Practical File Report

Remote Sensing and GIS

Paper Code: 12291502
B.A. (Hons) Geography, V Semester
(2023 -24)
Submitted to

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
MIRANDA HOUSE
UNIVERSITY OF DELHI

University Roll No. 21047513014 College Roll No. 2021/244

 CHAPTER 1
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS AND
IMAGE INTERPRETATION
CHAPTER – 2
VISUAL INTERPRETATION
CHAPTER - 3

GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) represent a powerful technology that integrates spatial
data, enabling users to analyze, visualize, and interpret information in a geographic context. At
its core, GIS combines hardware, software, and data to capture, manage, and display
geographically referenced information. This technology has transformative applications across
various fields, including environmental science, urban planning, public health, and disaster
management.

GIS allows users to collect and store different types of spatial data, such as maps, satellite
imagery, and GPS coordinates, in a centralized database. These datasets can then be manipulated
and analyzed to derive meaningful insights. One of the key features of GIS is its ability to
overlay multiple layers of information, facilitating the identification of spatial patterns and
relationships. For example, urban planners can use GIS to analyze land use patterns,
transportation networks, and demographics to make informed decisions about city development.

In environmental science, GIS is instrumental in monitoring and managing natural resources.

Ecologists can use GIS to track changes in ecosystems, map biodiversity, and assess the impact
of human activities on the environment. Additionally, GIS plays a crucial role in disaster
management by providing real-time mapping of affected areas, aiding in emergency response
and recovery efforts.

GIS software, such as QGIS and ArcGIS, provides a user-friendly interface for manipulating
spatial data. Users can perform operations like digitizing features, creating thematic maps, and
conducting spatial analysis. Moreover, GIS has evolved with advancements in technology,
incorporating web-based mapping applications and cloud-based platforms for easier accessibility
and collaboration.

In conclusion, GIS is a dynamic and interdisciplinary tool that has revolutionized the way we
understand and interact with spatial information. Its applications are diverse and continue to
expand, making GIS an invaluable asset for decision-makers, researchers, and professionals in
numerous fields worldwide.

QGIS

Quantum GIS (QGIS) stands out as a leading open-source Geographic Information System (GIS)
that empowers users to harness the power of spatial data for mapping, analysis, and visualization.
Developed by a global community of contributors, QGIS offers a robust platform accessible to
GIS professionals, researchers, and enthusiasts alike.

At its core, QGIS provides a user-friendly interface for managing various geospatial data
formats, including shapefiles, raster images, and GPS data. The software's versatility lies in its
ability to handle complex spatial information, allowing users to create, edit, and analyze
geographic data seamlessly. QGIS supports a wide array of spatial analysis tools, making it a
valuable resource for tasks such as overlay analysis, proximity analysis, and terrain modeling.
A standout feature of QGIS is its extensive plugin architecture, enabling users to tailor the
software to their specific needs. The plugin repository hosts a diverse range of community-
contributed plugins, expanding QGIS's capabilities and ensuring its adaptability to evolving GIS
requirements.

QGIS is well-suited for various applications, including urban planning, environmental

monitoring, and disaster management. The software facilitates the creation of visually
compelling maps by allowing users to overlay multiple data layers, analyze spatial patterns, and
derive meaningful insights. Additionally, QGIS's compatibility with other open-source GIS tools
and standard geospatial formats enhances interoperability and collaboration within the GIS
community.

The strength of QGIS lies not only in its feature-rich environment but also in its commitment to
open-source principles. The collaborative development model ensures continuous improvement
and innovation, fostering a dynamic platform that evolves with the changing needs of GIS users
worldwide. In conclusion, QGIS stands as a powerful and accessible GIS solution, democratizing
spatial analysis and contributing to advancements in various fields reliant on geospatial data.

 DIGITIZATION

Digitization is the process of converting geographic data either from a hardcopy

or a scanned image into vector data by tracing the features. During digitizing,
process features from the traced map or image are captured as coordinates in
either point, line and polygon format. It is the most common and labor intensive
method to create a spatial database.

Vector Point Data :- A point uses a single coordinate pair to define its location.
Attributes of points describe its features. Points are considered to have no
dimension even though in the real world they have dimensions. Example : Poles,
telephone poles , buildings etc.

Vector Line Data :- When the points are connected, then point data is
converted into vector line data. Line features have multiple lines and points.
Example : Road lines, topographic lines, power lines, object outlines, etc.

Vector Polygon Data :- When lines are connected into an enclosed shape then
this type of data is termed as polygon data. Polygon should be closed. The start
and end point should have the same coordinates.
There are 3 types of digitization we have used here to complete the
administrative map of the study area and they are:
1. Point digitization for the district headquarters
2. Line digitization for national highways,state highways, roads, railways
and rivers.
3. Polygon digitization for the tehsil blocks.

POLYGON DIGITIZATION

Open QGIS → Go to layer→ Select layer→ Click on create layer→

Click on new shape file (A window will pop up with heading as
“New Vector Layer”)

In type, select polygon and give it a particular name→ Click on Add

Attribute List →then click on OK→ Save layer →(Assign it a file
name) →Then save it as SHP file format→ Go to settings→ and
click on the Snapping option→ (A window will pop up)→ (Click on
the square box in the left corner)→ vertex and segments→ Increase
tolerance to 10 Select Pixels in units→ Click on Enable Topological
Editing option →Click on Enable Snapping on Intersection option→
Click on Avoid intersection option→ Click on Apply and Ok Click
on “Toggle Editing”→ Select Add feature option Put cursor on area
that has to be digitized.

After digitizing right click (A window will pop up in which ID and

Name have to assign to each area)

To Change the color of the districts Double click on the file → Go

to Properties → Go to Style → Select Categorized → Select your
 file → Click on Classify → Click on Apply→ Click OK (The color
and transparency of the district can be further changed by clicking
on the district and choosing the colour).

Save the file.

LINE DIGITIZATION

OPEN QGIS

Go to layer → Select layer→ Click on create layer

→Click on new shapefile
(A window will pop up with heading as “New
Vector Layer”)

In type, select line and Give it a particular name→ Click

on Add Attribute List →then click on OK→ Save layer
(Assign it a file name) →Then save it as SHP file format
→ Go to settings and click on the Snapping option→ (A
window will pop up) Click on the square box in the left
corner→ Select
vertex and segments,→ Increase tolerance to 10 Select
Pixels in units ,→ Click on Enable Topological Editing
option→ Click on Enable Snapping on Intersection
option→ Click on Apply and Ok Click on “Toggle
Editing”
→Select Add item option →Put cursor on the line that has
to be digitized →after digitizing, right click (A window
will pop up in which ID and Name have to assign to each
line)
 Save Layer Edit→ Select file Right click properties
(choose the desired colors for highways and for
railways).

POINT DIGITIZATION

POINT DIGITIZATION
Open QGIS → Go to raster→ Add layer →Add the shape file layer
of the study area

Go to layer → Select layer Click on create layer → Click on new

shape file (A window will pop up with heading as “New Vector
Layer”) → In type select point Give it a particular name → Click on
Add attribute list → then click on OK → Save the
layer (Assign it a file name) → Then save it as SHP file format →
Click on “Toggle Editing”→ Select add feature option → Put the
cursor on the point that have to digitize, after digitizing → right
click (A window will pop up in which ID and Name have to assign
to each point) → Click on Save Layer Edit → Select your file →
right click on it properties→ Choose symbol according to your wish
and better representation.
PREPARING THE LAYOUT OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE MAP

To prepare the final map,

Go to Project → New Print Composer (dialog box will appear)→ Fill the
title → Click ok (Composer screen will appear)→ Import the map on
composer screen, click on add map feature.

Click on Add New Map (Map will appear on the screen)

 Add title of the map as ‘ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS,

NORTH CAMPUS 2011’ by clicking on ‘add title’ toolbar→
 Add the arrow beside the title by clicking on ‘add arrow’ and
write ‘N’ beside the arrow by adding text to show the
direction →
 Click on ‘add scale bar’ in the toolbar and drag the cursor
below the title following which, write ‘KM’ in the label box to
finalize the scale→
 Add the grids on the page by clicking on page, selecting the
‘grid’ option appearing in the item properties, there after click
on the ‘+’, select ‘frames and annotations only’ in the frame
style,‘exterior ticks’, select intervals ‘1’ for X and ‘2’ for Y
and tick on the column of ‘draw coordinates’ to make the
coordinates appear on the canvas page →
 Make the legend for the map on the bottom left-side of the
page by clicking on the option of ‘add legend’ in the toolbar.

Save the map in form of pdf and image

Go to Composer → Export as image → Name the file→ Save
Hence, the administrative map of NORTH CAMPUS is created
using the above steps.
 PREPARING A THEMATIC MAP AND ITS LAYOUT
The following methods specify the process of making thematic maps.

FOR PROPORTIONATE PIE TO REPRESENT POPULATION

COMPOSITION

. Open QGIS software > Import the shapefile of the Study Area (Go to

Layer > Add Vector Layer > Click on the appropriate name of the file

and click OK.)

 2. Import the excel file with the data related to the Population.

3. Join the study area shape file layer with the excel file (Right-click on the
study area layer > Go to properties > Click on Joins > Click on The plus "+"
symbol: Join field to id, target field to id and click OK > click on apply and
OK)

4. To make the Proportionate pie from the given data:-

 Select the newly imported shapefile of the study area>
 Go to properties >
 Go to DIAGRAMS section >
 Select the desired ATTRIBUTES.
 Choose SIZE to determine size of the circles according to the Total
Population>
 Click on LEGEND to get the collapsed legend>
 Click on Apply to check the application >
 Click on “ OK” for permanent desired results.

5. Make the final plate layout showing the POPULATION COMPOSITION.

 Go to project and choose 'new print composer'

 Add the desired name for the layer and click OK
 In the composition section select A4 as 'portrait' as the orientation of the
page
 From the toolbar on the left-hand side select 'add new map feature "and
drag it page on the taking the margin
 Bring the map to the center of the page by clicking on' move item content'
in the toolbar
 Tick on the option of frames 'to give border to the composer page'.
 6. Add all the elements of them upon the page

 Add title of the map as “POPULATION COMPOSITION” by

clicking on add ‘title' toolbar
 Add the arrow beside the title by clicking on ‘add arrow’
 Click on add scale bar' in the toolbar and drag the cursor below
the title following which, write 'Km' in the label box to finalize
the scale
 Add the grids on the page by clicking on page, selecting the
'grid' option appearing in the item properties ‚thereafter click on
the'+', select' frames and annotations only' in the frame
style ,'exterior ticks', select intervals '1.5' for X and '1.5' for Y
and tick on the column of draw coordinates' to make the
coordinates appear on the canvas page > Make the legend for
them upon the Bottom left side of the page by clicking on the
option of add legend 'in the toolbar

7. Save the final map in the form of PDF and as well as image format.
 Interpretation-

The given map depicts the Population size and Composition of the Bathinda district in the

year 2011. The data has been taken from the official website of Census of India and the

resultant map has been prepared using QGIS Software. The size of population is

comparatively bigger in Bathinda tehsil of the district as it is the district headquarter and

accommodates the majority of the population. The other two tehsils; Rampura Phul and

Talwandi Sabo tehsil, have a good proportion of population residing in the areas too. The

number of males is higher in every tehsil of the district in comparison to the number of

females. The dominance of male population is not quite high in the tehsils. This depicts a

balanced population in the tehsils of the district.

Bathinda is an important district in the state of Punjab having a peaceful environment and

hence, a good number of population resides in the district. The employment opportunities,

along with better education-healthcare facilities and infrastructure, attract more population to

the district.

.
 CHAPTER - 4

DIGITAL IMAGE
PROCESSING
A digital image is a representation of visual information in a format that can be stored and processed by
electronic systems. Unlike traditional photographs or printed images, which are analog and exist in
physical form, digital images are composed of discrete elements called pixels. Each pixel represents a tiny
portion of the image and contains numerical values that define its color and brightness.

The basic building blocks of a digital image are pixels, short for picture elements. These pixels are
arranged in a grid, and each pixel's color is typically represented by a combination of red, green, and blue
(RGB) values. The variation in these RGB values across the grid creates the visual representation of the
image.

Key characteristics of digital images include:

 Resolution: The number of pixels in an image determines its resolution. Higher resolution images
contain more pixels and, therefore, offer greater detail and clarity.

 Color Depth: This refers to the number of colors that can be represented in an image. Common
color depths include 8-bit (256 colors), 24-bit (true color), and 32-bit (with an additional alpha
channel for transparency).

 File Format: Digital images are stored in various file formats, such as JPEG, PNG, GIF, or TIFF.
Each format has its own compression and quality characteristics.

 Metadata: Digital images can include metadata, which is additional information about the image,
such as the date it was created, camera settings, and geolocation data.

 Digital Image Processing: Digital images can undergo processing using computational techniques
to enhance, modify, or analyze the visual information they contain. This field is known as digital
image processing (DIP).

 Digital images have become ubiquitous in the modern world, being used in photography, satellite
imagery, medical imaging, computer graphics, and various other applications. The shift from
traditional analog images to digital formats has enabled easy storage, manipulation, and sharing
of visual information in electronic devices and over digital networks.
 DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

Digital Image Processing (DIP) plays a pivotal role in the field of remote sensing, revolutionizing the way
we acquire, analyze, and interpret information from Earth's surface. Remote sensing involves the
collection of data from a distance, typically through satellites, aircraft, or drones. These platforms capture
images in various spectral bands, such as visible, infrared, and microwave, providing valuable insights
into the Earth's features. Digital Image Processing in remote sensing enhances the extraction of
meaningful information from these images, enabling better understanding and decision-making in fields
like agriculture, forestry, environmental monitoring, and urban planning.

One fundamental aspect of DIP in remote sensing is image enhancement. Raw satellite images often
suffer from issues like atmospheric interference, sensor noise, and geometric distortions. Enhancement
techniques, such as contrast stretching, histogram equalization, and filtering, improve the visual quality of
images, making it easier for analysts to identify and interpret features. These enhancements also
contribute to better automated analysis through computer algorithms, facilitating efficient extraction of
information.

Image classification is another critical application of DIP in remote sensing. By assigning pixels in an
image to predefined classes or land cover types, classification algorithms can create thematic maps.
Supervised and unsupervised classification methods use spectral signatures to distinguish between
different surface materials like vegetation, water bodies, and urban areas. Machine learning algorithms,
including support vector machines and neural networks, have become increasingly popular for accurate
and automated image classification in remote sensing.

Change detection is a vital aspect of monitoring dynamic environments, and DIP plays a key role in this
domain. By comparing images acquired at different times, changes in land cover, deforestation, urban
expansion, and natural disasters can be identified. Change detection algorithms use techniques like image
differencing, vegetation indices, and object-based analysis to highlight alterations over time, aiding
decision-makers in understanding the evolving landscape.

Digital image processing also contributes significantly to image fusion, where data from multiple sensors
or spectral bands are combined to create composite images with enhanced information content. This
allows for a more comprehensive analysis by integrating the strengths of different sensors, such as high
spatial resolution from optical sensors and unique spectral information from infrared or radar sensors.

In recent years, the advent of deep learning has further revolutionized remote sensing image analysis.
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) and other deep learning architectures excel in feature extraction
and pattern recognition, enabling highly accurate and automated tasks, including object detection, land
cover mapping, and scene understanding.

Despite the numerous advancements, challenges persist in the field of Digital Image Processing in remote
sensing. Issues like data privacy, cloud cover in satellite imagery, and the need for real-time processing
pose ongoing research questions. Additionally, addressing the digital divide in access to remote sensing
data and technology remains crucial for ensuring equitable benefits across regions and communities.
In conclusion, Digital Image Processing in remote sensing has transformed the way we observe and
understand the Earth's surface. From image enhancement and classification to change detection and deep
learning applications, DIP continues to be a driving force in extracting meaningful information from vast
amounts of remote sensing data, contributing to sustainable resource management and informed decision-
making on a global scale.

PRE-PROCESSING

Pre-processing of digital images involves a series of steps and techniques applied to raw or unprocessed
images before their analysis, interpretation, or storage. These steps aim to enhance the quality of images,
reduce noise, correct distortions, and prepare the data for subsequent analysis or applications. The
following are common pre-processing steps in digital image processing:

 Image Acquisition:
Obtain the raw image data through sensors, cameras, or other imaging devices.
 Image Conversion:
Convert the acquired images into a digital format, often involving analog-to-digital conversion.
 Gray-Level Adjustment:
Normalize or adjust the image's intensity levels to improve visibility and ensure that relevant features are
distinguishable.

 Noise Reduction:
Remove or reduce unwanted variations in pixel values caused by noise, which can arise from sensor
limitations, transmission errors, or other sources.
 Smoothing and Sharpening:
Apply filters or convolution operations to smooth the image (reduce high-frequency noise) or enhance
details (sharpen the image).
 Image Registration:
Align multiple images to a common reference frame, which is particularly crucial in applications
involving image fusion or change detection.
 Geometric Correction:
Correct distortions caused by the imaging process, sensor characteristics, or the Earth's surface. This may
involve methods such as rectification and orthorectification.
 Image Resampling:
Adjust the spatial resolution of the image, which may be necessary when combining images with different
resolutions or when preparing data for specific applications.
 Contrast Enhancement:
Improve the visibility of features by enhancing the contrast of the image. Histogram equalization and
contrast stretching are common techniques.
 Normalization:
Adjust the pixel values to a common scale or range to ensure consistency in comparisons between
different images.
 Segmentation:
Divide the image into meaningful regions or objects, which can aid in subsequent analysis tasks.
 Data Compression:
Reduce the file size of the image while preserving essential information, facilitating storage and
transmission.
 Data Fusion:
Combine information from multiple sources or sensor bands to create a composite image with enhanced
information content.

\These pre-processing steps are often tailored to the specific requirements of the application or analysis
being performed. Effective pre-processing is crucial for obtaining accurate and reliable results in tasks
such as image classification, object recognition, and change detection in various fields, including remote
sensing, medical imaging, and computer vision.

IMAGE RECTIFICATION
Image rectification is a crucial process in digital image processing, particularly in the field of remote
sensing and GIS (Geographic Information Systems). This technique involves the correction of geometric
distortions present in images, ensuring that they accurately represent the Earth's surface. The distortions
may arise due to the perspective projection, terrain variations, sensor characteristics, or platform
movement during image acquisition. Rectification is essential for precise spatial analysis, map overlay,
and integration of images with geographical data.

1. Objective of Image Rectification:

Image rectification aims to remove geometric distortions in images, aligning them with a specific map
projection or coordinate system. The primary goals include achieving a consistent scale, minimizing
distortions, and ensuring that spatial relationships in the rectified image correspond accurately to the real-
world features on the Earth's surface.

2. Distortions in Satellite Imagery:

Satellite imagery often exhibits distortions due to the curved nature of the Earth and the imaging process.
These distortions include:

Positional Errors: Errors in the satellite's position or attitude during image acquisition can lead to
inaccuracies in the location of features.

Scale Variations: Proximity to the image center may result in scale distortions, where features appear
larger or smaller than their true size.

Topographic Variations: Variations in terrain elevation introduce relief displacement, causing distortions
in the image.

3. Image Rectification Techniques:

Various techniques are employed to rectify images, and the choice depends on the specific characteristics
of the imagery and the desired accuracy. Common rectification methods include:

Orthorectification: This process corrects images to remove distortions caused by terrain relief. It involves
incorporating a digital elevation model (DEM) to adjust the image to a planimetrically correct position.
Rubber Sheeting: A more basic form of rectification, rubber sheeting involves manually adjusting control
points in the image to match known locations on the ground. This technique is suitable for small-scale
corrections but may not be as accurate as orthorectification.

Polynomial Transformation: This method uses mathematical functions, such as polynomial equations, to
model the distortions in the image. Control points are used to establish the transformation parameters.

Bundle Adjustment: Commonly used in photogrammetry, bundle adjustment optimizes the parameters of
the imaging system to reduce errors and improve the accuracy of the rectified image.

4. Control Points and Ground Control Points (GCPs):

Control points are key features identified in both the image and a reference map or dataset. Ground
Control Points (GCPs) are control points with accurately known coordinates on the Earth's surface. These
points serve as the basis for the rectification process, enabling the software to calculate the transformation
required to align the image with the reference coordinate system.

5. Digital Elevation Models (DEMs):

DEMs play a crucial role in orthorectification by providing information about the terrain's elevation. By
incorporating DEM data, orthorectification compensates for variations in topography, ensuring that
objects in the image are accurately positioned in relation to the Earth's surface.

6. Applications of Image Rectification:

Remote Sensing: Rectified images are essential for accurate interpretation and analysis of remotely
sensed data. This is critical for applications such as land cover classification, vegetation monitoring, and
environmental studies.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Rectified images are integrated into GIS for spatial analysis,
map creation, and overlay with other geographic data layers. This facilitates more accurate and reliable
geospatial information.

Cartography: In cartography, rectified images are used to create accurate maps, ensuring that spatial
relationships and distances are correctly represented.

Urban Planning: Image rectification is valuable in urban planning for analyzing land use patterns,
infrastructure development, and monitoring changes over time.

Disaster Management: In disaster response, rectified images aid in assessing the impact of natural
disasters, planning evacuation routes, and coordinating emergency response efforts.

7. Challenges and Considerations:

Despite its benefits, image rectification comes with challenges. Accurate rectification requires precise
knowledge of the image acquisition conditions, sensor characteristics, and reliable ground control data.
Additionally, variations in atmospheric conditions and the availability of high-quality DEMs can impact
the accuracy of the rectification process.

In conclusion, image rectification is a fundamental step in the processing of satellite and aerial imagery,
ensuring that the visual representation aligns accurately with the Earth's surface. Through the use of
control points, ground control points, and advanced techniques like orthorectification, this process plays a
vital role in applications ranging from environmental monitoring to urban planning, providing valuable
and accurate geospatial information for diverse fields and industries.

RADIOMETRIC CORRECTION

Radiometric correction is a crucial process in remote sensing and digital image processing that addresses
variations in sensor sensitivity, atmospheric conditions, and other factors affecting the radiance values
recorded by imaging systems. The objective of radiometric correction is to normalize these values,
ensuring consistency and accuracy in the representation of surface reflectance or radiance across an
image. This correction is essential for quantitative analysis, comparison of images acquired at different
times, and the accurate interpretation of surface features.

Key Components of Radiometric Correction:

 Sensor Calibration:
Radiometric correction begins with sensor calibration. Calibration involves determining the relationship
between the recorded digital numbers (DN) and the actual radiance values. This calibration process
corrects for variations in sensor sensitivity, accounting for factors like sensor degradation over time.

 Dark Current and Offset Correction:

Imaging sensors often exhibit a baseline signal even in the absence of light, known as dark current.
Radiometric correction involves subtracting this dark current value from the recorded digital numbers to
eliminate unwanted background noise. Additionally, offset correction adjusts for any offset in the sensor's
response.

 Atmospheric Correction:
Atmospheric conditions can affect the radiance values recorded by sensors. Particles, gases, and water
vapor in the atmosphere can scatter or absorb incoming radiation. Atmospheric correction algorithms aim
to remove or mitigate these effects, ensuring that the recorded values reflect the true surface conditions.
This correction is particularly important when comparing images acquired under different atmospheric
conditions.

 Gain Adjustment:
Radiometric correction may include gain adjustment to account for variations in illumination conditions.
This adjustment normalizes the recorded values to a consistent scale, allowing for accurate comparison
and analysis of images acquired under different lighting conditions.

Methods of Radiometric Correction:

 Flat Fielding:
Flat fielding, also known as normalization, involves dividing the image by a flat field image. The flat
field image represents the ideal sensor response without any variations. This method helps correct for
pixel-to-pixel variations in sensitivity.

 Histogram Matching:
Histogram matching involves adjusting the pixel values in an image to match a predefined histogram.
This method is useful for standardizing images and ensuring consistent radiometric values.

 Relative Radiometric Normalization:

In cases where absolute radiometric accuracy is challenging to achieve, relative radiometric normalization
is employed. This method aims to ensure consistency within a set of images, making them comparable
even if the absolute radiance values are unknown.

 Top-of-Atmosphere (TOA) Reflectance Correction:

TOA reflectance correction involves converting the recorded radiance values to top-of-atmosphere
reflectance. This correction accounts for variations in solar angle and atmospheric conditions, producing
images that are more directly related to the surface properties.

Applications of Radiometric Correction:

 Land Cover Classification:

Radiometrically corrected images are essential for accurate land cover classification. Consistent
radiometric values allow for the discrimination of different land cover types based on their spectral
signatures.

 Change Detection:
When comparing images acquired at different times, radiometrically corrected data ensures that observed
changes are due to actual surface changes rather than variations in sensor sensitivity or atmospheric
conditions.

 Vegetation Monitoring:
Radiometric correction is critical in vegetation studies. Normalized images allow for accurate assessment
of vegetation health, biomass, and cover over time.
  Environmental Monitoring:
In environmental monitoring, radiometrically corrected images enable the accurate assessment of
environmental changes, such as deforestation, urban expansion, and natural disasters.

 Precision Agriculture:
In precision agriculture, radiometrically corrected satellite or drone imagery provides accurate
information for crop health monitoring, yield prediction, and resource management.

In conclusion, radiometric correction is an indispensable step in the processing of remote sensing

imagery. By addressing variations in sensor sensitivity, atmospheric conditions, and other factors, this
correction ensures that the radiance values recorded by imaging systems accurately represent surface
reflectance. Radiometrically corrected images form the basis for reliable quantitative analysis, facilitating
applications in land cover classification, change detection, environmental monitoring, and various fields
where accurate and consistent radiometric information is essential.

TOP OF ATMOSPHERIC CORRECTION

Top of Atmospheric (TOA) correction, also known as atmospheric correction, is a vital step in the
processing of satellite imagery to compensate for the influence of the Earth's atmosphere on the recorded
radiance values. This correction aims to convert the raw digital numbers (DN) from the sensor into
physically meaningful values that represent the surface reflectance or radiance independent of
atmospheric conditions. TOA correction is crucial for accurate and consistent analysis of satellite imagery
across different times and locations. The following are key aspects and steps involved in the TOA
correction process:

1. Importance of TOA Correction:

Atmospheric constituents, such as gases, aerosols, and water vapor, can scatter, absorb, or reflect
incoming solar radiation before it reaches the Earth's surface. This interaction introduces distortions in the
recorded radiance values, making it challenging to compare and analyze images acquired under varying
atmospheric conditions. TOA correction aims to remove or mitigate these atmospheric effects, providing
a more accurate representation of the Earth's surface.

2. Basic Steps of TOA Correction:

a. Radiometric Calibration:
Start by calibrating the sensor's response to incoming radiance. This involves converting the recorded
digital numbers (DN) to radiance values, establishing a relationship between the sensor's response and the
actual radiance reaching the sensor.

b. Conversion to Reflectance:
The next step involves converting radiance values to reflectance. Reflectance is a unitless quantity that
represents the proportion of solar radiation reflected by the Earth's surface. This conversion is crucial for
ensuring that the corrected values are comparable across different images and sensors.

c. Correction for Solar Angle:

Adjust for variations in solar angle, which can affect the amount of radiation reaching the Earth's surface.
This correction accounts for the angle of the sun, ensuring consistency in TOA-corrected images acquired
at different times of the day.

d. Atmospheric Transmittance and Path Radiance Correction:

Compensate for atmospheric transmittance and path radiance, which account for the scattering and
absorption of radiation as it travels through the atmosphere. Algorithms use atmospheric models and
sensor-specific parameters to estimate and remove these atmospheric effects.

3. Satellite-Specific TOA Correction:

Different satellites and sensors may have specific algorithms and tools for TOA correction. For example:
 Landsat Data: The Landsat series often uses the FLAASH atmospheric correction tool within the
ENVI software, incorporating sensor-specific parameters and atmospheric models.

 Sentinel-2 Data: Sentinel-2 data often comes pre-corrected to TOA reflectance by the European
Space Agency (ESA). However, users can perform additional correction if needed.

4. Challenges and Considerations:

Aerosol Content: Accurate estimation of aerosol content is crucial for precise TOA correction. This
information is often obtained from ancillary data or atmospheric models.

Water Vapor: Variations in atmospheric water vapor content can impact TOA correction. Algorithms
account for water vapor levels to improve accuracy.

Ground Truth Validation: Ground truth data, such as field measurements, can be essential for validating
the effectiveness of TOA correction. Comparison with ground truth helps ensure that corrected values
align with actual surface conditions.

5. Applications of TOA Correction:

Vegetation Monitoring: TOA-corrected imagery is crucial for assessing vegetation health, calculating
vegetation indices, and monitoring changes over time.

Land Cover Classification: Accurate reflectance values facilitate land cover classification, distinguishing
between different surface materials based on their spectral signatures.

Change Detection: TOA correction enables the precise comparison of images acquired at different times,
supporting change detection studies related to urban expansion, deforestation, and environmental
changes.

In conclusion, TOA correction is an essential step in the processing of satellite imagery, ensuring that
radiance values accurately reflect the surface properties while accounting for atmospheric influences. This
correction enhances the utility of satellite data for a wide range of applications in environmental
monitoring, agriculture, and land management.
 TOA STEPS
TOA (Top of Atmospheric) correction using the ML (Multispectral Landsat) QCAL formula in QGIS
involves applying a specific algorithm to Landsat data to convert Digital Numbers (DN) to radiance
values. This is a crucial step in the processing of satellite imagery to account for atmospheric influences
and obtain more accurate reflectance values. Below are the steps to perform TOA correction using the
ML QCAL formula in QGIS:

1. Data Acquisition:
Obtain the Landsat satellite imagery data that you want to correct for TOA. Landsat data is freely
available from various sources such as the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Earth Explorer.

2. Install Required Plugins:

Ensure that you have the necessary plugins installed in QGIS for Landsat data processing. The Semi-
Automatic Classification Plugin (SCP) is a useful tool that provides functionalities for TOA correction
among other tasks.

3. Load Landsat Data:

Open QGIS and load the Landsat data that you want to correct. Landsat data typically comes in multiple
bands, and you should load the bands relevant to your analysis.

4. Activate SCP Plugin:

Activate the Semi-Automatic Classification Plugin (SCP) from the toolbar. You can find this in the
Plugins menu by selecting 'Manage and Install Plugins.'

5. TOA Reflectance Correction:

Once SCP is activated, go to the 'Tools' menu within SCP, then select 'TOA Reflectance.'

6. Define Input Parameters:

In the TOA Reflectance tool, you will need to define the input parameters, including the sensor type,
Landsat path and row, date of acquisition, and the output directory for the corrected images. The ML
QCAL formula is used internally by SCP for Landsat data TOA correction.

7. Band Selection:
Specify the bands for TOA correction. Landsat 8, for example, has different bands (e.g., Coastal, Blue,
Green, Red, NIR, SWIR1, SWIR2). Select the bands that are relevant to your analysis.

8. Run the TOA Correction:

After setting the parameters and selecting the bands, run the TOA correction process. The plugin will
internally apply the ML QCAL formula to the selected Landsat bands and generate TOA-corrected
images.

9. Validate Results:
After the correction is complete, validate the results by comparing TOA-corrected images with ground
truth data or reference information. This step ensures that the correction process is effective and aligns
with actual surface conditions.
10. Further Analysis:
Once the TOA correction is applied, you can proceed with various analyses such as land cover
classification, vegetation index calculation, or any other remote sensing applications. The TOA-corrected
images are now more suitable for quantitative analysis and cross-temporal comparisons.

Remember that the specific steps may vary slightly depending on the version of QGIS and the plugins
you are using. Always refer to the documentation of the tools and plugins for the most accurate and up-to-
date information.

GEOMETRIC CORRECTION

Geometric correction, also known as orthorectification, is a critical step in remote sensing that involves
correcting distortions in satellite or aerial imagery caused by terrain variations, platform movement, and
sensor characteristics. Geometrically corrected images enable accurate spatial analysis, map overlay, and
integration with other geographical datasets. QGIS, a popular open-source Geographic Information
System (GIS) software, provides tools and plugins to perform geometric correction effectively. Here are
the basic steps for geometric correction in QGIS:

1. Data Acquisition:
Obtain the raw satellite or aerial imagery that requires geometric correction. This data should include
metadata containing information about the sensor, acquisition date, and other relevant parameters.

2. Install Required Plugins:

QGIS offers various plugins that facilitate the geometric correction process. The "Georeferencer" plugin
is a fundamental tool for this purpose. Ensure it is installed and activated before proceeding.

3. Load the Georeferencer Plugin:

Open QGIS and load the Georeferencer plugin by navigating to the "Raster" menu and selecting
"Georeferencer." This opens a new window dedicated to the georeferencing process.

4. Load the Image:

In the Georeferencer window, load the raw image that needs correction. This is typically the image you
want to align with a reference dataset or map.

5. Define Reference Points:

Identify reference points in the image that can be matched to known locations on a reference dataset or
map. These control points should be easily identifiable and strategically placed across the image.
Common features like road intersections or distinct landmarks work well.

6. Load Reference Data:

Load a reference dataset or map that is already georeferenced into QGIS. This could be a high-quality
basemap, vector data, or another raster layer with accurate geospatial information.

7. Add Control Points:

In the Georeferencer window, add control points by selecting corresponding locations on the raw image
and the reference dataset. QGIS uses these control points to perform the transformation necessary for
geometric correction.

8. Transformation Type:
Choose the appropriate transformation type based on the characteristics of the imagery. Common
transformation types include linear, polynomial, or spline transformations. The choice depends on the
complexity of the distortions present in the image.

9. Transformation Settings:
Configure transformation settings such as the number of transformation points and the order of the
transformation. These settings impact the accuracy of the geometric correction.

10. Start Georeferencing:

Once the control points and transformation settings are defined, initiate the georeferencing process. QGIS
will apply the transformation to the raw image, aligning it with the reference dataset.

11. Save the Georeferenced Image:

After successful georeferencing, save the corrected image in a new file. This georeferenced image is now
aligned with the reference dataset and can be used for accurate spatial analysis within QGIS.

12. Validate Results:

Perform a visual check and validation to ensure that the geometric correction was successful. Overlay the
georeferenced image with other spatial data layers to confirm alignment and accuracy.

Geometric correction is essential for ensuring that remote sensing imagery accurately represents the
Earth's surface. The process outlined above using QGIS allows users to align raw imagery with geospatial
reference data, facilitating precise spatial analysis, mapping, and integration with other geographic
datasets.

MERGING AND CLIPPING OF BANDS

Merging and clipping are common geospatial operations in QGIS that involve combining or extracting
spatial data based on specified criteria. Merging involves combining multiple datasets into a single layer,
while clipping involves extracting a subset of data based on the spatial extent of another layer. Here are
step-by-step instructions for performing merging and clipping in QGIS:

MERGING
Merging bands in QGIS involves combining multiple bands from a raster dataset into a single multi-band
layer. This process is common in remote sensing and image processing, allowing users to work with a
consolidated dataset that contains various spectral bands. Here's a brief guide on how to merge bands in
QGIS:
1. Open QGIS:
Launch QGIS on your computer.

2. Load Raster Layers:

Add the raster layers containing the individual bands that you want to merge. Use the "Add Layer" button
or drag and drop the raster files into the QGIS canvas.

3. Access the Processing Toolbox:

Open the Processing Toolbox from the "Processing" menu.

4. Search for the Merge Tool:

In the Processing Toolbox, search for the "Merge" tool. This tool is commonly used for combining raster
bands.

5. Configure Input Layers:

In the "Merge" tool, set the input layers by clicking the ellipsis (...) button next to the "Input layers"
parameter. Select the raster layers corresponding to the bands you want to merge.

6. Set Output Layer:

Specify the output location and name for the merged raster by clicking the ellipsis (...) button next to the
"Merged" parameter.

7. Run the Tool:

Click the "Run" button to execute the merge operation. QGIS will combine the selected raster bands into
a single multi-band raster layer.

8. Verify Results:
Load the merged raster layer into the QGIS canvas to verify that the bands have been successfully
combined. The merged layer should contain all the spectral bands from the input raster layers.

Merging bands is essential for handling multi-spectral or hyper-spectral imagery, where each band
represents specific wavelengths of light. The consolidated multi-band layer simplifies the analysis and
visualization of complex datasets in various applications, including land cover classification, vegetation
monitoring, and environmental assessments.

CLIPPING
Clipping in QGIS involves extracting a subset of data from one layer based on the spatial extent of
another layer. This process is useful when you want to focus on a specific geographic area or when you
need to cut a layer using the boundary of another layer.
Clipping Layers in QGIS:

1. Open QGIS:
Launch QGIS and load the vector layers you want to work with.

2. Access the Processing Toolbox:

Open the Processing Toolbox from the "Processing" menu.

3. Clip Vector by Mask Layer Tool:

Search for the "Clip Vector by Mask Layer" tool in the Processing Toolbox. This tool clips a vector layer
based on the spatial extent of another layer.

4. Configure Input Layer:

In the "Clip Vector by Mask Layer" tool, select the layer you want to clip by clicking the ellipsis (...)
button next to the "Input layer" parameter.

5. Configure Mask Layer:

Similarly, choose the layer that will act as the clipping mask by clicking the ellipsis (...) button next to the
"Mask layer" parameter.
6. Set Output Layer:
Specify the location and name for the output layer by clicking the ellipsis (...) button next to the "Clipped"
parameter.

7. Run the Tool:

Click the "Run" button to execute the clip operation. QGIS will create a new layer containing only the
features from the input layer that intersect with the mask layer.

8. Verify Results:
Load the clipped layer into the QGIS canvas to verify that the clipping operation was successful. The
clipped layer should contain features limited to the spatial extent of the mask layer.

Both merging and clipping are powerful tools for managing and analyzing spatial data in QGIS. Merging
is useful for combining datasets, while clipping allows for extracting specific spatial subsets. These
operations enhance the flexibility and utility of geospatial data for various applications.

IMAGE ENHANCEMENT

Image enhancement in QGIS for remote sensing involves the application of various techniques to
improve the visual quality and interpretability of satellite or aerial imagery. These techniques aim to
highlight specific features, enhance contrast, and provide a clearer representation of the Earth's surface.
QGIS, being a powerful open-source Geographic Information System, provides several tools and methods
for image enhancement. Here's a guide on how to perform image enhancement in QGIS for remote
sensing:

 1. Open QGIS:
Launch QGIS on your computer.

 2. Load Satellite Imagery:

Load the satellite or aerial imagery that you want to enhance into QGIS. Use the "Add Raster Layer"
button or drag and drop the raster files into the QGIS canvas.
  3. Access the Image Enhancement Tools:
Image enhancement tools in QGIS can be found in the "Processing Toolbox." Open the toolbox from the
"Processing" menu.

 4. Apply Histogram Stretch:

Histogram stretching is a common enhancement technique. Search for the "Histogram Stretch" tool in the
Processing Toolbox. This tool stretches the pixel values across the entire range, enhancing the overall
contrast. Configure the input layer and parameters, then run the tool.

 5. Utilize Contrast Stretching:

Similar to histogram stretching, contrast stretching enhances the contrast in an image. The "Contrast
Stretching" tool in the Processing Toolbox allows you to set specific minimum and maximum values for
pixel intensities, emphasizing the details within that range.

 6. Perform Histogram Equalization:

Histogram equalization is another technique for enhancing the overall contrast of an image. The
"Histogram Equalization" tool in QGIS redistributes pixel values across the histogram, providing a more
balanced representation of intensities.

 7. Explore Fusion Techniques:

If working with multi-spectral imagery, consider exploring band fusion techniques to create a composite
image. The "Raster" menu in QGIS provides options for creating RGB composites or false-color
composites, allowing you to visualize different spectral bands in a single image.

 8. Experiment with Pan-Sharpening:

Pan-sharpening combines high-resolution panchromatic imagery with lower-resolution multispectral
imagery to create a high-resolution, multispectral image. QGIS offers tools for pan-sharpening in the
Processing Toolbox.

 9. Apply Filter Techniques:

Filters, such as the "Gaussian Filter," can be applied to smooth or sharpen images. These filters are
accessible in the Processing Toolbox under the "Filter" category.

 10. Use the Image Classification Plugin:

The Semi-Automatic Classification Plugin (SCP) is a powerful tool for image enhancement and
classification. Install and activate SCP, and access its features for advanced image processing and
enhancement.
  11. Customize Rendering Settings:
QGIS provides rendering settings within the layer properties. Experiment with customizing the color
rendering, transparency, and blending modes to enhance the visual interpretation of the imagery.

 12. Evaluate Results:

After applying enhancement techniques, evaluate the results by visually inspecting the enhanced imagery.
Ensure that the enhancements contribute positively to the interpretation and analysis of the remote
sensing data.

Image enhancement in QGIS for remote sensing is crucial for extracting meaningful information from
satellite or aerial imagery. These techniques help improve visualization, highlight specific features, and
support various applications, including land cover analysis, change detection, and environmental
monitoring. By leveraging the tools available in QGIS, users can tailor image enhancement processes to
meet specific project requirements and objectives.

LINEAR STRETCHING METHOD

Linear stretching is a fundamental method of image enhancement in remote sensing and digital image
processing. This technique aims to improve the visual quality of an image by expanding the range of pixel
values to cover the entire dynamic range. In linear stretching, the original pixel values are linearly scaled
based on a new minimum and maximum range, thereby enhancing the contrast in the image.

The formula for linear stretching is:

Output Pixel Value =(Input Pixel Value−Min Input Value) / (Max Input Value−Min Input Value)×(Max
Output Value−Min Output Value)+Min Output Value

Here,

Input Pixel Value is the original pixel value in the image.

Min Input Value and Max Input Value are the minimum and maximum pixel values in the original image.
Min Output Value and Max Output Value are the desired minimum and maximum values for the stretched
image.

Linear stretching is particularly useful when an image has pixel values concentrated in a narrow range,
resulting in low contrast. By redistributing pixel values across a wider range, the enhanced image becomes
more visually appealing and suitable for analysis. This method is commonly applied in satellite imagery,
aerial photography, and medical imaging to bring out details and features that may be otherwise less
distinguishable.

 LINEAR STRETCHING THROUGH QGIS

Linear stretching is a common method of image enhancement that aims to improve the contrast
of an image by stretching the range of pixel values to cover the full dynamic range. This
technique is often used to highlight details in the data, making it more visually interpretable.
Here's a step-by-step guide on how to perform linear stretching in QGIS:

1. Open QGIS:
Launch QGIS on your computer.

2. Load Raster Layer:

Load the raster layer that you want to enhance into QGIS using the "Add Raster Layer" button or
by dragging and dropping the raster file into the QGIS canvas.

3. Access the Processing Toolbox:

Open the Processing Toolbox from the "Processing" menu in QGIS.

4. Search for the Min-Max Stretch Tool:

In the Processing Toolbox, search for the "Min-Max Stretch" tool. This tool performs linear
stretching by rescaling the pixel values based on the minimum and maximum values in the
image.

5. Configure Input Layer:

In the "Min-Max Stretch" tool, select the raster layer you want to enhance by clicking the ellipsis
(...) button next to the "Input Layer" parameter.

6. Set Output Layer:

Specify the output location and name for the enhanced raster layer by clicking the ellipsis (...)
button next to the "Output Layer" parameter.

7. Define Min-Max Values:

Optionally, you can manually define minimum and maximum values for the stretch. This can be
useful if you want to enhance specific features within a particular pixel value range. If left blank,
the tool will use the minimum and maximum values present in the input layer.

8. Run the Tool:

Click the "Run" button to execute the linear stretching operation. QGIS will create a new raster
layer with the pixel values stretched based on the defined or calculated minimum and maximum
values.

9. Add Enhanced Layer to Map:

Load the enhanced raster layer into the QGIS canvas to visualize the results. The stretched image
should exhibit improved contrast, bringing out details that may have been less visible in the
original image.

10. Evaluate Results:

Evaluate the enhanced image to ensure that the linear stretching has achieved the desired effect.
Consider adjusting the stretch parameters or experimenting with other enhancement techniques if
needed.

Linear stretching is a straightforward yet effective method for improving the visual interpretation
of remote sensing or satellite imagery in QGIS. It is particularly useful when dealing with images
that have low contrast or limited dynamic range. The Min-Max Stretch tool simplifies the linear
stretching process, making it accessible for users seeking a quick and efficient enhancement
method in QGIS.

HISTOGRAM EQUALIZATION METHOD

Histogram equalization is a technique used in image processing and remote sensing to enhance the
contrast of an image by redistributing pixel intensities across the entire range of values. The method is
particularly effective when an image has a limited dynamic range, and pixel values are concentrated in
specific intensity levels. Histogram equalization aims to stretch the histogram of pixel values, making
the distribution more uniform.

The process involves the following steps:

1. Compute the Histogram:

Calculate the histogram of the original image, which represents the distribution of pixel intensities. The
histogram is a plot of the frequency of each intensity level.

2. Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF):

Calculate the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) from the histogram. The CDF provides the
cumulative sum of pixel frequencies and ranges from 0 to the total number of pixels in the image.

3. Histogram Equalization Transformation:

Apply the histogram equalization transformation to each pixel in the image using the formula:

Output Pixel Value=(CDF[Input Pixel Value]−CDF[Min Input Value])(Total Pixels−CDF[Min Input

Value])×(Max Output Value−Min Output Value)+Min Output Value

Here,
Min Input Value is the minimum pixel value in the original image, and Max Output Value and Min
Output Value are the desired maximum and minimum values for the equalized image.

4. Generate the Equalized Image:

Compute the equalized pixel values for each pixel in the original image using the transformation
formula. The result is an image with improved contrast and enhanced visibility of details.

Histogram equalization is widely used in various applications, such as medical imaging, satellite
imagery, and digital photography, where enhancing contrast is crucial for visual interpretation and
analysis. While it effectively improves image quality, it's essential to consider its application based on
the specific characteristics of the data and the objectives of the analysis.
  STEPS OF HISTOGRAM EQUALIZATION IN QGIS
Histogram equalization is a method of image enhancement that aims to improve the contrast of
an image by redistributing the pixel intensities across the entire histogram. This technique can be
applied in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) like QGIS to enhance the visual quality of
remote sensing or satellite imagery. Here are the steps to perform histogram equalization in GIS,
specifically in QGIS:

1. Open QGIS:
Launch QGIS on your computer.

2. Load Raster Layer:

Load the raster layer that you want to enhance into QGIS using the "Add Raster Layer" button or
by dragging and dropping the raster file into the QGIS canvas.

3. Access the Processing Toolbox:

Open the Processing Toolbox from the "Processing" menu in QGIS.

4. Search for Histogram Equalization Tool:

In the Processing Toolbox, search for the "Histogram Equalization" tool. This tool redistributes
the pixel values across the histogram, enhancing the overall contrast of the image.

5. Configure Input Layer:

In the "Histogram Equalization" tool, select the raster layer you want to enhance by clicking the
ellipsis (...) button next to the "Input Layer" parameter.

6. Set Output Layer:

Specify the output location and name for the enhanced raster layer by clicking the ellipsis (...)
button next to the "Output Layer" parameter.

7. Run the Tool:

Click the "Run" button to execute the histogram equalization operation. QGIS will create a new
raster layer with enhanced contrast based on the equalization of the pixel values.

8. Add Enhanced Layer to Map:

Load the enhanced raster layer into the QGIS canvas to visualize the results. The histogram
equalization process should result in an image with improved contrast, making details more
visible.

9. Evaluate Results:
Evaluate the enhanced image to ensure that the histogram equalization has achieved the desired
effect. This method is particularly effective for enhancing images with uneven brightness levels
or limited dynamic range.

10. Save the Enhanced Image:

If you are satisfied with the results, you can save the enhanced image using the "Save As" option
in QGIS. Choose an appropriate format and location for the output file.
Histogram equalization is a powerful technique for enhancing the visual quality of remote
sensing or satellite imagery in GIS. It is especially beneficial when dealing with images that have
a skewed or limited distribution of pixel values. By redistributing the pixel intensities, histogram
equalization brings out details in both bright and dark areas, resulting in a more balanced and
visually appealing image.

INDICES

In remote sensing, indices are mathematical combinations of different bands from

multispectral or hyperspectral imagery that are designed to highlight specific features or
properties of the Earth's surface. These indices are invaluable tools for extracting
valuable information about vegetation, soil, water, and other surface characteristics. Here
are some commonly used indices in remote sensing and their applications:

1. NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index):

NDVI is perhaps the most well-known vegetation index. It is calculated using the red and
near-infrared bands of satellite imagery. NDVI values range from -1 to 1, where higher
values typically indicate healthier and more vigorous vegetation. NDVI is widely used
for monitoring vegetation health, assessing land cover changes, and estimating biomass.

2. NDWI (Normalized Difference Water Index):

NDWI is used to detect the presence of water bodies in an image. It is calculated by using
the green and near-infrared bands. NDWI values close to zero or negative indicate non-
water features, while positive values correspond to water bodies. NDWI is useful in
mapping and monitoring water bodies, including lakes, rivers, and wetlands.

3. NDBI (Normalized Difference Built-Up Index):

NDBI is designed to identify built-up or urban areas in satellite imagery. It is calculated
using the near-infrared and shortwave infrared bands. Higher NDBI values are associated
with built-up areas, helping in urban growth monitoring, land-use planning, and change
detection.

4. SAVI (Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index):

SAVI is a modified version of NDVI that aims to correct for soil background influences.
It is especially useful in areas with sparse vegetation or where soil reflectance dominates.
SAVI is calculated using the red and near-infrared bands, along with a soil adjustment
factor.

5. EVI (Enhanced Vegetation Index):

EVI is an improvement over NDVI, designed to minimize atmospheric influences and
improve sensitivity in areas with dense vegetation. It uses the blue, red, and near-infrared
bands. EVI is widely used for assessing vegetation health, monitoring crop conditions,
and estimating canopy cover.

6. Tasseled Cap Transformation:

The Tasseled Cap Transformation is not a single index but a set of brightness, greenness,
and wetness indices derived from the principal component analysis of multispectral data.
These indices capture information about soil, vegetation, and water features, making
them versatile for land cover classification and change detection.

7. AWEI (Automated Water Extraction Index):

AWEI is specifically designed for water extraction and is sensitive to changes in water
content. It uses the blue, green, and red bands along with a brightness correction factor.
AWEI is valuable for mapping and monitoring water bodies, especially in arid and semi-
arid regions.

8. NDMI (Normalized Difference Moisture Index):

NDMI is used for assessing vegetation moisture content and is calculated using the
shortwave infrared and near-infrared bands. It is particularly useful in agricultural
applications for monitoring crop water stress.

9. GCI (Green Chlorophyll Index):

GCI is used to estimate chlorophyll content in vegetation. It utilizes the red and green
bands, making it sensitive to variations in chlorophyll concentration. GCI is applied in
studies related to plant health and stress.

10. BAI (Burned Area Index):

BAI is designed to identify burned areas in satellite imagery. It is calculated using the
shortwave infrared and near-infrared bands. Higher BAI values indicate a higher
likelihood of burned vegetation.

These indices play a crucial role in remote sensing applications, enabling scientists,
researchers, and land managers to derive valuable insights from satellite or aerial
imagery. Each index serves a specific purpose and is selected based on the target features
or characteristics of interest in a particular study area.

NORMALIZED DIFFERENCE VEGETATION INDEX (NDVI)

The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is a widely used vegetation index
in remote sensing to assess and monitor vegetation health. In QGIS, one can calculate
NDVI using raster data containing the necessary spectral bands (typically, near-infrared
and red bands). Here are the steps to calculate NDVI in QGIS:

1. Open QGIS:
Launch QGIS on your computer.

2. Load Raster Layers:

Load the raster layers containing the near-infrared (NIR) and red bands into QGIS. These
bands are necessary for NDVI calculation. Use the "Add Raster Layer" button or drag
and drop the raster files into the QGIS canvas.

3. Access the Raster Calculator:

Go to the "Raster" menu and select "Raster Calculator." This tool allows you to perform
mathematical operations on raster layers.

4. Set up the NDVI Formula:

In the Raster Calculator, construct the NDVI formula using the near-infrared (NIR) and
red bands. The NDVI formula is:
NDVI = (NIR - Red) / (NIR + Red)
You can use the corresponding bands in the raster layers for the NIR and Red values. For
example, if your NIR band is Band 4 and the Red band is Band 3, the formula would be:
NDVI = ( "LayerName@4" - "LayerName@3" ) / ( "LayerName@4" + "LayerName@3" )
Replace "LayerName" with the actual name of your raster layer.

5. Define Output Layer:

Specify the output layer name and location by clicking on the ellipsis (...) button next to
the "Output layer" field. Choose a meaningful name and location for the NDVI output
raster.

6. Run the Raster Calculator:

Click the "OK" button to run the Raster Calculator and calculate the NDVI values for
each pixel in the specified bands.

7. Add NDVI Layer to Map:

Load the newly created NDVI raster layer into the QGIS canvas by using the "Add Raster
Layer" button. This layer will display the NDVI values, with higher values indicating
healthier vegetation.

8. Adjust Color Rendering (Optional):

You can adjust the color rendering of the NDVI layer for better visualization. Right-click
on the NDVI layer in the Layers panel, go to "Properties," and navigate to the "Style" tab.
Choose a suitable color ramp that highlights different NDVI values.

9. Interpret NDVI Values:

Interpret the NDVI values in the layer. Values close to +1 indicate healthy vegetation,
values around zero indicate non-vegetated surfaces, and negative values may represent
water bodies or clouds.

Calculating NDVI in QGIS is a fundamental process for vegetation analysis and

monitoring. It allows users to derive valuable insights into the health and distribution of
vegetation across a landscape, making it a key tool in various applications such as
agriculture, forestry, and environmental monitoring.

 After calculating NDVI, prepare the Layout of the NDVI Map using the steps of
preparing Layout of Map.

Source- USGS, Earth Explorer (Band) and QGIS Software

INTERPRETATION
The given map shows the NDVI for the district of Bathinda in the state of Punjab, in the month
of November for the year 2019.
The interpretation of NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) values provides valuable
insights into the health, density, and distribution of vegetation in a given area. NDVI is a
numerical indicator derived from satellite imagery that helps distinguish various land cover types
based on the reflectance of near-infrared and red light. The index ranges from -1 to +1, with
negative values indicating non-vegetated surfaces such as water bodies or barren land, values
around 0 representing sparse or stressed vegetation, and positive values indicating healthier and
denser vegetation.
The values of NDVI range from -0.082 to 0.3916. This indicates that there is presence of both
non-vegetated and vegetated surfaces in Bathinda. The higher positive values are indicating the
presence of healthier vegetation in the district.
Denser vegetation indicates that the vegetated surface is spread over a larger area whereas sparse
vegetation indicates that the expanse of vegetation is over a small area.
Overall, Bathinda has a good amount of vegetation spread throughout the district.

NORMALISED DIFFERENCE WATER INDEX

Normalised Difference Water Index (NDWI) is a spectral index commonly used to

identify the presence of water bodies in remote sensing imagery. Below are the steps to
calculate NDWI in QGIS:

1. Open QGIS:
Launch QGIS on your computer.

2. Load the Near-Infrared (NIR) and Green Bands:

Add the raster bands that you want to use for NDWI calculation. Typically, the Near-
Infrared (NIR) band and the Green band are used. Ensure that these bands are loaded as
separate layers in QGIS.

3. Access the Raster Calculator:

Go to the "Raster" menu and select "Raster Calculator." This tool allows you to perform
mathematical operations on raster layers.

4. Set up the NDWI Formula:

Construct the NDWI formula in the Raster Calculator using the NIR and Green bands.
The NDWI formula is:
NDWI=(Green−NIR)/ (Green+NIR)
Input the appropriate band names in the formula. For example, if the NIR band is Band 4 and the
Green band is Band 2, the formula would be:
NDWI=(" Layer@2"−"Layer@4") / ("@Layer2"+"Layer@4)"
Replace "LayerName" with the actual name of your raster layer.

5. Define Output Layer:

Specify the output location and name for the NDWI layer by clicking the ellipsis (...)
button next to the "Output layer" parameter.

6. Run the Raster Calculator:

Click the "OK" button to run the Raster Calculator and calculate the NDWI values for
each pixel in the specified bands.

7. Add NDWI Layer to Map:

Load the newly created NDWI raster layer into the QGIS canvas to visualize the results.
The NDWI values will highlight water bodies in the image.

8. Adjust Color Rendering (Optional):

You can adjust the color rendering of the NDWI layer for better visualization. Right-click
on the NDWI layer in the Layers panel, go to "Properties," and navigate to the "Style"
tab. Choose a suitable color ramp that highlights different NDWI values.

9. Interpret NDWI Values:

Interpret the NDWI values in the layer. Negative values or values close to zero typically
indicate non-water features, while positive values suggest the presence of water. Adjust
the color rendering to enhance the visibility of water bodies.

Calculating NDWI in QGIS allows for effective water body identification and is widely
used in applications such as hydrology, environmental monitoring, and land cover
analysis.

 Prepare Layout of the obtained output.

NORMALIZED DIFFERENCE BUILT-UP INDEX

he Normalized Difference Built-Up Index (NDBI) is a spectral index used in remote

sensing to identify built-up or urban areas. Below are the steps to calculate NDBI in
QGIS:

1. Open QGIS:
Launch QGIS on your computer.

2. Load the Near-Infrared (NIR) and Shortwave Infrared (SWIR) Bands:

Add the raster bands that you want to use for NDBI calculation. Typically, the Near-
Infrared (NIR) band and the Shortwave Infrared (SWIR) band are used. Make sure these
bands are loaded as separate layers in QGIS.

3. Access the Raster Calculator:

Go to the "Raster" menu and select "Raster Calculator." This tool allows you to perform
mathematical operations on raster layers.

4. Set up the NDBI Formula:

Construct the NDBI formula in the Raster Calculator using the NIR and SWIR bands.
The NDBI formula is:
NDBI= (SWIR-NIR)/ (SWIR+NIR)

Input the appropriate band names in the formula. For example, if the NIR band is Band 4
and the SWIR band is Band 6, the formula would be:
NDBI=("LayerName@6"-"LayerName@4")/("LayerName@6"+"LayerName@4")
Replace "LayerName" with the actual name of your raster layer.

5. Define Output Layer:

Specify the output location and name for the NDBI layer by clicking the ellipsis (...)
button next to the "Output layer" parameter.

6. Run the Raster Calculator:

Click the "OK" button to run the Raster Calculator and calculate the NDBI values for
each pixel in the specified bands.

7. Add NDBI Layer to Map:

Load the newly created NDBI raster layer into the QGIS canvas to visualize the results.
The NDBI values will highlight built-up areas in the image.

8. Adjust Color Rendering (Optional):

You can adjust the color rendering of the NDBI layer for better visualization. Right-click
on the NDBI layer in the Layers panel, go to "Properties," and navigate to the "Style" tab.
Choose a suitable color ramp that highlights different NDBI values.

9. Interpret NDBI Values:

Interpret the NDBI values in the layer. Positive values typically indicate built-up or urban
areas, while negative values or values close to zero suggest non-built-up features.

Calculating NDBI in QGIS is valuable for urban planning, land-use mapping, and
environmental assessments by identifying and analyzing the extent of built-up areas
within a landscape.
 Prepare the Layout of the NDBI Index calculated.

CHAPTER - 5

PREPARATION OF
LAND USE AND
LAND COVER MAP
The USGS Earth Explorer is an online search, discovery, and ordering tool developed by the United
States Geological Survey (USGS). It provides access to an extensive archive of satellite and aerial
imagery, remote sensing data, and other geospatial datasets. Users can search, preview, and download a
wide range of Earth observation data from various missions and sensors.

Earth Explorer requires the use of NASA Earth data Login and USGS EROS Registration System (ERS)
accounts to download data products from the LP DAAC.

NASA LP DAAC Collections in EE include: MODIS land data products from both the NASA Terra and
Aqua missions, AST_LT and ASTER GDEM data products acquired from the NASA ASTER mission.
NASA Measures products, ASTER Global Emissivity Datasets, VIIRS data products from the
NOAA/NASA joint Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership (Suomi NPP, satellite, and ECOSTRESS
products.

Key features of the USGS Earth Explorer include:

1. DATA SOURCES-

 Landsat: The Earth Explorer allows users to access Landsat data, which is a series of Earth-
observing satellites that have been providing valuable imagery for several decades.
 Sentinel: It also provides access to data from the European Space Agency's Sentinel satellites,
which are part of the Copernicus program.

2. ADVANCED SEARCH OPTIONS-

 Users can perform detailed searches based on specific criteria such as date range, cloud cover
percentage, geographic location, and sensor type.
 The tool allows users to define their search parameters to narrow down the datasets that meet
their specific needs.

3. DATA PREVIEW-
  Earth Explorer provides preview options, allowing users to visualize the data before making a
decision to download.
 Users can view thumbnails and browse through images to ensure that they are selecting the right
data for their projects.

4. DATA DOWNLOAD-

 Once users identify the desired data, they can download it directly through the Earth Explorer
interface.
 Various data formats are often available to accommodate different user needs.

5. USER ACCOUNTS-

 Earth Explorer allows users to create accounts, which can facilitate the management of
downloaded datasets and maintain a record of their search history.

6. OPEN ACCESS-

 Many of the datasets available through the Earth Explorer are openly accessible to the public,
promoting the sharing of geospatial information for research, analysis, and decision-making.

7. APPLICATIONS-

 The data available through the Earth Explorer can be used for a variety of applications, including
environmental monitoring, land use planning, natural resource management, and scientific
research.

Researchers, scientists, environmentalists, and various professionals often use the USGS Earth Explorer
to access reliable and up-to-date Earth observation data for their projects and studies. The tool plays a
crucial role in supporting a wide range of applications related to Earth science and remote sensing.

 TEMPORAL DATA

Temporal data refers to information that is associated with a specific time or time range. It
involves observations, measurements, or records that are time-stamped or have a temporal
dimension, allowing for the analysis of changes, trends, and patterns over time. Temporal data is
crucial in various fields and applications, including scientific research, environmental monitoring,
finance, healthcare, and many others. Here are some key aspects of temporal data:

 Time Stamp: Temporal data is characterized by having a time stamp or timestamp

associated with each data point. This timestamp indicates when the observation or
measurement was recorded.
  Time Series: Temporal data is often organized into time series, which is a sequence of
data points collected or recorded over a specific time interval. Time series data allows for
the examination of how a particular variable changes over time.
 Temporal Resolution: This refers to the level of detail or granularity in the time intervals
between data points. Temporal resolution can vary depending on the nature of the data
and the requirements of the analysis.
 Temporal Patterns: Analyzing temporal data enables the identification of patterns, trends,
and cycles over time. This is valuable for understanding the dynamics of a system or
process.

APPLICATIONS OF TEMPORAL DATA

 Environmental Monitoring: Temporal data is widely used in monitoring environmental
changes, such as land cover changes, climate patterns, and the behavior of natural
systems.
 Finance: In finance, temporal data is crucial for tracking stock prices, market trends, and
economic indicators over time
 Healthcare: Patient records, vital signs, and other healthcare data are often temporal in
nature, allowing for the analysis of medical conditions and treatment outcomes over time.
 Manufacturing and Industry: Temporal data is used to monitor and optimize
manufacturing processes, equipment performance, and production efficiency.

DATA SOURCES
 Temporal data can come from various sources, including sensors, satellites, databases,
social media, and scientific instruments. For example, satellite imagery captured at
different time points provides temporal information about changes in land cover.

TEMPORAL DATA IDENTIFICATION OR ANALYSIS

Analyzing temporal data often involves techniques such as time series analysis, trend analysis,
and forecasting. These methods help uncover meaningful insights and make predictions based on
historical temporal patterns.

Understanding and effectively utilizing temporal data are essential for making informed
decisions, identifying correlations, and predicting future outcomes in a wide range of fields.
Temporal analysis provides a valuable perspective on how systems, phenomena, and variables
evolve over time.

When working with temporal data from the USGS Earth Explorer, the key is to understand how
to identify and use the temporal information associated with the available datasets. Here are the
steps to identify temporal data:
  Search Parameters: Start by defining the search parameters in the Earth Explorer
interface. This includes specifying the geographic area of interest, choosing the satellite
or sensor, and setting a date range for the temporal data one is interested in.
 Metadata Information:Each dataset available on the USGS Earth Explorer comes with
associated metadata. Metadata provides detailed information about the dataset, including
its temporal coverage. Look for metadata information such as acquisition date,
time, and any temporal restrictions that may apply.
 Preview Images: Use the preview functionality in Earth Explorer to view thumbnail
images or browse through the available scenes. The preview images often
display information such as acquisition date, allowing you to visually identify the
temporal extent of the data.
 Sort and Filter: After performing a search, sort and filter the results based on temporal
criteria. This allows one to organize the datasets based on acquisition date or other
temporal parameters.
 Temporal Filters: Some datasets may have specific filters related to time. For example,
Landsat data can be filtered based on the season or time of the year. Explore these
options to refine your search.
 Additional Information: Pay attention to any additional information provided in the
dataset description or associated documentation. This might include details about the
temporal resolution, revisit intervals, and any special considerations for temporal
analysis.
 Download Options: When you're ready to download data, review the available download
options. Ensure that the selected dataset meets the temporal requirements.
 Time Series Data: For certain applications, one may be interested in time series data,
which involves multiple observations of the same area over a period of time. Landsat and
Sentinel datasets often support time series analysis.
 Data Processing: Keep in mind that some datasets may require additional processing
steps to create a coherent time series. For instance, one might need to mosaic or stack
multiple images to cover a specific time period.

By following these steps and leveraging the search, preview, and metadata features in the USGS
Earth Explorer, one can effectively identify and work with temporal data for your specific
analysis or research needs.

 DOWNLOADING TEMPORAL DATA FROM USGS

Downloading data from the USGS Earth Explorer involves several steps. Here is the description of the
steps involved :

 Google Search

Open your web browser and perform a Google search for "USGS Earth Explorer" to find the
official website.
 Access USGS Earth Explorer:

Click on the official link or navigate to the USGS Earth Explorer website.

 Create an Account/Login:

If you don’t have an account, you need to create an account by filling out the required
information.
 To create a new account, you need to go to the “LOGIN” option and scroll down and look for the
“CREATE AN ACCOUNT” option.

After the account is created, a confirmation mail is sent to the registered email address. After
following the steps instructed in the mail, you can access the website to download the required
data.

 Search for Data:

Once logged in, you'll see the Earth Explorer interface. Start by defining your search parameters.

 Under the ‘GEOCODING’ section, select ADDRESS/PLACE

 Select the area of interest on the map. Use the “POLYGON” feature and create a Polygon
to identify the study area.
 Set the date range. While selecting the date range, the same month and year should be
selected.

 Choose other search criteria such as cloud cover percentage

  Move on to the ‘DATA SET’ option to select the sensor type and select the LANDSAT
option by scrolling down.

 Dataset Selection and Metadata Review:

  Review the available datasets based on your search criteria. Click on the dataset you are
interested in to view more details.
 Look at the metadata associated with the dataset to ensure it meets your requirements.
Check the acquisition date, sensor information, and any other relevant details.

 Preview Data:
 Use the preview option to view thumbnail images or other previews of the data. This
helps ensure that the selected data is suitable for your needs.
 Download Data:
 Click on the download links provided for your datasets. The data will typically be
available in a compressed file format. Download and save it to your local machine.

 Extract and Use Data:

 Extract the downloaded files, and you'll find the geospatial data in the selected format.
You can now use this data in your GIS software or analysis tools.

LANDSAT

LANDSAT refers to a series of Earth-observing satellite missions jointly managed by the United States
Geological Survey (USGS) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The
program began in 1972 with the launch of the first LANDSAT satellite, and it has since played a crucial
role in monitoring and understanding changes on the Earth's surface.

 Key features and aspects of the LANDSAT program include:

  Satellite Missions: The LANDSAT program has seen several satellite missions, each equipped
with advanced imaging sensors. The satellites capture high-resolution images of the Earth's
surface in various spectral bands, including visible, infrared, and thermal wavelengths.
 Global Coverage: LANDSAT satellites provide global coverage, capturing images of the entire
Earth's surface. This allows for the monitoring of changes over time, such as urban expansion,
deforestation, agricultural practices, and natural disasters.
 Data Continuity: One of the strengths of the LANDSAT program is its long-term data continuity.
The availability of consistent and long-term datasets spanning several decades allows scientists
and researchers to analyze and understand changes in land cover and land use over time.
 Applications: LANDSAT data has been widely used in various fields, including agriculture,
forestry, geology, land use planning, environmental monitoring, and climate change research. The
images provided by the satellites are valuable for assessing and managing natural resources and
monitoring the impact of human activities on the environment.
 Open Data Policy: The USGS has adopted an open data policy for LANDSAT data, making it
freely available to the public. This has facilitated widespread use of the data for scientific
research, government applications, and commercial purposes.
 Resolution and Spectral Bands: The LANDSAT satellites capture multispectral images with
different resolutions, allowing for detailed analysis of the Earth's surface. The sensors on these
satellites can observe the Earth in visible, near-infrared, shortwave infrared, and thermal infrared
bands, providing valuable information about land cover and land use.
 International Collaboration: While the program is led by the United States, LANDSAT data is
used globally, and there are international collaborations for the development and operation of the
satellites.

LANDSAT data has been instrumental in advancing our understanding of Earth's dynamic processes and
changes over time. It continues to be a valuable resource for scientists, researchers, policymakers, and
various industries.

LANDSAT 4

Landsat 4 was an Earth-observing satellite launched as part of the Landsat program, operated by
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) and the USGS (United States
Geological Survey). Here are some key features and description of Landsat 4:

Landsat 4 Features:

 Launch and Mission Duration:

Landsat 4 was launched on July 16, 1982, from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California.

The mission continued until November 28, 2001, when Landsat 4 was decommissioned.

 Instruments:

Landsat 4 carried two primary instruments: the Multispectral Scanner (MSS) and the Thematic
Mapper (TM).
The Multispectral Scanner provided data in four spectral bands, while the Thematic Mapper
extended the spectral coverage and increased spatial resolution.

 Spectral Bands:

The Multispectral Scanner on Landsat 4 had four spectral bands covering visible and near-
infrared regions.

The Thematic Mapper on Landsat 4 had a more advanced sensor with seven spectral bands.
These included three visible bands, three near-infrared bands, and one thermal infrared band.

 Spatial Resolution:

The spatial resolution of Landsat 4's Thematic Mapper was 30 meters for most bands, offering
improved detail compared to its predecessors.

 Global Coverage:

Landsat 4 provided global coverage, capturing imagery of the Earth's surface for various
applications, including land cover monitoring, environmental studies, and natural resource
management.

 Data Continuity:

Landsat 4 continued the data continuity established by its predecessors, contributing to the long-
term Landsat archive. This continuity is crucial for monitoring changes on the Earth's surface
over an extended period.

 Remote Sensing Applications:

Landsat 4's imagery was used for a range of applications, including agriculture monitoring,
forestry assessments, land use planning, and environmental change detection.

 Operational Improvements:

Landsat 4 represented an improvement in terms of spectral and spatial resolution over previous
Landsat missions, providing more detailed and diverse information about the Earth's surface.

 Data Accessibility:

Landsat 4 data, like other Landsat missions, was made accessible to the public, researchers, and
organizations. This open data policy promotes the use of Earth observation data for scientific
research and applications.
  Legacy and Successors:

Landsat 4 paved the way for subsequent Landsat missions, contributing to the legacy of Earth
observation from space. Its success laid the groundwork for the development and launch of
future Landsat satellites.

Landsat 4 played a crucial role in advancing the capabilities of Earth observation, providing
valuable data for a wide range of scientific and practical applications. It was part of a series of
satellites that significantly contributed to our understanding of global environmental changes
over the past few decades.

LANDSAT 5

Landsat 5 was a key Earth-observing satellite in the Landsat program, jointly operated by NASA
(National Aeronautics and Space Administration) and the USGS (United States Geological
Survey). Launched in 1984, Landsat 5 played a significant role in providing valuable data for
environmental monitoring, land cover analysis, and other Earth science applications. Here are
some key features of Landsat 5:

Landsat 5 Features:

 Launch and Mission Duration:

Landsat 5 was launched on March 1, 1984, from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California.

The mission continued for an extended period, making Landsat 5 one of the longest-serving
Earth observation satellites in history. It operated until its decommissioning on June 5, 2013.

 Instruments:

Landsat 5 carried two primary instruments: the Multispectral Scanner (MSS) and the Thematic
Mapper (TM).

The Multispectral Scanner provided data in four spectral bands, while the Thematic Mapper
extended the spectral coverage and improved spatial resolution.

 Spectral Bands:

The Multispectral Scanner on Landsat 5 had four spectral bands covering visible and near-
infrared regions.

The Thematic Mapper on Landsat 5 had seven spectral bands, including three visible bands,
three near-infrared bands, and one thermal infrared band.

 Spatial Resolution:
Landsat 5's Thematic Mapper had a spatial resolution of 30 meters for most bands, providing
detailed imagery suitable for a wide range of applications.

 Global Coverage:

Landsat 5 provided global coverage, capturing imagery of the Earth's surface for various
purposes, including land use planning, agricultural monitoring, forestry assessments, and
environmental studies.

 Data Continuity:

Landsat 5 contributed to the long-term Landsat data archive, ensuring continuity in Earth
observation data. Its data were used in conjunction with other Landsat missions for time-series
analysis and monitoring changes over time.

 Operational Improvements:

Landsat 5 represented an improvement in terms of spectral and spatial resolution over its
predecessors, enhancing the quality and usefulness of the acquired data.

 Remote Sensing Applications:

Landsat 5's imagery found applications in agriculture, forestry, water resource management,
urban planning, disaster monitoring, and various scientific research projects.

 Data Accessibility:

Landsat 5 data, like other Landsat missions, were made accessible to the public and the global
research community. Open data policies promoted the widespread use of Landsat imagery for
diverse applications.

 Legacy:

Landsat 5's long operational life and the quality of its data contributed to the overall success and
legacy of the Landsat program. Its contributions laid the foundation for the development and
launch of subsequent Landsat satellites.

Landsat 5 played a crucial role in advancing Earth observation capabilities and providing a
consistent and reliable source of data for monitoring and understanding changes on Earth's
surface.

LANDSAT 7

Landsat 7 is another satellite in the Landsat program, operated by NASA (National Aeronautics
and Space Administration) and the USGS (United States Geological Survey). Launched in 1999,
Landsat 7 continued the legacy of providing valuable Earth observation data. Here are some key
features of Landsat 7:
Landsat 7 Features:

 Launch and Mission Duration:

Landsat 7 was launched on April 15, 1999, from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California.

The satellite was designed for a minimum mission life of five years, but as of my knowledge
cutoff in January 2022, it continued to operate for a longer duration.

 Instrument:

Landsat 7 carried the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+), an improved version of the
Thematic Mapper (TM) used on previous Landsat satellites.

 Spectral Bands:

The ETM+ instrument on Landsat 7 had eight spectral bands, including three visible bands, three
near-infrared bands, one short-wave infrared band, and one thermal infrared band.

The additional band in the ETM+ compared to the TM allowed for more detailed spectral
information.

 Spatial Resolution:

Landsat 7's ETM+ had a spatial resolution of 30 meters for most bands, maintaining the same
level of detail as its predecessors.

 Global Coverage:

Landsat 7 provided global coverage, capturing imagery of the Earth's surface for a variety of
applications, including land cover mapping, environmental monitoring, and disaster assessment.

 Panning Band:

Landsat 7 introduced a panchromatic band with a higher spatial resolution of 15 meters. This
band allowed for more detailed and sharper imagery.

 Scan Line Corrector (SLC):

Landsat 7 was equipped with a Scan Line Corrector (SLC) to compensate for the satellite's
forward motion, minimizing the effects of scan lines on the images. However, the SLC failed in
2003, affecting the quality of some imagery.

 Data Continuity:
Landsat 7 contributed to the continuity of Earth observation data, building on the successes of its
predecessors and serving as an essential resource for researchers, scientists, and policymakers.

 Remote Sensing Applications:

Landsat 7's imagery has been used for a wide range of applications, including agriculture,
forestry, geology, urban planning, and environmental change detection.

 Data Accessibility:

Landsat 7 data, like other Landsat missions, was made available to the public. Open data policies
promoted the widespread use of Landsat imagery for research and applications.

 Legacy:

Landsat 7, despite the Scan Line Corrector issue, has contributed significantly to the Landsat
program's legacy, providing a wealth of data for understanding Earth's dynamics and changes
over time.

While Landsat 7 faced a challenge with the Scan Line Corrector, the satellite continued to
provide valuable data for Earth observation until its eventual retirement. The Landsat program's
legacy includes the rich dataset provided by Landsat 7, which has been instrumental in numerous
scientific studies and applications.

LANDSAT 8

Landsat 8, also known as the Landsat Data Continuity Mission (LDCM), is a prominent Earth-
observing satellite that has been providing high-quality imagery and data since its launch. Here
are the key features of Landsat 8:

Landsat 8 Features:

 Launch and Mission Duration:

Landsat 8 was launched on February 11, 2013, from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California.

The satellite is operational, continuing to provide valuable Earth observation data.

 Instruments:

Landsat 8 carries two primary instruments: the Operational Land Imager (OLI) and the Thermal
Infrared Sensor (TIRS).

The OLI provides imagery in nine spectral bands, covering the visible, near-infrared, and short-
wave infrared regions.

The TIRS measures thermal infrared radiation in two bands.

  Spectral Bands:

Landsat 8's OLI has a broad spectral range with improved capabilities compared to its
predecessors. The spectral bands cover a range of wavelengths, allowing for detailed
characterization of Earth's surface features.

 Spatial Resolution:

The spatial resolution of Landsat 8 is 30 meters for most bands.

The panchromatic band has a higher spatial resolution of 15 meters, providing sharper images.

 Panchromatic Band:

Landsat 8 includes a panchromatic band that captures data in the visible and near-infrared
spectral range, allowing for higher-resolution imaging.

 Data Continuity:

Landsat 8 was designed to ensure data continuity with previous Landsat missions, providing a
seamless transition in Earth observation capabilities.

It follows the legacy of the Landsat program in providing a consistent and long-term record of
the Earth's surface.

 Radiometric and Geometric Calibration:

Landsat 8 incorporates radiometric and geometric calibration to ensure the accuracy and
reliability of the acquired data.

 Improved Signal-to-Noise Ratio:

Landsat 8's instruments have an improved signal-to-noise ratio, contributing to higher-quality

imagery.

 Global Coverage:

Landsat 8 provides global coverage, capturing imagery of the Earth's surface for various
applications, including agriculture, forestry, land use planning, and environmental monitoring.

 Open Data Policy:

Landsat 8 data is freely available to the public, following the open data policy of the Landsat
program. This accessibility promotes the widespread use of Landsat imagery for research,
applications, and decision-making.
  Remote Sensing Applications:

Landsat 8's imagery is used in a wide range of applications, including monitoring changes in
land cover, assessing natural disasters, and supporting scientific research.

Landsat 8 has been a valuable asset for researchers, scientists, and policymakers, providing a
wealth of data for understanding and monitoring changes on Earth's surface. It continues to
contribute to the legacy of the Landsat program, supporting a variety of applications for the
benefit of society.

LANDSAT 9

Landsat 9 is the latest addition to the Landsat program, continuing the legacy of its predecessors
in providing valuable Earth observation data. Launched on September 16, 2021, Landsat 9 is
designed to ensure data continuity and enhancements to the Landsat program. Here are the key
features of Landsat 9:

Landsat 9 Features:

 Launch and Mission Duration:

Landsat 9 was launched on September 16, 2021, from Vandenberg Space Force Base in
California.

Landsat 9 is the most recent satellite in the Landsat program and is expected to operate for an
extended mission duration.

 Instruments:

Landsat 9 carries two primary instruments, similar to Landsat 8: the Operational Land Imager
(OLI) and the Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS).

The OLI provides imagery in nine spectral bands, covering the visible, near-infrared, and short-
wave infrared regions.

The TIRS measures thermal infrared radiation in two bands.

 Spectral Bands:

Landsat 9's OLI has a similar spectral configuration to Landsat 8, offering a broad spectral range
for detailed characterization of Earth's surface features.

 Spatial Resolution:
The spatial resolution of Landsat 9 is consistent with Landsat 8, with 30 meters for most bands.

The panchromatic band has a higher spatial resolution of 15 meters, contributing to sharper
images.

 Panchromatic Band:

Landsat 9 includes a panchromatic band, similar to Landsat 8, for capturing data in the visible
and near-infrared spectral range at higher resolution.

 Data Continuity and Enhancements:

Landsat 9 is designed to ensure continuity in the Landsat data record, maintaining consistency
with its predecessors.

Technological enhancements may be incorporated to address lessons learned from earlier

missions and to improve data quality.

 Radiometric and Geometric Calibration:

Landsat 9 incorporates radiometric and geometric calibration, ensuring the accuracy and
reliability of the acquired data.

 Global Coverage:

Landsat 9 continues the tradition of providing global coverage, capturing imagery of the Earth's
surface for various applications, including agriculture, forestry, land use planning, and
environmental monitoring.

 Open Data Policy:

Landsat 9 data is made freely available to the public, adhering to the open data policy of the
Landsat program. This accessibility promotes the widespread use of Landsat imagery for
research, applications, and decision-making.

 Remote Sensing Applications:

Landsat 9's imagery is expected to be used in a wide range of applications, similar to Landsat 8,
supporting various scientific research projects and practical applications.

Landsat 9 represents a critical addition to the Landsat program, ensuring the continuity of Earth
observation data and contributing to the long-term record of changes on the Earth's surface. Its
capabilities and data quality enhancements are expected to benefit a broad range of users in
diverse fields.

BANDS IN LANDSAT
LANDSAT 4

Landsat 4 carried the Multispectral Scanner (MSS) instrument, which consisted of four spectral bands.
Below are the details of the spectral bands on Landsat 4:

Landsat 4 Multispectral Scanner (MSS):


 Band 1 - Visible (Green):

Wavelength Range: 0.5 - 0.6 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 79 meters

Description: This band captures green light, which is useful for distinguishing vegetation health, land
cover types, and changes in vegetation density.


 Band 2 - Visible (Red):

Wavelength Range: 0.6 - 0.7 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 79 meters

Description: This band captures red light and is valuable for distinguishing between healthy and stressed
vegetation. It is also used in land cover classification.


 Band 3 - Near-Infrared:

Wavelength Range: 0.7 - 0.8 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 79 meters

Description: Near-infrared bands are sensitive to changes in vegetation health. Healthy vegetation reflects
a large amount of near-infrared light, making this band useful for vegetation analysis and land cover
classification.


 Band 4 - Near-Infrared:

Wavelength Range: 0.8 - 1.1 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 79 meters

Description: Similar to Band 3, this near-infrared band provides additional information for vegetation
analysis, land cover mapping, and monitoring changes in land use.

These four bands on Landsat 4's Multispectral Scanner were instrumental in capturing information across
the visible and near-infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. While Landsat 4's capabilities
were surpassed by later Landsat missions, the data it provided contributed to early Earth observation
efforts and laid the foundation for subsequent satellite missions. Keep in mind that technological
advancements and improvements were made in later Landsat satellites, such as Landsat 5, Landsat 7,
Landsat 8, and Landsat 9.

LANDSAT 5

Landsat 5 carried both the Multispectral Scanner (MSS) and the Thematic Mapper (TM) instruments.
Here are the details of the spectral bands on Landsat 5:

Landsat 5 Multispectral Scanner (MSS):

Landsat 5's Multispectral Scanner included four spectral bands:


 Band 1 - Visible (Green):

Wavelength Range: 0.5 - 0.6 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 79 meters

Description: Captures green light, useful for vegetation monitoring, land cover classification, and
assessing changes in vegetation health.


 Band 2 - Visible (Red):

Wavelength Range: 0.6 - 0.7 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 79 meters

Description: Captures red light, providing information on vegetation health, land cover types, and
changes in land use.


 Band 3 - Near-Infrared:

Wavelength Range: 0.7 - 0.8 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 79 meters

Description: Near-infrared bands are sensitive to changes in vegetation health. This band is valuable for
vegetation analysis, land cover mapping, and monitoring land changes.


 Band 4 - Near-Infrared:
Wavelength Range: 0.8 - 1.1 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 79 meters

Description: Similar to Band 3, this near-infrared band provides additional information for vegetation
monitoring and land cover classification.

Landsat 5 Thematic Mapper (TM):

Landsat 5's Thematic Mapper included seven spectral bands:


 Band 1 - Visible (Blue):

Wavelength Range: 0.45 - 0.52 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures blue light, contributing to land cover discrimination and water body
characterization.


 Band 2 - Visible (Green):

Wavelength Range: 0.52 - 0.60 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures green light, useful for vegetation monitoring, land cover classification, and
assessing changes in vegetation health.


 Band 3 - Visible (Red):

Wavelength Range: 0.63 - 0.69 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures red light, providing information on vegetation health, land cover types, and
changes in land use.


 Band 4 - Near-Infrared:

Wavelength Range: 0.76 - 0.90 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: This near-infrared band is valuable for vegetation analysis, land cover mapping, and
monitoring land changes.
 
 Band 5 - Mid-Infrared:

Wavelength Range: 1.55 - 1.75 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures mid-infrared radiation, providing information on vegetation moisture content and
other surface features.


 Band 6 - Thermal Infrared:

Wavelength Range: 10.40 - 12.50 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 120 meters (60 meters for panchromatic)

Description: Measures thermal infrared radiation, used for detecting temperature variations on the Earth's
surface.


 Band 7 - Mid-Infrared:

Wavelength Range: 2.08 - 2.35 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures additional mid-infrared radiation, providing information on geological features and
surface composition.

These spectral bands on Landsat 5's Multispectral Scanner and Thematic Mapper instruments allowed for
a comprehensive analysis of Earth's surface, supporting applications in agriculture, forestry, land use
planning, and environmental monitoring. Landsat 5 played a significant role in providing critical data for
several decades before its decommissioning in 2013.

LANDSAT 7

Landsat 7 carried the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) instrument, an improvement over the
Thematic Mapper (TM) carried by Landsat 4 and Landsat 5. The ETM+ instrument had a total of eight
spectral bands. Here are the details of the spectral bands on Landsat 7:

Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+):


 Band 1 - Visible (Blue):

Wavelength Range: 0.45 - 0.52 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures blue light, useful for water body discrimination, land cover mapping, and
atmospheric corrections.


 Band 2 - Visible (Green):

Wavelength Range: 0.52 - 0.60 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures green light, contributing to vegetation monitoring, land cover classification, and
assessment of plant health.


 Band 3 - Visible (Red):

Wavelength Range: 0.63 - 0.69 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures red light, providing information on vegetation health, land cover types, and
changes in land use.


 Band 4 - Near-Infrared:

Wavelength Range: 0.76 - 0.90 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: This near-infrared band is valuable for vegetation analysis, land cover mapping, and
monitoring changes in land use.


 Band 5 - Mid-Infrared:

Wavelength Range: 1.55 - 1.75 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures mid-infrared radiation, providing information on vegetation moisture content and
other surface features.


 Band 6 - Thermal Infrared:

Wavelength Range: 10.40 - 12.50 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 60 meters

Description: Measures thermal infrared radiation, used for detecting temperature variations on the Earth's
surface.


 Band 7 - Mid-Infrared:

Wavelength Range: 2.08 - 2.35 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures additional mid-infrared radiation, providing information on geological features and
surface composition.


 Band 8 - Panchromatic:

Wavelength Range: 0.52 - 0.90 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 15 meters

Description: This high-resolution panchromatic band captures a broad spectral range in the visible and
near-infrared regions, enabling detailed imaging for various applications.

These spectral bands on Landsat 7's ETM+ instrument allowed for a comprehensive analysis of Earth's
surface, providing valuable data for applications such as agriculture, forestry, geology, environmental
monitoring, and land use planning.

It's worth noting that Landsat 7 faced an issue with the Scan Line Corrector (SLC) that affected the
quality of some imagery, but the satellite continued to provide valuable data until its decommissioning.

LANDSAT 8

Landsat 8, also known as the Landsat Data Continuity Mission (LDCM), is equipped with two primary
instruments: the Operational Land Imager (OLI) and the Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS). Together, these
instruments provide data in eleven spectral bands. Below are the details of the spectral bands on Landsat
8:

Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI):


 Band 1 - Coastal/Aerosol:

Wavelength Range: 0.43 - 0.45 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures light in the coastal/aerosol region, useful for studying water quality, coastal
features, and aerosols in the atmosphere.


 Band 2 - Blue:

Wavelength Range: 0.45 - 0.51 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures blue light, contributing to water body discrimination, land cover mapping, and
atmospheric corrections.


 Band 3 - Green:

Wavelength Range: 0.53 - 0.59 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures green light, useful for vegetation monitoring, land cover classification, and
assessing plant health.


 Band 4 - Red:

Wavelength Range: 0.64 - 0.67 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures red light, providing information on vegetation health, land cover types, and
changes in land use.


 Band 5 - Near-Infrared:

Wavelength Range: 0.85 - 0.88 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: This near-infrared band is valuable for vegetation analysis, land cover mapping, and
monitoring changes in land use.


 Band 6 - Short-Wave Infrared 1:

Wavelength Range: 1.57 - 1.65 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures short-wave infrared radiation, providing information on vegetation moisture
content and surface features.


 Band 7 - Short-Wave Infrared 2:

Wavelength Range: 2.11 - 2.29 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures additional short-wave infrared radiation, useful for geological and vegetation
studies.


 Band 8 - Panchromatic:

Wavelength Range: 0.50 - 0.68 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 15 meters

Description: This high-resolution panchromatic band captures a broad spectral range in the visible and
near-infrared regions, enabling detailed imaging for various applications.

Landsat 8 Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS):


 Band 9 - Cirrus:

Wavelength Range: 1.36 - 1.38 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures cirrus clouds, aiding in cloud detection and atmospheric correction.


 Band 10 - Thermal Infrared 1:

Wavelength Range: 10.60 - 11.19 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 100 meters

Description: Measures thermal infrared radiation, used for detecting temperature variations on the Earth's
surface.


 Band 11 - Thermal Infrared 2:

Wavelength Range: 11.50 - 12.51 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 100 meters

Description: Measures additional thermal infrared radiation, aiding in temperature-related studies.

These spectral bands on Landsat 8 provide a wealth of information across the electromagnetic spectrum,
enabling a wide range of applications such as land cover monitoring, environmental assessments, and
resource management. The combination of high-resolution and thermal bands enhances the satellite's
capabilities for Earth observation.

LANDSAT 9

Landsat 9 is the latest addition to the Landsat program, and it carries instruments similar to Landsat 8—
specifically, the Operational Land Imager (OLI) and the Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS). Landsat 9 is
designed to ensure data continuity and enhancements to the Landsat program. Here are the details of the
spectral bands on Landsat 9:

Landsat 9 Operational Land Imager (OLI):


 Band 1 - Coastal/Aerosol:

Wavelength Range: 0.43 - 0.45 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures light in the coastal/aerosol region, useful for studying water quality, coastal
features, and aerosols in the atmosphere.


 Band 2 - Blue:

Wavelength Range: 0.45 - 0.51 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures blue light, contributing to water body discrimination, land cover mapping, and
atmospheric corrections.


 Band 3 - Green:

Wavelength Range: 0.53 - 0.59 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures green light, useful for vegetation monitoring, land cover classification, and
assessing plant health.


 Band 4 - Red:

Wavelength Range: 0.64 - 0.67 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures red light, providing information on vegetation health, land cover types, and
changes in land use.


 Band 5 - Near-Infrared:

Wavelength Range: 0.85 - 0.88 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: This near-infrared band is valuable for vegetation analysis, land cover mapping, and
monitoring changes in land use.


 Band 6 - Short-Wave Infrared 1:

Wavelength Range: 1.57 - 1.65 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures short-wave infrared radiation, providing information on vegetation moisture

content and surface features.


 Band 7 - Short-Wave Infrared 2:

Wavelength Range: 2.11 - 2.29 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures additional short-wave infrared radiation, useful for geological and vegetation
studies.


 Band 8 - Panchromatic:

Wavelength Range: 0.50 - 0.68 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 15 meters

Description: This high-resolution panchromatic band captures a broad spectral range in the visible and
near-infrared regions, enabling detailed imaging for various applications.
Landsat 9 Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS):


 Band 9 - Cirrus:

Wavelength Range: 1.36 - 1.38 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 30 meters

Description: Captures cirrus clouds, aiding in cloud detection and atmospheric correction.


 Band 10 - Thermal Infrared 1:

Wavelength Range: 10.60 - 11.19 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 100 meters

Description: Measures thermal infrared radiation, used for detecting temperature variations on the Earth's
surface.


 Band 11 - Thermal Infrared 2:

Wavelength Range: 11.50 - 12.51 micrometers

Spatial Resolution: 100 meters

Description: Measures additional thermal infrared radiation, aiding in temperature-related studies.

These spectral bands on Landsat 9 provide a comprehensive view of the Earth's surface, allowing for
various applications in land cover monitoring, environmental assessments, and resource management.
The continuity of the Landsat program ensures a valuable, long-term data record for understanding
changes on the Earth's surface.

GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING OF STUDY AREA

 BATHINDA

Bathinda, located in the northwestern region of India, is a city rich in history and culture,
boasting a diverse range of geographic features that have played a significant role in shaping
its identity.
DISTRICT MAP OF BATHINDA

SOURCE- MAPS OF INDIA

History -
 The district derives its name from the district headquarters town of Bathinda, which is of great
antiquity. According to Khalifa Muhammad Hassan, author of History of Patiala, its ancient
name was Bikramgarh. According to raverty, Bathinda was known as Tabarhindh (Labb-ut-
Twarikh). According to Ibn Batuta it was known as Batrind. The earliest mention of Tabarhindh
occurs in the “Jami-Ul-Hakayat” written about 607 Hijri or 1211 AD. According to “Ainai-
Barar Bans” Bathinda was built by Bhati Rao, son of Bal Band, who became ruler of Punjab in
336 Bikrami Sambat. He also founded Bhatner. It was also called Whatinda and Bitunda which
finally become known as Bhatinda. But its name was changed to Bathinda on the authority of
Survey of India to conform to the phonetical expression as locally pronounced. In recent times
the town was conquered by Maharaja Ala Singh (near about 1754 AD) and since then it
followed the history of erstwhile princely state of Patiala. With the dawn of indendence and
merger of Patiala and East Punjab States into a division styled at PEPSU, Bathinda become full
fledged district which states has combined even after the merger of PEPSU with erstwhile
Punjab State in 1956.

Location and Size

Bathinda district is located in the Central Southern part of Punjab State in the Malwa region, It
forms part of Faridkot Revenue Commissioner’s Division and is situated between 29-45’ and
30-45’North latitude and 74-30’ and 75- 30’ East longitude. The district shares boundaries with
Muktsar and Faridkot districts in the North and the West, Mansa district in the South and
Sangrur district in the East. It is constituted of areas of
the erstwhile princely the state of Patiala which was known as the Phulkian States. According to
the 2011 Census, Bathinda has a population of 13,88,525 people, 7,43,197 men, and 6,45,328
women, spread across an area of 3,353 square kilometers. This equals 17.3% of the State's
population and 6.7% of its total territory. Its area places it as the fifteenth largest district in the
State. It is the 13th most populous city in the state.
 LOCATION MAP OF BATHINDA DISTRICT

SOURCE-International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research.

Elevation and Relief

The elevation of Bathinda varies across the city's landscape. The surrounding region is
generally flat, with elevations ranging from 204 to 210 meters above sea level. However, there
are slight variations in relief, including small hillocks and depressions.
 ELEVATION MAP OF BATHINDA

SOURCE- FloodMap

Physiography

Bathinda district is a part of the Punjab Malwa plain and is sub-divided into following
micro-regions on the basis of soils, topography, climate and natural vegetation, which
are briefly described below:

Bathinda district forms part of Satluj Ganga plain and is characterized by low-lying flat area.
The elevation of the land surface ranges from 208 meters in the southwest to 223 meters in the
northeast. Thus the slope of the ground is from northeast to southwest. The range of elevation
in the district is about 15 meters; hence, gentle slope is characteristic feature of the area. The
slope of the area is from north-east to south-west as indicated by the direction of the flow of
canals and spot heights. The highest point in the area is Ratta Khera (Hisar District, Haryana) in
north-eastern part with a height of 205 m etres. The lowest point is at a height (Talwandi Sabo
Tahs il). The elevation of the plain thus has a range of about 25 metres.
On a macro scale this area may be considered as one landform unit but at microscopic
scale the topographical variation may be delineated which is due to flooding of river and
presence of sand dunes in some parts of the district.

1. Bathinda Sandy Plain - The region is spread over the parts of Bathinda, Rampura Phul and
Talwandi sabo. Being sandy plain the region is dotted with scattered sand dunes, which have
the tendency to shift towards eastern side. The geological structure of this region is formed of
Alluvium and the main soils are coarse sandy loam to loam, grey or red desert which are
orthids Fluvents. Ochrepts Psamments and Psamments FluventsOrthid. The maximum height
of 220 meters is located near village Sooch of Rampura Phul tahsil and the minimum height of
199 meters is found near village Sardargarh of Bathinda tahsil. The natural vegetation includes
Kikar, Ber, Neem and thorny bushes.

2. Rampura-Plain - The region spreads over the large parts of Rampura Phul and Bathinda
tahsils. This region covers the eastern portion of the district. This is a plain area dotted with sand
dunes. The geological structure of this region consists of Alluvium and main soils of region are
coarse sandy-loam to loam to silty-clay loam, which are classified as Psamment-Fulvents-
Orthids and Ochrepts-Psamments. Natural vegetation includes, Kikar, Ber, Neem and thorny
Bushes. It has Bathinda branch, Kotla branch, Odat branch and Biroke branch (Sirhind Canal)
and other numerous distributories for irrigation.

Water resources:s
 HYDROGEOLOGY MAP OF BATHINDA

SOURCE-Ground Water Information Booklet, Bhatinda

Bathinda District has many water bodies in it. There are rivers and canals passing through
Bathinda District. The Ghaggar River separates Bathinda and Hisar Districts creating the
boundary between the two. A siphon is present on this river near the south east part of Hingna
Village. At this particular point, a branch of Sirhind Canal, Dhodal Branch crosses Ghaggar
River. The Ghaggar River enters Haryana through Sirsa District.
Canals and ponds are also there in this district. The main sources of irrigation in Bathinda are
canals. Many tributaries of Sirhind Canal pass through the district. The main canal of Bhakra
also passes through the south region of Bathinda District. The
places that are slightly higher in this district use wells as the main source of irrigation and as
the source of drinking water. Ponds are there in almost every village of Bathinda. The water is
used for animals and for other household work. Big water tanks and ponds are available in the
east region of the district. They are mainly found in Dharampura, Bareta, and Juglan. Villages
have ponds and wells so scarcity of water is not there.
Climate

The western Himalayas in the north and the Thar Desert in the south and southwest mainly
determine the climatic conditions. Geographically Bathinda district falls in the Central-Southern
part of Punjab and is distantly located from the Himalayas. The Rajasthan desert is also not far
away and its heat, sand and dust storms influence its weather to a great extent, the district has a
very hot summer, mild rainy season and dry but embracing winter. Due to the extension of
irrigation facilities during the last few decades, the weather has undergone some changes. The
climate, on the whole, is dry in the district. Temperatures start rising from the middle of
February and increase rapidly from the beginning of March till June, which normally is the
hottest month of the season. The temperature occasionally touches 470 centigrade and scorching
dust-laden winds; commonly known as loo, blow during the hot season. The temperature drops
considerably with the onset of monsoon in early July, although the nights continue to be quite
warm. Due to increased humidity in the monsoon period, the weather is oppressive during rains.
Based on the climatic conditions in the district, the year may be divided into four seasons.
November to March is the cold season, which is followed by the hot season lasting up to the end
of June. The period from July to mid September constitutes the rainy season commonly known
as the period of southwest monsoon. The second half of September and October is termed as the
period of post monsoon. January is the coldest and June, the hottest month. The period from
November to February is cold; in winter, light frost or rains may be experienced. In March, the
weather becomes fine.

Precipitation Patterns: Bathinda receives the majority of its annual rainfall during the
monsoon season. However, precipitation is variable, and the city occasionally faces water
scarcity issues during dry spells.
Temperature Extremes: The city experiences temperature extremes, with scorching summers
and chilly winters. These extremes impact various aspects of life, including agriculture and
energy consumption.

Soil
 SOIL MAP OF BATHINDA ON BASIS OF PH, EC AND ALKALINITY VALUES

(a) Soil map of the Bathinda district on the basis of pH values

. (b) Soil map of the Bathinda district on the basis of EC values.
(c) Soil map of the Bathinda district on the basis of alkalinity values.

SOURCE- ResearchGate
 Bathinda District has sand hills and sand dunes in many areas and these hills and dunes are of
various sizes and shapes. When the sand dune is narrow, it is called a dune but when the length
is much more than the width, it is called san ridges. Western region of Bathinda has continuous
sand dunes and ridges located parallel to branch of Sirhind Canal. Mansa Tehsil of Bathinda
District has a huge area of sand dune. Another area of sand dune is in the west of Bathinda
District that is near to the Hisar District.
The remnants of sand dunes are mainly found in the west part of Mansa Tehsil and south east
area of Bathinda District. The alluvial plain of Bathinda District is mainly consisting of sandy
clay, clay and sand with kankars. Sand horizons are prominent in west and north east parts of
the district and thin beds of clays are present in these areas. Fine sand is found in the south west
of Bathinda District. The top surface of the soil has clayey and sandy soil. Near the ponds,
sticky clay soil is found in abundance. Only 0.14% of the total forest area of the state is included
under protected forest area.

Flora and Fauna

Vegetation type of Bathinda District is the type that grows in semi-arid region. Bathinda has
improved irrigation facilities and the soil type of Bathinda is changing its nature. Change in the
soil type is affecting the flora of Bathinda and it is now changed to semi-moist vegetation. The
types of plants found here are Pipal, Kikar, Shisham, Siris, Neem, Khair etc. Some exotic
species of plants found in Bathinda are Sagwan, Mysore Gum, etc. Ground flora of Bathinda
primarily consists of herbs and grasses. Low lying areas have plenty of Kahi and Kana,
waterlogged areas have Bater and Sariala is found in the areas that are grazed heavily. In some
marshy lands, Cyprus is also found.
Bathinda has many varieties of Fauna. To create awareness about the WildLife in Bathinda,
Government has established a deer park in Bathinda near Bir Talab. The fishes found in
Bathinda are Rohum Mrigal, Kalbasu, Katla etc. Different types of frog, toads, snakes
(Cobra, Common Krait, and Boa) are found here. Among the mammals, House Shrew,
Hedgehog, Indian Flying Fox, the Asiatic Jackal, Nilgai, Black Buck, Wild Boar, Rhesus
Macaque, Indian Field Mouse are common in Bathinda.

Several types of birds are found here. Many migratory birds can be seen in Bathinda during
winter months. The common birds of the district are Indian Pond Heron, Little Green Heron,
Eastern Large Egret, Kite, Vulture, Falcon, Indian Ring Dove and
others. The migratory birds that are seen in Bathinda are Western Turtle Dove, Black Stork,
Winter Stork, White-eyed Pochard, Common Pochard and others.

Mineral and Mining

The district is poor so far as mineral wealth is concerned. Some Kankar (calcarious nodules) is
found at some places, particularly in Utar. It is used for road construction and is also burnt for
lime. Black clay from which bricks are made also occurs in small quantities. Fine white clay is
also found which is used for white washing. In some areas Shora (Saltpetre) is extracted but it is
limited only to a few pockets bordering Faridkot district, where patches of Kallar have
appeared.

Irrigation

This district relatively falls in low rainfall region and thus irrigation has a vital role to play.
The main sources of irrigation are the canals as the rains are low and erratic even during the
monsoons. Also the sub-soil water is low and blackish, which is considered unsuitable for
irrigation. Besides the canals, tubewells are the other source of irrigation in the district,
Irrigation by well is also resorted to but to a limited extent. The irrigation is done mainly from
Sirhind canal (Bathinda branch, Musa branch, Kotla branch, Odat branch, Biroke branch and
New Dhodal branch), but some areas are also irrigated from Bhakra canal and other fluvial
distributories (Dhapali, Phul, Gumman, Bangi, Bhadaur, Raonta, Joga Bhikhi and Sunam).

Animal Husbandry: Livestock, the back bone of the peasantry and the farmer, has traditionally
been depending upon draught animals for ploughing and on milch cattle, mainly cows and
buffaloes, for milk and other dairy products for domestic use and for supplementing their farm
income.

Transports:

An efficient network of roads and railway is an essential requirement for development of

any area as it is the backbone of any development activities. The district is well served by
both roads and railway. The Bathinda Railway Junction is one of the biggest junctions in the
State. It is from here that railway lines fan out towards various directions in this district such
as:
(1) Bathinda-Firozpur railway line: It serves Bathinda tahsil. It is a broad gauge line.
(2) Bathinda-Sri Ganganagar railway line:It also serves Bathinda tahsil. It is a broad gauge
line.
(3) Bathinda-Jakhal-Delhi railway line: It serves Bathinda and Talwandi Sabo tahsils. It is a
broad gauge line.
(4) Bathinda-Rampura railway line:It serves Bathinda and Rampura Phul tahsils. It is a broad
gauge line.
(5) Bathinda-Kot Kapura-Fazilka railway line:It serves Bathinda tahsil. It was originally
a metre gauge line but has recently been converted into broad gauge railway line under
the gauge conversion programme.
(6) Bathinda-Hanumangarh-Bikaner railway line: It serves southern part of Bathinda and
western part of Talwandi Sabo tehsils. It was originally a metre gauge line but has been
converted into broad gauge railway line under the gauge conversion programme. 16 (7)
Bathinda-Sirsa-Rewari railway line: It serves Bathinda and Talwandi Sabo tehsils. It was
originally a metre gauge line but has since been converted into broad gauge railway line under
the gauge conversion programme undertaken by the railways. The following railway stations are
located in the district : (1) Gehri Bhagi, (2) Shergarh, (3) Bangi Nihalsingh, (4) Raman, (5)
Gurusar Sainewala, (6) Sangat, (7) Bagwali, (8) Bathinda, (9) Kartar Singhwala, (10) Kot Fateh,
(11) Maisar Khana, (12) Maur, (13) Balluana, (14) Behman Dewana, (15) Phus Mandi, (16)
Bhucho, (17) Rampura Phul, (18) Lehra Mohabat.

Land Use

Urban Development: Bathinda has witnessed rapid urbanization over the years, leading to the
expansion of the city's infrastructure and residential areas. The development of smart cities and
improved transportation networks has been a focus of urban planning.

Agricultural Land: Despite urbanization, agriculture remains a prominent land use in Bathinda.
The region's fertile soil and irrigation facilities contribute significantly to the state's food
production.

Industrial Zones: The city has several industrial zones, including the Bathinda Refinery,
which plays a vital role in the region's economy. Industrial development has brought both
economic benefits and environmental challenges.
Green Spaces: Bathinda boasts numerous parks and green spaces, providing recreational areas
for residents and contributing to the city's aesthetics. These green spaces help counterbalance
the urban environment.

Urban Planning Challenges: Balancing urban growth with environmental conservation

and sustainable land use is a major challenge for Bathinda's urban planners. Ensuring that
development meets the needs of the present without compromising the future is a priority.
 FALSE COLOR COMPOSITE

Creating a false color composite in QGIS involves combining different spectral bands of
a multispectral image to visualize features in a way that enhances specific information.
Commonly, a false color composite is generated using the near-infrared (NIR), red, and
green bands. Here are the steps to create a false color composite in QGIS:

1. Open QGIS:

Launch QGIS on your computer.

2. Load Multispectral Imagery:

Load the multispectral imagery that you want to create a false color composite for.
Ensure that the imagery has at least the red (R), green (G), and near-infrared (NIR) bands.

3. Access the Raster Layer Properties:

Right-click on the loaded multispectral imagery layer in the Layers panel and select
"Properties."

4. Go to the Symbology Tab:

In the Layer Properties window, navigate to the "Symbology" tab.

5. Select the Red, Green, and NIR Bands:

In the "Band rendering" section, select the bands you want to use for the red, green, and
blue channels. For a false color composite, choose NIR for the red channel, red for the
green channel, and green for the blue channel. The exact order may vary based on the
data you're working with.

6. Apply and OK:

Click "Apply" and then "OK" to confirm the changes and close the Layer Properties
window.

7. Save as a New Layer (Optional):

If you want to keep the false color composite as a separate layer, right-click on the layer
in the Layers panel, select "Export" or "Save As," and save the layer in your desired
format and location.

8. Adjust Color Rendering (Optional):

 You can further enhance the visualization by adjusting the color rendering. Right-click on
the layer, select "Properties," go to the "Style" tab, and experiment with different color
ramps or customize the colors according to your preferences.

9. Visualize the False Color Composite:

Load the newly created false color composite layer into the QGIS canvas. The imagery
should now display features differently than a standard RGB composite, highlighting
vegetation, land cover, and other characteristics.

10. Explore and Analyze:

Use the false color composite to explore and analyze specific features in your data. This
composite is particularly useful for vegetation monitoring, land cover classification, and
environmental assessments.

Creating a false color composite in QGIS provides a different perspective on

multispectral data, allowing for enhanced interpretation and analysis of the Earth's
surface features.

Interpretation-
The given map shows the false color composite of Bathinda district. The map has been prepared using
QGIS Software and the Band combination used to show the False Color Composite is as follows - Band
5(NearInfraRed/NIR), Band 4 (Blue) and Band 3 (Green).

The red color in the map depicts the area under vegetation in the district and the yellow-ish color depicts
the built up area of the district. The district has dominance of agricultural land and built up area. The blue
color represents water logged areas in the district.

False color composite makes it easier to visually interpret the features of the given geographical area and
hence, it is broadly used by the researchers and scholars in their study.
 LAND USE AND LAND COVER

Land use and land cover are two related but distinct concepts used in environmental and
geographic studies to describe and classify the Earth's surface. These terms are often used in
remote sensing, geography, urban planning, and environmental science.

Land Use:

Land use refers to the human activities and purposes for which land is utilized. It involves the
management and modification of natural environments for various purposes.

Characteristics: Land use classification focuses on the human activities occurring on the land,
emphasizing how people interact with and utilize the landscape.

Examples: Residential areas, industrial zones, agricultural fields, commercial districts,

recreational spaces, and transportation infrastructure all represent different land uses.

Land Cover:

Land cover describes the physical or biophysical coverage of the Earth's surface, including
natural and artificial features. It encompasses the observed physical characteristics of the land.

Characteristics: Land cover classification is concerned with the observable features and materials
at the Earth's surface, irrespective of human activities. It provides information about the physical
state of the landscape.

Examples: Forests, wetlands, water bodies, urban areas, croplands, and barren lands are
examples of different land cover types.

Relationship: Land use and land cover are interconnected. Human activities (land use) often
result in changes to the physical appearance of the landscape (land cover). For example, the
conversion of a natural forest (land cover) into an agricultural field (land use) represents a
change in both land use and land cover.

Both land use and land cover are commonly studied using remote sensing technology and
Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Satellite imagery, aerial photographs, and other remote
sensing data are used to classify and analyze land use and land cover. Both land use and land
cover are dynamic and subject to change over time. Human activities, climate change, natural
processes, and other factors contribute to shifts in land use and land cover patterns.
LAND USE AND LAND COVER BY UNSUPERVISED CLASSIFICATION

Unsupervised classification is a technique used in remote sensing and Geographic

Information Systems (GIS) to categorize pixels in an image into different classes or
clusters without prior training samples. When applied to land use and land cover analysis,
unsupervised classification can help identify patterns and groupings in the data without
the need for predefined classes.

Unsupervised classification algorithms autonomously group pixels in an image based on

spectral similarities. One common method is the K-Means clustering algorithm, which
partitions the data into a user-defined number of clusters.

In the context of land use and land cover analysis, unsupervised classification provides an
objective and data-driven approach to delineate distinct regions or features within an
image. This technique is particularly useful when the classes or categories of interest are
not well-defined in advance or when dealing with large and complex datasets. By
grouping pixels with similar spectral characteristics, unsupervised classification can
reveal spatial patterns, identify potential land cover classes, and aid in the discovery of
hidden environmental trends.

STEPS FOR UNSUPERVISED CLASSIFICATION IN QGIS

To perform unsupervised classification, Follow the following steps:

Step 1: Converting the band format to byte if it is in bit format.

 Go to the Processing Toolbar > Search GDAL calculator > Double tap on GDAL Raster
calculator.
 After double tap on the raster calculator a new window will appear. In the input layer
select the clipped band.
 In the same window, write A/1000 in calculation in GDAL numeric syntax and type 0 in
no data value. In Output raster type select Byte instead of Float 32.
 Now save the calculated file in a new folder and click ok. A new band layer will appear
in the layer panel.

Step 2: Recoding the band

 Now for further process we will Recode the Band which we have converted to Byte. In
Processing Toolbox search r.recode , but before starting to RECODE, we will make a
code in word document.
 Type the code according to the values in your converted Byte band in word document.
 Save the code in plain text format in word document.
  Now double click on r. recode. Select B2 Byte band in input layer and in file recode rule
select the Code which we have created above. Save the file in some folder and then click
ok .
 The band has been re+coded and the different codes shown with different colors are
clearly visible in the picture below.

Step 3: Calculating R. texture

 Next step is calculating r. texture. For this also search in the processing toolbox and then
double tap on it. After double tapping r. texture, a new box will appear: In input raster
select the Recoded band and In Textual measurement method check on ‘asm’ and ‘entr’
and then click ok.
 In the advanced parameter click on three dots and select save to directory.
 Save the r. texture in Documents only, it won’t be saved anywhere else. Make a new
folder for saving this data. After selecting the folder now click on Run and it is done.
 For viewing the r. texture asm and entr we have to bring them on project by Adding
Raster layer.

Step 4: Calculating ASM

 Now we will apply a raster calculator on both asm and entr one by one. First on Asm >
Double tap on raster calculator, a new box will appear > select output asm band in input
layer.
 In calculating GDAL numeric syntax type A*100 > No data value = 0 > click on three
dots and select save to file > click run.
 After completion of calculation a new calculated asm layer is visible with values.

Step 5: Calculating ENTR

 Follow same steps for entr calculation also. Select output entr band in input layer.
 In calculating GDAL numeric syntax type A*10 > No data value = 0 > click on three dots
and select save to file > click run.
 After completion of calculation a new calculated enter band is visible with values.
 In next we will put additional no data values zero for both calculated asm and entr. For
this Double click on Calculated asm band > properties >Transparency
 Now for further steps we will will have to bring all are our clipped bands except SWIR
band which 6 and as well as ASM and Entr to a new project with our main shape file.
 First we have to Dissolve our main shape file by clicking on Vector > Geoprocessing
tools > Dissolve > select the shape file to be dissolved , save it somewhere and click Run.
 Dissolved layer will be visible in the panel. We have to now calculate the mean of all the
bands as well as for Asm and Entr.
 For that search for Zonal statistics in processing toolbox >
 New box will appear
 select the dissolved layer in input layer, in Raster layer select one band >
 In output column prefix type PCA1 >
 In statistics to calculate select/check mean only >
 Click run.
  Mean will be calculated for the first band, follow the same steps for all other
bands on panel and do rename that so that you won’t get confused.
 Open the attribute table of all bands and Asm and entr which were calculated in earlier
step and copy its Mean value in Excel sheet > Divide each bands mean value by 1.
 Open the project again and click on SCP > Click on Bandset, refresh it all your bands will
appear there > Select all bands and Asm and entr and click on plus icon all selected bands
will now appear in the lower panel.
 Now click on Basic tools option > Band weight algorithm in SCP plugin and paste the
mean values divided by 1 in front of their respective bands in the band weight section.
 Now click on Band processing option in SCP toolbox > in this Click on PCA > Check on
number of components and write value 5 there > Click on Run and save it somewhere >
PCA will be calculated and five new bands will appear on the panel.
 After this go to bandset again and refresh it and add 5 new bands which are calculated
after calculation of PCA and remove other bands. In Band processing now click on
Clustering-
 Clustering box will open >
 In method select K means and in Number of classes type 6 leave other things as it is >
Click run and save it somewhere >
 It will take some time to calculate. Follow the same step for Isodata also just select
Isodata in method and rest process is the same.
 The calculated values of Isodata and K-means will appear on screen
 After calculating these values now Click on Post processing option > In that we will be
clicking on Reclassification > In classification select calculated K-means layer > check
on calculate C ID to MC ID > Click on Calculate unique values > Keep old values same
and in new values change values according to data > a new classified layer will appear
 Now go to properties of this reclassified layer and change its symbology to platted/
unique values and click on classify. Change colors accordingly.
 Now come again to SCP > Postprocessing > Classification Sieve, in this select the
reclassified file, rest keep everything the same > Run and save it somewhere and follow
these same steps for Isodata as well. Now our unsupervised classification is complete.
This map will appear after unsupervised classification using the K-means method.
 LAND USE AND LAND COVER BY SUPERVISED CLASSIFICATION

Supervised classification is a widely employed technique in remote sensing and geographic

information systems (GIS) for accurately categorizing land cover types within satellite or aerial
imagery. In this method, a classification algorithm is trained using a set of predefined training
samples, each representing a specific land cover class. These training samples guide the
algorithm in learning the spectral patterns associated with different land cover types, allowing it
to generalize and classify pixels across the entire image.

The effectiveness of supervised classification relies heavily on the quality and representativeness
of the training samples. Adequate and diverse training samples contribute to a more accurate and
reliable classification outcome. Validation procedures, involving the comparison of classified
results with ground truth data, are essential for assessing the accuracy of the classification.

Supervised classification is a versatile tool, allowing analysts and researchers to extract

meaningful information from remotely sensed data, understand landscape dynamics, and monitor
changes over time. Its applications span a wide range of fields, including agriculture, forestry,
urban planning, and natural resource management, contributing to a better understanding of
Earth's surface characteristics and changes.

STEPS FOR SUPERVISED CLASSIFICATION IN QGIS

To do the supervised classification follow the following steps: -

Step 1: First import the bands and create a virtual band by going into SCP Band sat (a
pop up window will appear) in the single band select all the bands
Create a new band sat Click (+).

Step 2: Now right click and activate the SCP Dock Panel.

Step 3: Now click on Training Input Create a New Training Input Create ROI
Polygon Take Samples Give some MC ID and C ID names
Save.

Step 4: After collection of all the samples merge the samples as one for that Select the samples
that you need to merge Click on merge highlighted spectral signature.
Step 5: Once the samples are merged then Go to SCP Band
Processing Classification a window will appear in that in
algorithm Select Maximum Likelihood Run.

Step 6: Add the classified image to the QGIS canvas Adjust the symbology for
better visualization export the classified image.

Land Use and Land Cover - Interpretation :

Understanding land use and land cover is critical for making informed decisions about resource
management, environmental conservation, and sustainable development. Both concepts are
integral components of land-use planning and environmental impact assessments.

For the identification and classification of Land Use and Land Cover in the Bathinda district of
Punjab state, in November, 2019; Landsat-8 satellite image was used and processed in QGIS
Software; using both Unsupervised and Supervised Classification techniques.

The resulting map depicts that the district has built-up land dominance, along with agricultural
land. Bathinda district is an important district of the state and hence it has a good amount of
population residing in the district, resulting in dominance of built up in the land use-land cover
classification. Punjab, being a prominent agricultural state of the country, affects the land use
and land cover classification in a similar way in all the districts. Bathinda has a prominent
amount of land under agriculture due to being a part of Punjab. The land under cultivation or
agricultural land is quite high in proportion. Cotton, paddy and wheat are the major crops grown
in the district.The proportion of vegetation is also quite high in the area. There is also some
identification of barren land.

There are a few lakes found in the district . There are a good amount of water logged areas in the
district. Thus, Bathinda can be considered as a district with dominance of built-up and
agricultural land in land use-land cover classification.

It is important to note that the change in landscape area will be highly dominated by human
interference and the land use-land cover classification varies from one geographical region to
other considering the topography, relief and human interventions in a particular geographical
region.