings
• uncertainty of analyses
• number of loading cycles
• types of failure
• maintenance requirements and deterioration effects
• importance of member to structures integrity
• risk to life and property
• influence on machine function

Selection of a factor of safety:

1. 1:25 to 2 for known materials used under controllable conditions and subjected to loads
and stresses that can be readily determined with certainty. It is used where low weight is a
particularly important consideration.
2. 2 to 3 for average materials operated in ordinary environments and subjected to loads and
stresses that can be determined.
3. 3 to 4 for average materials used in uncertain environments or subjected to
uncertain stresses.

2.5 Stress Under General Loading

•A member subjected to a general combination of loads is cut into two segments by a plane
passing through Q.

•The distribution of internal stress components may be defined as,

σ x= lim ΔΔAF x dF x
=
dA
ΔA → 0

τ xy = lim ΔF y dF y
ΔA
=
dA
∧τ xz = lim ΔF
ΔA
z
=
dF z
dA ………….(7)
ΔA →0 ΔA →0

The double subscript notation is interpreted as follows: The first subscript indicates the direction
of a normal to the plane or face on which the stress component acts; the second subscript relates to
the direction of the stress itself.
•Equality of Shearing Stresses: We now examine properties of shearing stress by studying the
equilibrium of forces. For equilibrium, an equal and opposite internal force and stress distribution

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must be exerted on the other segment of the member.
•Stress components are defined for the planes cut parallel to the x, y and z axes. For equilibrium,
equal and opposite stresses are exerted on the hidden planes.
•The combination of forces generated by the stresses must satisfy the
∑ F x=∑ F y =∑ F z =0
conditions for equilibrium: ∑ x ∑ y ∑ z
M = M = M =0 …………….(8)

•Consider the moments about the z axis:

∑ M z =0=(τ xy ΔA ) . a−( τ yx ΔA ). a
τ xy =τ yx ………(9)


similarly, τ yz =τ zy and τ yz=τ zy
It follows that only 6 components of stress are required to define
the complete state of stress, written as:

[ ]
σ x τ xy τ xy
σ ij τ xy σ y τ yz , i, j=x , y , z
τ xz τ yz σ z

 Sign Convention: See section 1.6. It can be summarize as:

i. When both the outer normal and the stress component face in a positive direction
relative to the coordinate axes, the stress is positive.
ii. When both the outer normal and the stress component face in a negative direction
relative to the coordinate axes, the stress is positive.
iii. When the normal points in a positive direction while the stress points in a
negative direction (or vice versa), the stress is negative.
iv. In accordance with this sign convention, tensile stresses are always positive and
compressive stresses always negative. Figure 1.2 depicts a system of positive
normal and shear stresses.

 Typical Cases of Stress:

1. Triaxial Stress: when the element is subjected only to stresses
σ x , σ y ,∧σ z ( τ xy =τ xz =τ zy =0 ) , acting in mutually perpendicular directions is
said to be in a state of triaxial stress. Such a state of stress can be written as,

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 [ ]
σx 0 0
σ= 0 σy 0
0 0 σz

An example of equal triaxial compression is found in a small element of liquid

under static pressure.
2. 2-D or Plane stress: in this case only the x, and y faces are subjected to stresses
σ x , σ y ,∧τ xy but σ z =τ xz=τ zy =0 . The plane stress matrix is written as,

σ=
[ σ x τ xy
τ xy σ y ]
3. Pure Shear: In this case, the element is subjected to plane
shearing stresses only Fig. Typical pure shear occurs over the
cross sections and on longitudinal planes of a circular shaft
subjected to torsion.
4. Uniaxial Stress: When normal stresses act along one direction
only, the one dimensional state of stress is referred to as a uniaxial tension or
compression.

2.6 Maximum Stresses

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• Normal and shearing stresses on an oblique plane are:
P P
σ= cos2 θ∧τ = sinθ . cos θ . .. . .. ..(10 )
A0 A0
• The maximum normal stress occurs when the reference
plane is perpendicular to the member axis,
P '
σ max = ∧τ =0 . .. .. .. . ..(11)
A0
• The maximum shear stress occurs for a plane at + 45o
with respect to the axis,
P P σ
τ max = sin 45 cos 45= =
A 2A 2 ………..(12)

Example 2.5:

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