Microwave Engineering

EC 401
DoECE
Sardar Vallabhbhai National
Institute Of Technplogy
Module 1
Circuit Theory and EM Theory

Why study electromagnetic waves?

CIRCUIT THEORY AND EM THEORY

Why EM Theory
 CIRCUIT THEORY
• The electrical signal is broadly
categorised into two type
(a) Low frequency (1Hz- 100MHz)
(b) High frequency (1GHz-40GHZ)
• Circuit theory deals with electrical
circuits with low frequency.
• The voltage drop ( Ohm’s law ) across a
device is
V = I.R
A SIMPLE CIRCUIT DEMONSTRATING
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
(VS = VG+V1 + V2 + V3).

VG R1=37[] IX
Vs= + RG=30[]
V1 R2=
32[] V2
10[V] - R3=40[]

V3
A SIMPLE CIRCUIT DEMONSTRATING
KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
(IX = I1+I2 + I3).
IX

+ Vs= R1= R2= R3=

33[k] 22[k] 18[k]
- 100[V]
I1 I2 I3
 A SIMPLE CIRCUIT DEMONSTRATING THE
VOLTAGE NODE PRINCIPLE. THE VOLTAGE
IS THE SAME EVERYWHERE INSIDE EACH
OF THE DOTTED OUTLINES.
 CIRCUIT THEORY
 Circuit theory deals with electrical
circuits.
An engineer can predict the performance
of complicated electrical networks with
the help of circuit theory.
But this theory has certain limitations :
 It cannot be applied in free space.
 It is useful only at low frequencies.
LIMITATIONS OF CIRCUIT THEORY
This theory is unsuccessful in explaining
the radiation of electromagnetic waves
into space in radio communications.
It cannot be used to analyse or design a
complete communication system.
Example: Radio Communication System.
THREE BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF CIRCUIT
THEORY
Electric effects happen instantaneously
throughout a system
The net Charge on every component in
the system is zero
No magnetic coupling between
components
 CIRCUIT THEORY

  V 

V0 1    0

V0
V0
Z0      

V0  V0 
  V 0 

V 0

 1   (0)  
V 0


I0 I0 I 0  I 0  I 
I 0 1  0 
 I 
0 1   (0)  I 
0

 I0 
V0 Z L  Z 0 V0 V0 V0 I 0
(0)    Z 0           (0)
V0 Z L  Z 0 I0 I0 V0 I0

  V 

V0 1   
0

0 1   (0) 
  
V0  V0  V0  V [1  (0)]
Z     Z
I 0  I 0   
I0
I 0 1   
 I 
0 1   (0)  0
[1  (0)]
 I0 
 CIRCUIT THEORY

  j z  j z   j z 2 j z
V ( z )  V [e0  (0)e ] V e
0 [1  (0)e ]

 I 
 j 2 z 
I ( z )  I 0 e  j  z  I 0 e  j  z   j z
 I0 e 1   e
0

 I0 
 I 0 e  j  z [1  (0)e 2 j  z ]

V  z ,   0  V0 e  j  z [1  (0)e 2 j  z ] V0 [1  (0)] [1  (0)]

Z    j z   Z
I  z ,   0  I 0 e [1  (0)e 2 j  z ] I 0 [1  (0)] [1  (0)]
0
TRANSMISSION LINE ANALYSIS
 HIGH FREQUENCY IMPLIES
SPATIAL VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION
• Voltage has a time and
space behavior
• Space is neglected for
low frequency
applications
• For RF, there can be a
large spatial variation
FOR 1.5CM LONG WIRE CONNECTING
THE SOURCE AND LOAD
For a 1 MHz signal For a 10GHz signal
generator, the generator, the
wavelength λ = wavelength λ = 0.949
94.86m cm
The spatial voltage The significant spatial
variations along the voltage variations
wire are insignificant along the wire are
as λ very high observed as λ is
compared to the approximately two-
length of the wire thirds the length of the
wire.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES AT VARIOUS FREQUENCIES

Wavelength λ is travel
by time period T sec.
In one wavelength λ ,
total phase change is
2π
FIELD THEORY HAS FOLLOWING ADVANTAGES IN
COMPARISON TO CIRCUIT THEORY
It is also applicable in free space.
It is useful at all frequencies, particularly at
high frequencies,
The radiation effect can be considered.
This theory can be used to analyse or design a
complete communication system. Example:
Wireless Communication, Radio
Communication.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FIELD THEORY
AND CIRCUIT THEORY
At lower frequencies where physical circuit
dimensions are small compared to the
wavelength of electromagnetic waves, the
behaviour of circuits is accurately modelled using
“lumped element ” component models, together
with Kirchhoff’s laws
At higher frequencies where the distances
between components are a significant fraction of
a wavelength and greater, the signals carrying
information or power from one place in a circuit
to another are treated as waves.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FIELD THEORY
AND CIRCUIT THEORY
Signals must be routed from one point to
another using transmission lines, modelled
using transmission line theory.
 If the component dimensions be comparable
to the wavelength then accurate
understanding and prediction of behaviour
may require modelling using electromagnetic
field and wave theory
WHY ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY
At High frequencies where the wavelength is
several orders of magnitude larger than the
greatest dimensions of the circuit or system being
examined.
The conventional circuit elements such as
capacitors, inductors, resistors and transistors are
the basic building blocks for the information
transmitting, receiving, and processing circuits
used.
The description or analysis of such circuits may be
adequately carried out in terms of loop currents
(KCL) and node voltages (KVL) without
consideration of propagation effects.
 WHY ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY (CONTD.)

The time delay between cause and effect at

different points in these circuits is so small
compared with the period of the applied signal
as to be negligible.
An electromagnetic wave propagates a distance
of one wavelength in a time interval equal to
one period of a sinusoidally time-varying
applied signal.
Consequently, when the distances involved are
short compared with a wavelength λ0 (λ0 =
velocity of light/ frequency), the time delay is
insignificant.
WHY ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY (CONTD.)
As the frequency is raised to a point where
the wavelength is no longer large compared
with the circuit dimensions, propagation
effects can no longer be ignored.
 A further effect is the great relative increase
in the impedance of connecting leads,
terminals, etc., and the effect of distributed
(stray) capacitance and inductance.
In addition, currents circulating in unshielded
circuits comparable in size with a wavelength
are very effective in radiating electromagnetic
waves.
WHY ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY (CONTD.)

One of the essential requirements in a

microwave circuit is the ability to transfer
signal power from one point to another
without radiation loss.
This requires the transport of electromagnetic
energy in the form of a propagating wave.
 TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY

• Transmission Line Theory

t=t1

t+(t1-t2)
 TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY
(CONTD.)
Time to travel Voltage wave from AA’ to
BB’ Transit time or delay tr=L/v
This transit time or delay can be neglected
if time period T>>tr
T>>tr Ξ 1/f >> L/v Ξ v/f >> L
 λ >> L
As frequency is increasing, Wavelength λ
is decreasing
 WHY MATCHING OR TUNING IS
IMPORTANT?
To maximize power delivery and minimize power
loss.
To improve signal to noise ratio as in sensitive
receiver components such as LNA, antenna, etc.
To reduce amplitude and phase error as in
distributed network such as antenna array.

Matching
Z0 Network
Load ZL

Basic idea of impedance matching

 CONCEPT OF MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER
In lump circuit in circuit Theory
PL
Power deliver at ZL is
Zo
2
1 1 1  Vi 
PL  VL I  I 2 Z L    ZL
2 2 2  Z L  Zo 
Vi I ZL VL

Power maximum whence ZL = Zo Z0 ZL

In transmission line Theory or EM Theory

Pin Z0  Power Reflected=Pr=Pin |ρ|2

Z L  Zo Z L  RL  jX L Power Delivered=PL=Pin(1-|ρ|2 )
 
Z L  Zo
 CONCEPT OF MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER (CONTD.)
In transmission line Pin 
Z0 ZL  RL  jX L
Z  Zo
  L
Z L  Zo

Pin=PL+PR
The important parameter is reflection PR
coefficient
Power Reflected=Pr=Pin |ρ|2
Power Delivered=Pd=Pin(1-|ρ|2 )
PL
Z0 ZL
No reflection whence ZL = Zo , hence ρ=0
The load ZL can be matched as long as ZL not equal to zero (short-
circuit) or infinity (open-circuit)