UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION ABOUT HIGHWAYS
Modes of transport
• Roadways or highways
• Railways
• Waterways
• Airways
Historical development
The excavations at various sites revealed that roads existed as early
as 25-35 BC.
During Mughal times also roads conditions were also improved
greatly.
Based on authority of a resolution adopted by Indian legislature CRF
i.e. Central Road fund was established on 1 March 1929.
IRC
• IRC – Indian Road Congress was formed in 1934 as a
semiofficial body in 1934.
• IRC was constituted to provide a forum for regular pooling of
experience and ideas on all matters affecting:
• Planning
• Construction
• Maintenance of roads in India.
• IRC played vital roles in formulation of three 20 year plans in
India.
• Now IRC has become a vital body and active body of
national importance
• controlling specifications, standardization and
recommendations on materials, design and construction of
roads and bridges.
Nagpur road conference (1943-63)
• In 1934 a conference of the chief engineers of all states and
provinces was convened by Govt. of India.
• Also referred as first plan of road development in India termed as
first 20 year plan or Nagpur road plan.
• At the end of this plan the target was aimed as 16km per 100
square km area of the country.
Second 20 year plan(1961-81)
• This plan was initiated by IRC and was finalized by 1959.
• Also known as Bombay road plan.
• The target was almost double of Nagpur plan
• 32km square per 100 km and outlay of Rs.5200 crores was granted
for this plan.
• Apart from that 1600km of express ways was also included in plan.
Third 20 year plan(1981-2001)
• It was prepared by the Road wing of the ministry of shipping and
transport and numerous experts in field of highway engineering.
• Was released at Lucknow so termed as Lucknow road plan.
• Road density of 81 km per 100 sq. km
CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS as per Nagpur plan
Based on location and function
 National highways(NH)
 State highways(SH)
 Major district roads(MDR)
 Other district roads(ODR)
 Village roads(VR)
Based on type of carriageway
• Paved roads
• Unpaved roads
Based on type of pavement surfaces
• Surface roads
• Unsurfaced roads
Road patterns and importance
• Roadway patterns are very essential in the development of the
settlements of a city. However, recent development in cities does
not give importance to the study of the road patterns that give rise
to numerous roads that are not interconnected, housing schemes
and commercial developments built far away where roads are very
distant from the center of the town.
• The increasing distance between the residential and commercial
hub of the city increases the dependency upon cars for the daily
travel chores each household member makes frequently. The
roadway patterns also increase the response time the emergency
response vehicles take to reach a certain place.
 Rectangular or block pattern
• The rectangular/ block/ grid pattern is a plan where the streets and
roads are in the form of grids or blocks running perpendicularly
into each other thus forming a grid or block. The city of
Chandigarh is a factual example of this type of pattern where the
streets and roads run at an angle of ninety degree into each other.
Usually in this type of pattern the streets and roads are far away
from each other and it takes a long time to reach the center of the
area or city.
• This type of pattern is normally considered weak from the
road safety point of view as the vehicles meet at opposite
directions at intersections. Usually the main road is wide
which passes through the centre of the area and other roads
connecting to it are narrow. This pattern is sufficiently easier
to construct and maintain. This type of street pattern has a
good aesthetic view and the road geometry is easier to
understand.
Radial pattern

• This type of network is a combination of radial and block pattern. A radial

network of roads radiate from the center outwardly with block pattern network
of roads in between the radial main streets.(BLOCK)
• In this type of road pattern the main roads radiate from the central point and are
connected together by concentric roads that are also radiating
outwardly.(CIRCULAR)
• It is a combination of radial and grid pattern. A radial network of roads radiate
from the center outwardly. The main radial streets are then interconnected by
providing grid pattern in between the main streets.(GRID)
 Hexagonal pattern and Minimum travel pattern
• This pattern is a network of roads that grow in such a manner in various
directions forming hexagons.
• Minimum time taken to travel from one destination to other destination.
• A shoulder is a strip of pavement outside an outer lane used for emergence purpose.
• A kerb is a raised edge or barrier that separates the pavement from the shoulder.
Design Life of the Pavement:
• ‘Design period’ or ‘design life’ of a pavement is the period of time for which the
initially designed pavement will last and serve the traffic needs without needing
any major rehabilitation or repair. If the level of serviceability is the criterion, the
design life is the period in which the pavement deteriorates from its initial level of
serviceability to its final level or minimum acceptable level of serviceability. This
design period is dependent on the nature and level of maintenance schedule.
• The design life may be taken as 10 to 20 years for low-traffic volumes (flexible
pavements) and 20 to 30 years for high-traffic volumes, (rigid pavement)
depending on the designer’s discretion [IRC37-2001 and IRC58-2002].
Requirements of the pavements
• A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of
processed materials above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary
function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade. The
pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of acceptable
riding quality, adequate skid resistance, favourable light reflecting
characteristics, and low noise pollution.
• The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to wheel
load are sufficiently reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing capacity
of the sub-grade. Two types of pavements are generally recognized as
serving this purpose, namely flexible pavements and rigid pavements.
This chapter gives an overview of pavement types, layers, and their
functions, and pavement failures. Improper design of pavements leads to
early failure of pavements affecting the riding quality.
Functions & Requirements of a pavement

An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:

• Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the
sub-grade soil,
• Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,
• Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,
• Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,
• Produce least noise from moving vehicles,
• Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility,
• Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and
• Long design life with low maintenance cost.
Factors affecting pavement
• Road surface
The type of pavement is determined by the volume and composition of traffic, the
availability of materials, and available funds. Some of the factors relating to road
surface like road roughness, tire wear, tractive resistance, noise, light reflection,
electrostatic properties etc. should be given special attention in the design,
construction and maintenance of highways for their safe and economical operation.
Unfortunately, it is impossible to build road surface which will provide the best
possible performance for all these conditions. For heavy traffic volumes, a smooth
riding surface with good all-weather anti skid properties is desirable. The surface
should be chosen to retain these qualities so that maintenance cost and
interference to traffic operations are kept to a minimum.
Lighting
• Illumination is used to illuminate the physical features of the road way and to aid
in the driving task. A luminaire is a complete lighting device that distributes light
into patterns much as a garden hose nozzle distributes water.
• Proper distribution of the light flux from luminaires is one of the essential factors
in efficient roadway lighting. It is important that roadway lighting be planned on
the basis of many traffic information such as night vehicular traffic, pedestrian
volumes and accident experience.
Roughness
• This is one of the main factors that an engineer should give importance during
the design, construction, and maintenance of a highway system. Drivers tend to
seek smoother surface when given a choice.
• On four-lane highways where the texture of the surface of the inner-lane is
rougher than that of the outside lane, passing vehicles tend to return to the
outside lane after execution of the passing manoeuvre. Shoulders or even
speed-change lanes may be deliberately roughened as a means of delineation.
Pavement colours
• When the pavements are light coloured(for example, cement concrete
pavements) there is better visibility during day time whereas during night dark
coloured pavements like bituminous pavements provide more visibility.
Contrasting pavements may be used to indicate preferential use of traffic lanes.
• A driver tends to follow the same pavement colour having driven some distance
on a light or dark surface, he expects to remain on a surface of that same colour
until he arrives a major junction point.
Night visibility
• Since most accidents occur at night because of reduced visibility, the traffic
designer must strive to improve night time visibility in every way he can.
• An important factor is the amount of light which is reflected by the road surface to
the drivers’ eyes. Glare caused by the reflection of oncoming vehicles is
negligible on a dry pavement but is an important factor when the pavement is
wet.
Geometric aspects
• The roadway elements such as pavement slope, gradient, right of way etc affect transportation
in various ways. Central portion of the pavement is slightly raised and is sloped to either sides
so as to prevent the ponding of water on the road surface. This will deteriorate the riding
quality since the pavement will be subjected to many failures like potholes etc.
• Minimum lane width should be provided to reduce the chances of accidents. Also the speed of
the vehicles will be reduced and time consumed to reach the destination will also be more.
• Right of way width should be properly provided. If the right of way width becomes less, future
expansion will become difficult and the development of that area will be adversely affected.
• One important other road element is the gradient. It reduces the tractive effort of large vehicles.
Again the fuel consumption of the vehicles climbing a gradient is more. The other road element
that cannot be avoided are curves. Near curves, chances of accidents are more. Speed of the
vehicles is also affected.
Environmental factors
Environmental factors affect the performance of the pavement materials and cause
various damages. Environmental factors that affect pavement are of two types,
temperature and precipitation and they are discussed below:
Temperature
• The effect of temperature on asphalt pavements is different from that of concrete
pavements. Temperature affects the resilient modulus of asphalt layers, while it
induces curling of concrete slab. In rigid pavements, due to difference in
temperatures of top and bottom of slab, temperature stresses or frictional stresses
are developed. While in flexible pavement, dynamic modulus of asphaltic concrete
varies with temperature. Frost heave causes differential settlements and pavement
roughness. Most detrimental effect of frost penetration occurs during the spring
break up period when the ice melts and subgrade is a saturated condition.
Precipitation
• The precipitation from rain and snow affects the quantity of surface water
infiltrating into the subgrade and the depth of ground water table. Poor drainage
may bring lack of shear strength, pumping, loss of support, etc.
Climatic Factors

Reference - Kadyali
Traffic Factors
Pavement Systems in India
The two primary types of pavement systems are –

• Flexible pavements &

• Rigid pavements
1.Flexible Pavements:
1. Asphalt Concrete (Bituminous) Pavements: These pavements consist of multiple
layers, with the top layer being a bituminous mixture of asphalt and aggregates. The
flexibility of these pavements allows them to accommodate minor deformations
without cracking. Asphalt concrete pavements are commonly used for low to medium
traffic roads.

2.Rigid Pavements:
1. Concrete Pavements: Rigid pavements are made of concrete and are characterized by
their high flexural strength. Concrete pavements are known for their durability and
ability to handle heavy traffic loads. They are commonly used for high-traffic roads,
airport runways, and industrial areas.
3. Composite Pavements:
1.Composite Pavements: These pavements combine elements of both
flexible and rigid pavements to optimize performance. For example, a
composite pavement may have a flexible asphalt layer over a rigid
concrete base, combining the benefits of both types.
4. Semi-Rigid Pavements:
1.Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA) Pavements: SMA is a type of flexible
pavement that incorporates a stone-on-stone structure in the asphalt mix.
This design enhances durability and resistance to rutting, making it
suitable for high-stress areas.
5. Bituminous Macadam Pavements:
1. Bituminous Macadam Pavements: These pavements consist of compacted layers
of stone aggregates bound together with bitumen. They are commonly used for low-
traffic rural roads.
6. Gravel Roads:
1. Gravel Roads: In rural and low-traffic areas, gravel roads are often used due to
their simplicity and cost-effectiveness. However, they may require frequent
maintenance.
7. Earthen Roads:
1. Earthen Roads: In some remote or agricultural areas, simple earthen roads may be
used. These roads are made of compacted soil and may be suitable for low-speed
and low-traffic conditions
Pavement evaluation
Following are the four reasons for deciding that a road requires to be maintained:
• (1) Poor riding quality: This condition indicates that the riding comfort has
deteriorated below an acceptable standard. It can be measured by roughness
measuring devices such as rough meter or unevenness integrators.
• (2) Slipperiness: This condition indicates that the surface no longer provides
adequate resistance to skidding. It can be measured by means of skid trailers.
• (3) Structural deterioration: This condition indicates that the structure of pavement
has deteriorated to such an extent that its load-carrying ability is seriously affected.
The plate bearing test may be used for the structural evaluation of both flexible and
rigid pavements. The structural capacity of the pavement is assessed by the load
carried at a specified deflection of the plate or by the amount of deflection at a
specified load on the plate.
Traffic and loading
Traffic is the most important factor in the pavement design. The key factors include contact
pressure, wheel load, axle configuration, moving loads, load, and load repetitions.
Contact pressure:
The tyre pressure is an important factor, as it determine the contact area and the contact pressure
between the wheel and the pavement surface. Even though the shape of the contact area is
elliptical, for sake of simplicity in analysis, a circular area is often considered.
Wheel load:
The next important factor is the wheel load which determines the depth of the pavement required to
ensure that the subgrade soil is not failed. Wheel configuration affect the stress distribution and
deflection within a pavement. Many commercial vehicles have dual rear wheels which ensure that
the contact pressure is within the limits. The normal practice is to convert dual wheel into an
equivalent single wheel load so that the analysis is made simpler.
Axle configuration:
The load carrying capacity of the commercial vehicle is further enhanced by the introduction of
multiple axles.
Moving loads:
The damage to the pavement is much higher if the vehicle is moving at creep speed. Many studies
show that when the speed is increased from 2 km/hr to 24 km/hr, the stresses and deflection
reduced by 40 per cent.
Repetition of Loads:
The influence of traffic on pavement not only depend on the magnitude of the wheel load, but also on
the frequency of the load applications. Each load application causes some deformation and the total
deformation is the summation of all these. Although the pavement deformation due to single axle
load is very small, the cumulative effect of number of load repetition is significant. Therefore, modern
design is based on total number of standard axle load (usually 80 kN single axle).
Pavement evaluation
Pavement evaluation

Ruts
• Benkalmann Beam is a device used to
measure the rebound deflection of a
pavement.
Thank You