SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

OPERATING MANUAL

ENERGY LAB-I
DEPARTMENT OF SUSTAINABLE ENGINEERING
TERI SAS
 FUNDAMENTALS OF TRANSFROMERS

INTRODUCTION
Transformer is a static device used for transferring electrical energy from one circuit to another
electrical through the medium of magnetic field and without any change in frequency.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
A Transformer works on the principle of mutual inductance. When two coils are placed near to
each other, the change in flux in one coil will cut the turns of other coil and will induce a voltage
in it. Then these two coils are said to have mutual inductance.

Transformer basically consists of two windings. The electrical circuit which receives energy from
the supply mains is called primary winding and the other circuit which delivers electrical energy
to the load is called secondary winding.
A transformer may be a step up or step down transformer, when primary winding voltage (i.e.
input voltage) is higher than secondary voltage (i.e. output voltage). The transformer is called
step down transformer, and if secondary winding voltage is higher than that of primary, it is
called step up transformer.
For an ideal Transformer Np/Ns = Vp/Vs and
Turns ratio K = Ns/Np
Where Np :- Number of turns in primary winding
Ns :- Number of truns in secondary winding
Vp & Vs :- Primary and secondary voltages respectively
CONSTRUCTION OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
A single phase transformer consist of primary and secondary windings put on a magnetic core.
Magnetic core is used to confine flux to a definite path. Transformer cores are made from thin
sheets (called laminations) of high grade silicon steel. L-type and E-type laminations are used
Laminations are tightly clamped by the use of rivets or nut bolts.
(1) Core Type Transformer:- In the core type transformer winding surrounds the considerable
part of core as shown in Fig. 6.1. The magnetic Circuit consists of two vertical legs (known as
limbs) with two horizontal section known as yokes. To keep the leakage flux to a minimum, half
of each winding is placed on each leg of the core. The low voltage winding is placed next to the
core and the high voltage winding is placed around the low voltage winding to reduce as
concentric coils. Such winding is therefore called concentric winding or cylindrical winding.

(2) Shell type transformer: In the shell type transformer, core surrounds the considerable part
of winding as shown in Fig. 6.2. In this, both primary and secondary windings are wound on the
central limb. The core for the shell – type transformer is made up to either U or T shaped or E
and I shape Laminations. In this Type T or E shaped laminations are stacked together.
TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
Different types of transformers are as follows:-
Power Transformer
These are also called as mains transformer i.e they are meant to operate on the mains AC
only. They have one primary and several secondary windings. The construction is of core type
and shell type. For large power handling, 3-ф transformers are used.
These secondary windings provide various operating voltages required in radio and other
electronic equipment.
Auto Transformer
In auto transformer (fig.6.3) only one continuous coil is there. This coil with tapped connections
is used to provide turns for the primary as well as secondary. When whole part of the coil is
used as primary and small part as secondary, then it is called step-down transformer and when
entire winding is used as secondary, it is know as step up transformer.

Auto transformer ar compact, efficient and low cost but there is no isolation between primary
and secondary.
Isolation Transformer.
When the number of turns of the primary are made equal to the number of turns in secondary
(i.e Np=Ns) then the transformer formed is called isolation transformer as shown in Fig.6.4.
Isolation transformer are used to reduce the possibility of electrical shock form the equipment,
providing electrical isolation of secondary side circuit to primary side circuit. It is also used in
audio frequency equipment to block DC component form following stages.

Audio Frequency (AF) Transformer: This is made to operate an audio frequency i.e between
20 Hz to 20KHz. They are similar to the power transformer but differ in core material. They are
used to couple one stage of circuit to another of an audio frequency equipment
AF transformer are used in audio amplifiers interstage coupling, for coupling microphones to
amplifier, and for coupling amplifiers to speaker. They are availabl in both types as step up as
well as step down.
Radio Frequency (RF) Transformer: These operate at high frequencies. They are generally
used with capacitors to form resonant circuit. However, at higher frequencies eddy current is
also large, to reduce eddy current loss. RF transformers are made of air core or iron core
transformer. RF transformers are used for interstage coupling and for coupling a signal to and
from antenna.
SINGLE PHASE AUTO TRANSFORMER
An auto transformer is one winding transformer in which a part of winding is common to both
high voltage (HV) and low voltage (LV) sides.
Consider a single winding ABC of Fig.6.5. The terminal A and C are the high voltage terminals.
The low voltage terminals are B and C is a suitable tapping point. The portion BC of the full
winding ABC is common to both high-voltage and low voltage sides. The winding BC is called
winding and the smaller winding AB is called the series winding because it is connected in
series with common winding.
A step down auto transformer is one in which the primary voltage is greater than the secondary
voltage. The source voltage Vh is applied to the full winding ABC and the load is connected
across the secondary terminals BC as shown in Fig.6.5(a). This arrangement is called the step-
down autotransformer. The reverse connection i.e. Vh is applied to portion of winding BC and
load is connected across full winding AC as shown in Fig.6.5 know as step-up transformer.

Since the transformer windings are physically connected, a different terminology is used
for the auto transformer than for other types of transformers. Let

TH = TAC: Number of turns of full winding ABC

: Number of turns of HV winding AC

TL = TBC: Number of turns of the common winding BC

: Number of turns of the LV side

TAB=TH-TL: Number of turns of the series winding AB

VH: Input voltage on the HV side
VL: Output voltage on the LV side
IH: Input current in the LV side
 IL: Output current in the LV side
Current in the series winding= IAB = IH
Current in the common winding BC = ICB =I
In an autotransformer there are two voltage ratios namely circuit voltage ratio and winding
voltage ratio. The circuit- voltage ratio (αa) is given as-
VH / V L = TH / TL αa
The quantity αa is also called transformation ratio of the auto Transformers. It is seen from
equation that αa is always greater than 1.
Advantages of an Auto Transformer
(1) For the same capacity and voltage ratio, an auto transformer requires less winding material
than a two- winding transformer. Hence there is saving in copper.
(2) An auto transformer is smaller in size and cheaper than a two winding transformer of same
output .
(3) An auto transformer has higher efficiency since core loss and ohmic losses are smaller.
(4) Voltage regulation of an auto transformer is better because of reduced voltage drops in the
resistance and reactance.
(5) An auto transformer has variable output voltage when a sliding contact is used for the
secondary.
Disadvantages of an Auto Transformer
(1) There is direct connection between the high voltage and low voltage side. If there is an open
circuit in the Winding BC (Fig.6.5(a)), the full primary voltage would be applied to the secondary.
This high voltage may cause serious damage to the equipments connected on the secondary
side.
(2) The short circuit current is large for an auto transformer due to reduced internal impedance.
Application of Auto Transformers
(1) Auto transformer are used for obtaining continuously variable ac voltage.
(2) They are used for interconnections of power systems of different voltage levels.
(3) They are applied for boosting of ac mains voltage by a small amount.
(4) Auto transformer are used for starting the induction motors and synchronous motors.
.

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT RATIO

The rms value of the induced emf in the primary and secondary windings of the transformer are,
Induced emf in primary, Ep = 4.44 f Tp φmax volts
Induced emf in secondary, Es = 4.44 f Ts φmax volts
 Thus, voltage transformation ratio, ( Es/ Ep ) = ( Vs/ Vp ) = ( Ts/ Tp ) = ρ
Voltage transformation ratio for step up transformers is greater than one (T s > Tp), where as it is less than
one (Ts < Tp) for step down transformers.
Transformer being static equipment, the losses are quite negligible as compared to its output.
An Ideal transformer is one, in which transformation takes place without any losses. Thus transformers
output power and input power can be approximately equated.
Thus, output power, VsIs = Vp Ip (Input power)
or current ratio – (Is/Ip) = ( Vp/ Vs ) =( Tp/ Ts ) = 1/ ρ
Hence tile currents in the windings are in the inverse ratio of their turns.

BEHAVIOUR OF TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD AND LOAD

Under the no load operation, the. current in the secondary winding is zero, where as the primary winding
draws a small current, I0 called no load current. No load current consists of (i) magnetizing component, I m,
responsible for producing the magnetizing flux and (ii) active or power component, Iw, which produces the
necessary real power to supply mainly the iron losses in the core. The copper losses in the primary
winding is negligible, because of quite low magnitude of no load current. No load current of transformers
is approximately 2 to 5 % of the full load current. The active component of no load current, I w is very small
compared to the magnetizing component, I m, as such the power factor of the transformer at no load is
quite low (or the order of 0.2 to 0.3).

No load current, I0 = √(Im2 + Iw2)

No load power factor, cos φ0 = Iw/I0
When the transformer is loaded, current, Is. flows in the secondary winding of the transformer.
Under this condition, primary winding draws an additional current Ip’ to balance primary and secondary
ampere turns.

Thus Ip’ Tp = Is Ts

Hence. the primary winding now draws a current Ip from the supply,
which is the phasor sum of no load current I0 and the current Ip'.
Under the loaded condition of transformer, the resistance and the
leakage reactance of the windings result in a voltage drop, Hence
the secondary terminal voltage. Vs is the phasor difference of Es
and the voltage drop in the secondary winding and the primary
applied voltage, Vp is the phasor sum of voltage Vp’ (Vp'= -Ep) and
the voltage drops in the primary winding.
Thus, Vs.= Es - voltage drops (IsRs in phase with Is
and Is Xs in quadrature with Is )

and Vp = Vp’ + voltage drops (Ip Rp in phase with Ip.

and Ip Xp in quadrature with Ip )
The phasor diagram of the transformer under loaded condition
drawn on the basis of above explanation has been shown in
fig(5.3)

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER

Fig (5.4) shows the equivalent circuit of single phase transformer ,in which both the windings have been
represented by their respective parameters and the no load behavior of the transformer is shown
equivalent to a parallel branch consisting of a resistance and a reactance.

Rp and Rs are the resistance of primary and secondary winding respectively of the transformer. Their
leakage reactances are represented by Xp and Xs respectively. The no load current, I 0 drawn by the
transformer, is equal to the phasor sum of the-magnetizing current, I m and the active component, Iw. The
magnetizing current of the transformer is in phase with the flux and thus lags the applied voltage by 90 O.
Thus it can be represented by an equivalent reactance X m in the equivalent circuit. The active component
of no load current, Iw which really correspond to the iron losses of the transformer, is in phase with the
applied voltage, and can thus be represent in the equivalent circuit by a resistance Ro.

Hence no !oad branch has been shown in the equivalent circuit by a parallel combination of Ro and Xm.

Various parameters of the transformer, different voltages i.e. applied voltage, induced emf in primary and
secondary, terminal voltage across secondary, and various currents have been clearly shown in the
equivalent Circuit of fig. (5.4) to give a better picture of the transformer.

The complete behavior of the transformer under various conditions of operation can be predetermined by
the known parameters of the equivalent circuit. Fig (5.5) shows the approximate equivalent circuit of the
transformer, in which effect of no load current, I 0 has been omitted and .the equivalent parameters, R s’
and Xs' of the Secondary winding referred to primary have been grouped with the primary Winding
parameters, Rp and Xp respectively.

Equivalent resistance of secondary referred to primary ,Rs’ = (Tp/ Ts)2 Rs

Similarly, Xs’ = (Tp/ Ts)2 Xs

Hence, equivalent resistance of the transformer referred to primary is given by,

_
Rp = Rp + Rs’ = Rp +(Tp/ Ts)2 Rs
Similarly the equivalent leakage reactance of the transformer referred to primary is given by

_
Xp = Xp + Xs’ = Xp +(Tp/ Ts)2 Xs

Equivalent Impedance of the transformer referred to primary is given by

_ _ _
Zp = √ (Rp + Xp )

The equivalent circuit with known parameters can be easily solved for various currents, terminal voltage
across the secondary, various losses, efficiency at various loads and the regulation.

REGULATION

The regulation of transformer is defined as the change of the terminal voltage of the seconds winding
between no load and full load conditions expressed as a percentage of secondary no load voltage, the
primary applied voltage being assumed constant.

Thus, regulation = {(Es - Vs) / Es } x 100 percent

An approximate formula for the regulation in terms of the parameters of the equivalent circuit is given by,
. _ _
Regulation = Is (Rs cosφ ± Xs sinφ) / Es X 100 percent

plus sign in the above equation of regulation is for lagging power factor and the minus sign for leading
power factor.

LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER
Total power losses originating in a transformer under loaded condition can be classified into
following groups:
1. Iron losses - caused by varying magnetization and occur in (i) magnetic core and
magnetic yoke, as hysterisis and eddy current loss. Hysterisis loss depends upon following factors:
(i) Area of the hysteresis loop of magnetic material used for magnetic frame, which
again depends upon the flux density at which the material is being worked.
(ii) volume of the core.
(iii) Frequency of magnetic fluX reversal.

Dr. Charles Steinmetz suggested an empirical formula based on a series of tests for calculating
hysteresis loss and is given by,
 Hysteresis loss = η V f (Bmax ) n watt

where, n varies from 1.6 to 2.1 depending upon the material of magnetic frame and η is a constant for a
particular material and is commonly known as Steinmetz's coefficient.

Eddy current loss is due to the flow of eddy current in the magnetic core and yoke of transformer,
caused by small emf induced in the magnetic frame. Eddy current loss depends upon following factors.
(i) Thickness of lamination of magnetic core and yoke, t
(ii) Frequency of flux reversal, f
(iii) Maximum value of flux density in core and yoke, Bmax
(iv) Volume of core and yoke, V
(v) Quality of magnetic material used for the magnetic frame.
Hence, eddy current losses in core and yoke of a transformer are given by,
Eddy current loss = k V B2max f2t2 watts
Thus, eddy current losses ate directly proportional to the square of_ maximum value of flux density,
frequency of flux reversal and thickness of lamination of magnetic frame. Eddy current losses are reduced
by decreasing the thickness of lamination and also by adding a certain percentage (3 to 4%) of silicon to
steel Addition of silicon to steel increases the electrical resistivity there by decreasing the eddy current
loss.
Iron losses are assumed as constant losses, because these are practically independent of load.
2. Copper losses - In general copper losses occur in all those parts of the transformer that carry electric
current. Copper losses are directly proportional to (i) the square of current (ii)resistance.
Thus, copper losses occuring in the primary winding = Ip2 Rp
copper losses occuring in the secondary winding = Is2 Rs.
Hence total copper losses .of the transformer = Ip2 Rp + Is2 Rs
Thus, copper losses depend upon the load on the transformer and could also be called as variable
losses.
EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER
The ratio of the output power of the transformer to its input power is called efficiency.

Thus. efficiency of transformer η = output power/ input power

However, input power = output power + Total losses
and Total losses = iron losses + copper losses
= constant losses + variable losses
= Wc + (Ip2 Rp + Is2 Rs)
Moreover, output power = VsIs cos φ

Thus Efficiency = output power/( output power + Total losses)

where, We represents the iron losses (constant losses) of the transformer and cos φ is the power factor of
the load on the transformer.
The efficiency of the transformer will be maximum at, a load which makes the total copper losses equal to
the constant losses. The efficiency of transformer is very high (of the order of 98.to 99 %) as compared to
the efficiency of rotating electrical machine
 About the Trainer
Panel view
 Experiment No. 1
OPEN-CIRCUIT AND SHORT-CIRCUIT TESTS

(a) To perform open circuit test on single phase transformer.

(b) To perform short circuit test on the same transformer
(c) Calculate the complete parameters of the equivalent circuit of this transformer

THEORY
Open Circuit Test
In this low voltage winding (primary) is connected to a supply of normal voltage and frequency (as per
rating of transformer) and the high voltage winding (secondary) is left open as shown in fig. (6.3 a). The
primary winding draws very low current hardly 3 to 5 percent of full load current (may be upto 10% for
very small rating transformers used for laboratory purpose) under this condition. As such copper losses in
the primary winding will be negligible. Thus mainly iron losses occur in the transformer under no load or
open circuit condition, which are indicated by the wattmeter connected in the circuit.
Hence, total losses = We (Reading of wattmeter)
From the observations of this test, the parameters R 0 and Xm of the parallel branch of the equivalent
circuit can also be calculated, following the steps given below:
Power drawn, We = V0 I0 cos θ0
Thus, no load power factor, cos θ 0 = We / V0 I0
Core loss component of no load current, Iw = I0 cos θ 0
And, magnetizing component of no load current, Im = I0 sin θ 0
Equivalent resistance representing the core loss, Ra = V/ IW
Magnetizing reactance representing the magnetizing current, Xm = V / Im

Short Circuit Test

In this test, low voltage winding is short circuited and a low voltage hardly 5 to 8 percent of the rated
voltage of the high voltage winding is applied to this winding. This test is performed at rated current
flowing in both the windings. Iron losses occurring in the transformer under this condition is negligible,
because of very low applied voltage. Hence the total losses occurring under short circuit are mainly the
copper losses of both the winding, which are indicated by the wattmeter connected in the circuit as shown
in fig. 6.3 b
Thus total full load copper losses = Wsc (reading of wattmeter)
The equivalent resistance Req, and reactance Xeq referred to a particular winding can also be calculated
from the observations of this test, following the steps given below.
Equivalent resistance referred to H.V. winding, Req = Wsc/ I2sc
Also, equivalent impedance referred to H.V. winding, Zeq = Vsc/ Isc
Thus equivalent reactance referred to H.V. winding, Xeq = √Z2eq – R2eq
Performance calculation
Complete performance of the transformer can be calculated based on the above observations of open-
circuit and short-circuit test following the steps given by.
1. Efficiency at Different loads
(a) Efficiency at full load:
Total losses at full load, = W0 + Wsc
Let the full load output power of the transformer in KVA be P0.
Then percentage efficiency at full load, nf = P0 x 1000 x cos θ / P0 x 1000 x cos θ+W0+Wsc x 100
(b) Efficiency at half the full load;
Iron losses at half the full load = W0 (constant)
Total copper losses at half the full load = (1/2)2 Wsc = ¼ Wsc
Output power at half full load = ½ P0 KVA
Thus percentage efficiency at half the full load, n ½f
= ½ P 0x1000xcosθ/½P0x1000xcosθ+W0+¼Wscx100
In a similar manner, efficiency at other loads out and the efficiency Vs output power curve can be plotted.
2. Equivalent circuit :
All the parameters of the approximate equivalent circuit has been calculated above. Thus as approximate
equivalent circuit of the transformer can be drawn with these values of parameters marked on it. The
equivalent circuit can be solved easily for estimating the performance like terminal voltage across the
secondary etc.
3. Regulation:
Regulation of the transformer can now be calculated based on the parameters of the equivalent circuit,
using the approximate formula given below.
Percentage Regualtion = I (Req cos θ ± Xeq sin θ) / V x 100
Where, I – rated current of the winding, referred to which Req and Xeq have been calculated.
V – Voltage of that winding
cos θ - power factor at which regulation is to be calculated.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Fig. (6.3 a) shows the circuit diagram to perform the no load test at rated voltage of the transformer.
Ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter have been connected in the circuit to measure, no load current, rated
voltage applied and the no load power drawn by the transformer respectively.
Fig. (6.3 b) shows the circuit diagram to perform the short circuit test at a reduced voltage, such that the
current flowing in the windings is of rated full load value. As such a single phase variac has been included
in the circuit. Ammeter, wattmeter and voltmeter connected in the circuit measure, full load short circuit
current, power drawn under this condition and the reduced voltage applied to the winding of the
transformer respectively.
Open Circuit Test
Short Circuit Test
PROCEDURE
(a) Open Circuit Test
1. Connect the circuit as per fig. (6.3 a)
2. Ensure that the setting of the variac is at low output voltage.
3. Switch on the supply and adjust rated voltage across the transformer secondary circuit
4. Record no load current, voltage applied and no load power, corresponding to the
rated voltage of the transformer winding.
5. Switch-off the ac supply

(b) Short Circuit Test

1. Connect the circuit as per fig. (6.3 b) for conducting short circuit test.
2. Adjust the setting of the variac, so that the output voltage is zero.
3. Switch on the ac supply to the circuit.
4. Increase the voltage applied slowly, till the current in the windings of secondary of the transformer is full
load rated value. It is calculated as if the rating of transformer is 1 KVA so the rated current would be
(1KVA/220V)
5. Record, short circuit current, corresponding applied voltage and power with full load current flowing
under short circuit conditions.
6. Switch off the ac supply.
 Experiment No. 2
SUMPNER’S BACK TO BACK TEST ON SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

(a) To perform Sumpner’s (Back to Back) test on identical transformers.

THEORY

This test needs two identical transformers. The primary windings of these transformers are connected in
parallel and supplied at rated voltage and frequency, while the two secondaries are connected in phase
opposition as shown in Fig. (6.4). Thus the voltage across the two secondaries is zero, when the primary
windings are energized. As such, this test is also called back to back test. In this test, iron losses occur in
the cores and full load copper losses occur in the windings of the two transformers. Current flowing in the
two secondaries is rated full load current of the transformer. Thus, heat run test can be conducted on the
transformers without actually loading them and hence steady-state temperature-rise of the transformer
can be estimated. The current drawn by the primaries is twice the no load current of each transformer.
The wattmeter W1 connected in the circuit of the primaries measures the total core losses of both the
transformers.

Thus, iron losses of each transformer = ½ W0

Where, W0 is the reading of wattmeter, W1, when rated voltage is applied to the primaries of the
transformers.

Similarly, wattmeter W1 connected in the secondary circuit the total full load copper losses of the two
transformers.

Hence, full load copper of each transformer = ½ We

Where, We is the reading wattmeter W2, when full load current if flowing in the secondary circuit. A low
voltage, hardly 8 to 10 percent of the rated value is applied across the secondaries for full load current to
flow.
Polarity Testing
Back to Back Testing
 (a) Efficiency at full load :
Let the output in KVA of each transformer be P0
Total losses of each transformer under full load operation = ½ W0 + ½ We
Percentage efficiency at full load,
nf = P0 x 1000 x cos ℓ / P0 x 1000 x cosℓ + ½ W0 + ½ We

(b)Efficiency at half full load:

Power output of each transformer at half load = ½ P0
Iron losses at half the full load = ½ We (constant)
Copper losses at half the full load = (1/2)2 [1/2 We] = 1/8 We
Thus, efficiency at half full loaf,
n½f = ½ P0 x 1000 x cosℓ / ½ P0 x 1000 x cosℓ + ½ W0 + 1/8We x 100

Efficiency at other loads can be calculated in a similar way.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Fig. (6.4) shows the complete circuit diagram for performing Sumpner’s test on two identical single phase
transformers. Primaries of the two transformers are connected in parallel. Ammeter and Wattmeter have
been connected in the primary circuit to record the total no load current and no load power of both the
transformers. Secondaries of the two transformers have been connected in phase opposition. A Voltmeter
of higher range i.e. 600 V V has been connected across the two terminals of the secondaries to verify the
phase opposition. It should be remembered that the voltage would be much higher, in case the two
secondaries are in phase addition. The voltage applied to the secondary circuit is quite low, as such a
voltmeter of 30 V range has been connected in place of the voltmeter of 600 Volts after verifying the
phase opposition of the two secondaries. Single phase variac has been used in the secondary circuit to
obtain a low voltage. Ammeter and wattmeter has been included in the secondary circuit to measure full
load current flowing in the circuit and the corresponding power drawn by the secondaries respectively.

PROCEDURE

Polarity Testing

1. Connect the circuit as per fig. (for polarity testing)

2. Ensure that switches S2 and S3 are open.
3. Energize the primaries by varying the voltage using variac in primary side
4. Observe the reading of voltmeter 600V meter, which should be zero for correct connections
of the secondaries. In case, the voltmeter reads twice the input voltage of each transformer,
reduce the input voltage to zero keep power OFF and interchange the connections at the
secondary terminals of one of the transformer. Again ON the supply and apply rated input
according to input tapping
5. If the Single phase transformer is connected at 50% tapping the input voltage must not
exceed 50% of the rated input voltage (230V)
6. Verify that the voltmeter 600V now reads zero. Important caution : Even if the voltmeter
reads zero at the first instance, it is advisable to check the reading of voltmeter by
interchanging the connections at the secondary terminals of one of the transformer. This
entire process is called polarity testing

Back to back testing

7. Adjust the setting of both the variac, to give nearly zero output voltage.
8. Connect the circuit as per shown in figure for back to back testing
9. Close the switch S3 and then S2
10. Adjust the input voltage to 110V (if connected to 50% tapping ) or 185V (if connected to
86.6% tapping) or 220 V (if connected to 100% tapping)
11. Adjust the output voltage of the variac 2, so that the current flowing in the secondaries is full
load secondary current of each transformer.
12. Record the readings of all the instruments connected in the primary and secondary circuit.
Only one set of reading is sufficient to calculate the efficiency at different loads.
13. Switch off the supply to primary and secondary circuits
 Experiment No. 3
PARALLEL OPERATION OF TWO SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

(a) To operate the two transformers in parallel

(b) To study the load sharing by each transformer.

THEORY
Parallel operation of transformers is frequently necessary in the power system network, which consist of a
number of transformers installed at generating stations, substations etc. When operating two or more
transformers in parallel (on the primary as well as secondary sides), their satisfactory performance require
that the following conditions must be satisfied.
(a) For single phase transformers
(i) The same polarity
(ii) The same voltage ratio.

(b) For three phase transformers

(i) The same polarity
(ii) Zero-relative phase displacement
(iii) Same phase sequence
(iv) Same voltage ratio

In addition to the above essential reqiurements, the thransformers to be operated in parallel should have
the following for better load sharing and operating power factor.
(i) Equal per unit impedance
(ii) Equal ratios of resistance to reactance.

Polarity: Polarity of the tranformers connected in parallel can be either right or wrong. The wrong polarity
of the transformers connected in parallel, would result in a dead short circuit on the transformers.

Phase sequence: The question of phase equence occurs only in case of 3 phase transformers. The
phase sequence of the two transformers to be operated in parallel must be the same otherwise during
the cycle each pair of phases will be short circuited.

Zero relative phase displacement : This is also applicable only with 3 phase transformers. The
connections of the primary and secondary windings of the two transformers to be connected in parallel
should be such that there is zero relative phase displacement between the two. Thus the following three
phase transformers can be operated in parallel.

Transformer 1 : star/star, star/delta

Transformer 2 : delta/delta, delta/star

However transformers with +300 phase displacement may be operated in parallel with those having -30 0
phase displacement after reversing the phase-sequence of both the primary and secondary winding.

Voltage Ratio
An equal voltage ratio of the two transformers operating in parallel is necessary to aviod no load
circulating current. In case of unequal voltage ratio, circulating current will flow in the cloaed circuit formed
by the secondaries and also the primaries, even at no load, which results in additional I 2R loss. The no
load circulating current should bot be permitted to exceed 10 percent of its normal rated value for
satisfactory parallel operation. In case of equal voltage ratio, the load shared by the two transformers
operating in parallel is given by,
Load shared by transformer 1, Q1 = Q Z2 / Z1 + Z2
Load shared by transformer 2, Q2 = Q Z1 / Z1 + Z2
The above equations indicate clearly that the load sharing on the two transformers can be equalied, if
their per unit impedances are equal. However in case of unequal voltage ratio, the transformer of smaller
rating will be over load, if the combined full load output is drawn from the parallel combination, resulting in
excessive heating of one of the transformer.

Equal per unit Impedance

For better load sharing, two transformers of the same rating should have equal per unit impedance for
operating in parallel. If two transformers of ratings in the ratio of 2 : 1 are to be operated in parallel, then
to carry double the current, former transformer must have half the impedance of the latter for the same
regulation. In case, this condition is not full filled, the transformer of the lower rating will be over loaded,
while that of higher rating will be operating at comparatively lesser load than its rating.

A difference in the quality of percentage impedance i.e. resistance/reactance ratio, results in a divergence
of the phase angle of the two currents shared by the transformers. Hence, one transformer will be working
with a higher and the other with a lower power factor than that of the normal operating power factor.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Fig. (6.9) shows the circuit diagram for operating two single transformers in parallel, which is self
explantaory.

PROCEDURE
(a) Polarity Check
1. Connect the circuit
2. Switch-on the supply to the primary circuit, where the primaries of both the transformers are
connected in parallel
3. The Voltmeter connected in the secondary circuit of the transformers will read either zero or
twice the secondary terminal voltage of each transformer.
(i) If the voltmeter reads zero-connect a1 to a’1 and a2 to a’2 for the two secondaries to be in parallel.
(ii) In case, the voltmeter reads twice the secondary terminal voltage, then connect a1 to a’2 and a2
to a’1 for parallel operation of the two transformers.
Parallel Operation
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram shown in fig. (6.9 b)./ Ensure that the two secondaries
have been connected properly as per the polarity determined in part (a).
2. Close the switch S1 to energize both the primaries. Ensure that the switch S2 is kept open. In case the
voltage ratio of the two transformers are unequal, there will be a circulating current, which may be
recorded.
3. Close the switch S2. Adjust a particular load on the secondaries and record the readings of all the
instruments connected in circuit.
4. Repeat step 3 for various values of load current upto the rated capacity of the two transformers
operating in parallel.
5. Switch off the load slowly. Open the switch S2 and then switch-off the supply to the primaries of the
transformers.

Observations
S.No. IL VL WL I1 W1 I2 W2
 EXPERIMENT 4
REGULATION OF A SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

(A) Calculate the complete parameters of the equivalent circuit of this transformer
(B) Calculate the regulation at full and at the Unity power factor

THEORY
Open Circuit Test
In this low voltage winding (primary) is connected to a supply of normal voltage and frequency (as per
rating of transformer) and the high voltage winding (secondary) is left open as shown in fig. (6.3 a). The
primary winding draws very low current hardly 3 to 5 percent of full load current (may be upto 10% for
very small rating transformers used for laboratory purpose) under this condition. As such copper losses in
the primary winding will be negligible. Thus mainly iron losses occur in the transformer under no load or
open circuit condition, which are indicated by the wattmeter connected in the circuit.
Hence, total losses = We (Reading of wattmeter)
From the observations of this test, the parameters R 0 and Xm of the parallel branch of the equivalent
circuit can also be calculated, following the steps given below:
Power drawn, We = V0 I0 cos θ0
Thus, no load power factor, cos θ 0 = We / V0 I0
Core loss component of no load current, Iw = I0 cos θ 0
And, magnetizing component of no load current, Im = I0 sin θ 0
Equivalent resistance representing the core loss, Ra = V/ IW
Magnetizing reactance representing the magnetizing current, Xm = V / Im

Short Circuit Test

In this test, low voltage winding is short circuited and a low voltage hardly 5 to 8 percent of the rated
voltage of the high voltage winding is applied to this winding. This test is performed at rated current
flowing in both the windings. Iron losses occurring in the transformer under this condition is negligible,
because of very low applied voltage. Hence the total losses occurring under short circuit are mainly the
copper losses of both the winding, which are indicated by the wattmeter connected in the circuit as shown
in fig. 6.3 b
Thus total full load copper losses = Wsc (reading of wattmeter)
The equivalent resistance Req, and reactance Xeq referred to a particular winding can also be calculated
from the observations of this test, following the steps given below.
Equivalent resistance referred to H.V. winding, Req = Wsc/ I2sc
Also, equivalent impedance referred to H.V. winding, Zeq = Vsc/ Isc
Thus equivalent reactance referred to H.V. winding, Xeq = √Z2eq – R2eq

Performance calculation
Complete performance of the transformer can be calculated based on the above observations of open-
circuit and short-circuit test following the steps given by.
1. Efficiency at Different loads
(a) Efficiency at full load:
Total losses at full load, = W0 + Wsc
Let the full load output power of the transformer in KVA be P0.
Then percentage efficiency at full load, nf = P0 x 1000 x cos θ / P0 x 1000 x cos θ+W0+Wsc x 100
(b) Efficiency at half the full load;
Iron losses at half the full load = W0 (constant)
Total copper losses at half the full load = (1/2)2 Wsc = ¼ Wsc
Output power at half full load = ½ P0 KVA
Thus percentage efficiency at half the full load, n ½f
= ½ P 0x1000xcosθ/½P0x1000xcosθ+W0+¼Wscx100
In a similar manner, efficiency at other loads out and the efficiency Vs output power curve can be plotted.
2. Equivalent circuit :
All the parameters of the approximate equivalent circuit has been calculated above. Thus as approximate
equivalent circuit of the transformer can be drawn with these values of parameters marked on it. The
equivalent circuit can be solved easily for estimating the performance like terminal voltage across the
secondary etc.
3. Regulation:
Regulation of the transformer can now be calculated based on the parameters of the equivalent circuit,
using the approximate formula given below.
Percentage Regualtion = I (Req cos θ ± Xeq sin θ) / V x 100
Where, I – rated current of the winding, referred to which Req and Xeq have been calculated.
V – Voltage of that winding
cos θ - power factor at which regulation is to be calculated.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Fig. (6.3 a) shows the circuit diagram to perform the regulation at rated voltage of the transformer.
Ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter have been connected in the circuit to measure, load current, rated
voltage applied and the power drawn by the transformer respectively.
PROCEDURE
(a) Open Circuit Test
1. Connect the circuit as per fig. (6.3 a)
2. Ensure that the setting of the variac is at low output voltage.
3. Switch on the supply and adjust rated voltage across the transformer circuit
4. Record no load current, voltage applied and no load power, corresponding to the
rated voltage of the transformer winding.
5. Switch-off the ac supply

(b) Short Circuit Test

1. Connect the circuit as per fig. (6.3 b) for conducting short circuit test.
2. Adjust the setting of the variac, so that the output voltage is zero
3. Switch on the ac supply to the circuit
4. Increase the voltage applied slowly, till the current in the windings of the transformer
is full load rated value.
5. Record, short circuit current, corresponding applied voltage and power with full load
current flowing under short circuit conditions
6 Switch off the ac supply.
 (C) Regulation of Single phase transformer
1. Connect the transformer as low voltage winding in primary and High Voltage in secondary
2. Attain the rated voltage at secondary side and connect it to the lamp load bank and switch on the bulbs
using switches step by step
3. make readings of all the meters after increasing load each time
4. continue the process up till the value of secondary side reaches it rated value.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS :

From the results of OC and SC test we can easily calculate Req and Xeq as
Req = WSC / (ISC)2
Equivalent impedance reffered to HV Winding Zeq = VSC / ISC
Equivalent reactance reffered to HV Winding Xeq = (Z2eq – R2eq)1/2
η (Efficiency) = Po X 1000X Cos φ X100
Po X 1000X Cos φ + Wo + WSC
Where Po is the full load out put power of transformer and Wo, WSC are OC and SC power
observed

Regulation in % = E-V X 100

V

S.No. Cos φ Req Xeq load η Regulation