Gamification

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Gamification
Written by:
Austin Mardon
Amal Rizvi
Ezzah Inayat
Alyssa Wu
Rico Cuecaco
Jessica Henry
Faith Dong
Leah Heinen
Alexa G

Typset and Cover by:

Ethan Saldana

2021

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Copyright © 2021 by Austin Mardon

All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof may not be
reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever without the express
written permission of the publisher except for the use of brief
quotations in a book review or scholarly journal.

First Printing: 2021

ISBN 978-1-77369-437-5

Golden Meteorite Press

103 11919 82 St NW
Edmonton, AB T5B 2W3
www.goldenmeteoritepress.com

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 Table of Contents
Chapter 1: What is Gamification? 1
Chapter 2: Gamification principles 8
Chapter 3: Motivation 16
Chapter 4: Theories of Gamification 24
Chapter 5: Game Design Elements 32
Chapter 6: History of Gamification 40
Chapter 7: The role of Dopamine in Gamification 48
Chapter 8: Legal restrictions of Gamification 56
Chapter 9: Examples of Addition of Game Elements to Non Game Activities 63
Chapter 10: Criticisms of Gamification 71
References 79

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 Chapter 1: What is Gamification?

Introduction: Defining and Understanding Gamification as a

Concept With a Few Real World Examples

Gamification is essentially implementing aspects of game design,

game thinking, and game mechanics to enhance non-game contexts
(Marozewski, 2013). In short, it involves making non-game tasks much
more exciting or interesting for the participant by implementing the
enticing aspects people enjoy in games. The most basic example of
gamification is providing some type of reward or prize at the end of
a task for completing it to a certain degree. For example, an employer
may choose to reward his employees with a promotion for outstanding
performance, or a student may receive a medal at their graduation
ceremony for graduating with the highest grades. However, gamification
extends far beyond rewarding participants. In fact, Marozewski (2013)
defines gamification as applying gaming metaphors to real-life tasks
in order to “influence behaviour, improve motivation and enhance
engagement.”

Gamification can be thought of as incentivising engagement in non-

game contexts by using game dynamics (Rasure, 2021). It plays on
individuals’ psychology by leveraging on natural tendencies people have
within themselves, including competition, collaboration, achievement,
and charity. When thinking about popular video games and games in
general, people are enticed by the idea of levelling up, earning badges,
winning prizes, and being able to track their success or progress.
Organizations, institutions, and even education systems can carry this
over into their own environments in order to enhance the degree of
motivation people exhibit. The success of gamifying the real world is
measured through specific metrics, including engagement, influence,
brand loyalty, time spent on activities, and virality.
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It is crucial to understand that gamification is not a new concept, even
though it has become popularized in recent years (Fitz-Walter, n.d.).
Since the earliest of civilizations, people have actively tried to turn day-
to-day tasks into fun, exciting activities, in order to keep themselves
and others engaged with the task. For example, in the 1900s, being
a part of the Boy Scouts was a popular tradition among young boys;
as a Boy Scout, one could earn badges for completing tasks that
indicated rank. This is a real world example of gamification that is still
practiced today.

Aside from being a Boy Scout, one can see real world examples of
gamification in day to day life in other ways too. Think about the
concept of loyalty discount cards and Air Miles; these are both gamified
mechanisms that reward customers for behaviours that companies want
those customers to keep doing (Fitz-Walter, n.d.). By implementing
gamification, companies are able to keep customers engaged and
attracted to their services or products, while customers experience
the psychological and physiological thrill of being rewarded for
spending money.

Implementing Gamification in the Real World is More Difficult

Than it May Seem Initially!

Gamification, although a phenomenon that has emerged in recent

years, has rapidly become a fundamental aspect of how organizations,
institutions, industries and academia across the world aim to increase
participants’ positive motivation, which, as a consequence, will increase
quantity and quality of output (Morschheuser et al., 2017). In fact,
according to research conducted by business analysts, over fifty percent
of all organizations will have implemented gamification - that is,
including gamified parts of their processes - by 2015.

Although this theory of multiple organizations using gamification to

increase motivation and engage their participants in mandatory day-to-
day tasks appears to have great potential for success, it is also important
to note that gamification is extremely difficult to implement correctly in
real world situations (Morschheuser et al., 2017). Why is this?

Well, most implementations of gamification are actually destined to fail

as a result of organizations not being able to actually design gamified
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parts that integrate well into their system (Morschheuser et al., 2017).
Most gamification designs end up being quite modest in nature, and
only tend to implement very simplistic gamified parts. The most
common design that organizations use is the concept of a leaderboard,
points, or badges. While this idea sounds enticing in theory, it is a very
minimalistic approach that generally falls short in the grand scheme of
things because the fact of the matter is that games are meant to be very
complex and multifaceted. Thus, it is rather difficult to actually translate
this to a real world environment, especially in the workplace. Secondly, it
is crucial to understand that because gamification depends on designing
a system to improve motivation in participants, implementing gamified
parts requires some degree of knowledge in the subject of psychology,
in order to correctly design a system that works effectively.

Gamification in the real world involves being actively engaged in

keeping the participants engaged. For example, Wu (2017) describes
an example in which the GAP, a clothing brand, provides its customers
with an opportunity to win a free pair of jeans during a one day event,
if customers check in online on FaceBook. However, in total, they are
only giving away 10, 000 pairs of jeans. Although this might sound
like a great attempt at gamification initially - who wouldn’t want a free
pair of jeans! - there are some glaring holes in the GAP’s attempts at
gamification to motivate consumers. Although the motivation for
customers is obviously the free pair of jeans, it is important to recognize
that FaceBook might not be the platform most GAP customers actively
use. For example, a lot of the GAP’s demographic might be older
individuals who aren’t as smartphone savvy; these individuals might
not be avid social media users, or they might not even have a FaceBook
account at all. Thus, this attempt at gamification has potential to fail due
to the lack of ability of consumers; in other words, if a lot of the GAP’s
customers can not access this game-like situation to begin with, they
will not be any more motivated to shop at the GAP. Second of all, this
attempt at gamification is extremely limited. Material goods, like jeans,
are not infinite, and the GAP agreed to only give away 10,000 free pairs.
Thus, as soon as the 10,000th pair of jeans has been won, the motivation
for customers to check into the GAP on social media disappears. Such
gamification attempts like this one only really prove effective for a
limited window of time, and therefore are not necessarily winning
strategies. Moreover, with this attempt at gamification, consumers are
probably more motivated by the reward, a free pair of jeans, than the
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actual action, which is checking into the GAP on FaceBook. This type
of situation often gives rise to cheating, or quite literally gaming the
system to make the reward easier to obtain.

Applying Gamification: Exploring the Common, Underlying

Concepts of Gamification when Implemented in Learning and
Work Environments

According to Elizabeth Lawley, a professor of interactive games and

media at the Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT), gamification can
enrich a one’s educational experience, in the sense that the individual
will react to and process their tasks completely different (Stott and
Neustaedter, n.d.). However, in order to do this correctly, higher-
ups must use gamification in a way such that game dynamics in the
classroom go beyond surface characteristics; instead, game dynamics
must include the foundations of good game design. Stott and Neutaedter
(n.d.) discuss four major foundational concepts of game design that
have been shown to be more consistently successful than others when
implemented in a real world environment. These concepts are:

• Freedom to fail
• Rapid feedback
• Progression
• Storytelling

Gamification in the Real World: Giving Individuals the

Freedom to Fail

The first concept, freedom to fail, simulates the idea that when one
is playing a game, the game design actually encourages players to
experiment without the fear of irreversible damage (Stott and Neutaedter,
n.d.). For example, in a video game, a player may be given multiple lives
or the ability to restart the game as many times as the player chooses
without losing their progress (i.e. through the implementation of
“checkpoints”). Educators, for instance, can implement this same idea
in the classroom by encouraging students to take risks, experiment, and
re-orient their focus on the learning and experimental design process,
rather than the final result or answer. This gives students the freedom
to fail and detaches the assessment process from final grades; rather, it
allows assessment to be focussed on students’ ability to explore realistic
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consequences for making wrong or poor decisions. It also facilitates
constant self assessment on the students’ behalf, which can help them
develop independence and self accountability.

Gamification in the Real World: Providing Individuals

with Rapid, Regular Feedback

The next concept, rapid feedback, is also fundamental when using

gamifying elements in the real world. For students, feedback is integral
in their learning, and frequent, targeted feedback facilitates the most
effective learning (Kapps, 2012). In fact, this type of frequent, targeted
feedback is extremely common in game design. For example, when
players need to overcome levels in the game, this type of design gives
them a space to practice what they have learned thus far in the game,
hone in on their skills and technique, and receive feedback through
player statistics or points (Gee, 2008). Although feedback is already a
part of education regardless of whether gamification is implemented
or not, gamifying the classroom involves more continuous, regular
feedback given to students in various ways (Stott and Neutaedter, n.d.).
For example, weekly check-ins with students, question and answer
activities, or self-paced exercises are all ways in which educators can
ensure that their students are receiving rapid feedback. Educators can
also assist students in visually or physically tracking their progress. In
video games, this is usually done through the use of points or some type
of progress bar. In the classroom environment, educators should find
creative ways to parallel this type of progress tracking as well.

Gamification in the Real World: Higher-ups can

Provide Ways for Individuals to Track Progression

Progression is the third fundamental concept in effectively gamifying

the real world (Stott and Neutaedter, n.d.). In video games, or games in
general, this can be seen through the concept of there being different
levels or missions a character must complete in order to progress further
in the game. However, when progression is translated into the physical
classroom setting, it is usually recognized as what modern pedagogy
calls “scaffolded instruction” (Hogan and Pressley, 1997). Now, what is
scaffolded instruction, exactly? According to Beth Kemp Benson (1997),
it is framing and supporting students by categorizing the information
they are learning; this allows for students to digest problems in bite-
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sized chunks that they can understand, facilitates better focus, and
eliminates the inability for students to begin out of fear of not knowing
where to get started.

It is important to recognize that progression is not an isolated concept

in game design, but rather, it builds off of the two concepts that were
discussed prior - the freedom to fail concept and rapid feedback. By
breaking up information into bite-sized chunks, students have more
room to experiment with different problem solving approaches, because
the problem is broken into steps or, for lack of better words, “level”. Due
to this breaking up of the problem into multiple steps, students can also
receive rapid feedback for each step.

Something unique about the progression concept is the idea that it can
be linked to what some call the “interest curve”; what this means is
that when educators categorize events and allow students to complete
them in a specific order, it actually results in a net increase in student
engagement (Stott and Neutaedter, n.d.). This can be paralleled to
watching a film. When someone is watching a two hour film, there will
be points in the film that grab the viewer’s attention at specific points, in
order to keep the viewer engaged. Further, the film usually begins and
ends with elements that grab the watcher’s attention. Although this does
not seem surprising or out of the ordinary, it is crucial to realize that
these attention grabbing moments throughout the film are strategic,
and mimic an interest curve, because they consistently touch on points
that the audience finds exciting or relevant.

Gamification in the Real World: Implementing Storytelling to

Help Individuals Contextualize Information and
Facilitate Better Learning

The fourth and final fundamental concept in regards to gamifying the

real world is storytelling (Stott and Neutaedter, n.d.). Nearly all games
will use some type of storyline to keep the reader engaged (Kapps,
2012). For example, the popular board game Monopoly tells a story of
the player becoming wealthier via owning multiple properties (Stott
and Neutaedter, n.d.). This is because people actually tend to learn
better when the things they need to learn or adapt to are embedded in a
storyline, rather than having to learn facts in isolation or in the form of
a simplistic list (Kapps, 2012). As a result of this revelation, higher-ups
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can implement this facet of gamification in order to facilitate a better
learning experience. Educators, for example, can provide a unifying
story throughout the school curriculum; this will not only make it easier
for students to grasp certain concepts, but it can also help students
contextualize what they are learning and apply their knowledge outside
of the classroom environment (Stott and Neutaedter, n.d.). Ultimately,
this will result in increased engagement and motivation on the
students’ end.

Chapter Summary

In summation, gamification goes far beyond the mere concept of using

game dynamics in the real world. Although the definition of gamification
does encompass this idea - of simulating a game-like environment by
applying game principals in order to increase participant engagement,
motivation, and therefore the output or effort produced by the
participants of the organization or institute that has been gamified
- it takes a lot more than just this minimal implementation. In fact,
most businesses and organizations do not gamify correctly because
they are doing the bare minimum; it takes a lot more than one or two
game principles to keep participants engaged and actually allow for
gamification to work in the real world. Not only does it take multiple
game principals to be applied to any real world environment, but it also
takes constant checking in and reinforcement to ensure that everything
is running smoothly and the participants are in fact feeling more
engaged, motivated, and excited about their tasks at hand, whether it be
at work, school, or elsewhere.

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 Chapter 2: Gamification principles

Introduction

Gamification is a powerful technique that takes a typically undesirable

task, and designs it into an enjoyable game (Merriam Webster, n.d.;
Klock et al, 2020). This technique employs psychological concepts
such as the self-determination theory, salutogenesis and well-being
theory in order to give users an extra boost of motivation (Lee, 2016).
Consequently, gamification has become an increasingly attractive tool
for researchers in the fields of marketing, education and healthcare.
Effective marketing is demonstrated by a large quantity of sales, and
thus, a greater amount of profit. To attain this goal, marketing experts
must strive to pique the interest of potential consumers and maintain
their engagement. Education, on the other hand, requires students to be
engaged in order to optimally retain the material learned in class. For
most students, reading a book may not be enough to create a memorable
learning experience. With gamification, teachers can challenge their
students to study in a more enjoyable way.

When applied to clinical trials in the healthcare industry, gamification

has shown great efficacy. However, despite this proven success, health
initiatives based on gamification often fail in commercial application
(Lee, 2016). Why would such an impressive approach fall short of
commercial success? Analysts suggest that this poor performance
is primarily due to a lack of comprehension regarding the principles
of gamification (Lee, 2016). When the design of such products is not
centered around these principles, the potential of gamification is not
fully met. Thus, in order to obtain optimal results from gamification, it
is crucial to understand the fundamentals of this technique, and how
they can be used to teach, persuade or encourage users.

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This chapter will discuss universal core drives that motivate human
action, principles, and applications of gamification.

The Core Human Drives reflected in Gamification

Perhaps the primary reason gamification is particularly effective at

persuasion is because it reflects the universal drives of human nature
(Shannon, n.d). Yu-kai Chou, a specialist in gamification, argues that
people are driven to act if the task allows them to obtain the following
eight factors: Meaning, Accomplishment, Ownership, Scarcity,
Avoidance, Unpredictability, Social Influence and Empowerment
(Shannon, n.d; Pole, 2018). These eight factors are referred to as the
universal core drives. Chou has established a system called the Octalysis
Framework which outlines common game elements associated with
each core drive (Pole, 2020). This section of the chapter will break
down Chou’s Octalysis Framework by defining each core drive, and
highlighting how gamification takes advantage of them.

Meaning

The first human drive is meaning, which refers to the belief that
people are more willing to act when under the impression that they
have a purpose (Pole, 2020). For example, students may feel inclined
to participate in extensive medical training if they feel it is their higher
calling to become a doctor. Though medical school entails rigorous
preparation and a lengthy process, remembering that the career will
allow them to help other people may motivate students to study well.

The drive for a meaningful life is illustrated in games that prompt

the player to save the world (Pole, 2020). Such games typically follow
an adventurous story plot, allowing the player to understand the
importance of their task.

Accomplishment

One of the rather intuitive human drives is accomplishment. The

idea of accomplishment can be conceptualized at an early age; some
children may be recognized and rewarded for good grades, and some
may be given trophies for sporting events. Regardless of the type of

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accomplishment, it is universally understood that accomplishments
can motivate people to improve their skills and maintain a
momentum of success.

Common game elements that promote this drive include badges, gold
stars, and points (Pole, 2020). Allowing the user to visualize and quantify
their success gives them a sense of satisfaction which motivates them to
continue their winning streak.

Ownership

One may remark that people naturally have a desire to own something
and protect their belongings. This may be compared to real life where
people are driven to earn money in order to afford certain luxury
products. Perhaps teenagers have experienced this form of motivation
after receiving their first paycheque or making their first major purchase.
This sentiment is often mimicked in gamification through the concept
of virtual wealth (Pole, 2020). Virtual wealth is frequently portrayed
using avatars that can gain goods such as money or diamonds. The
player of the game may then feel obliged to complete more tasks in
order to collect more virtual wealth.

Scarcity

One very puzzling fact about people is that they often want what they
cannot get. Chou refers to this drive as scarcity; because a certain
resource or item is limited, users will perceive it as more valuable
and then be compelled to search for it. The challenge of finding a rare
item gives the game more appeal, and the intrigue promotes a greater
frequency and duration of engagement.

Avoidance

Avoidance is the drive that refers to a user’s willingness to participate

in order to prevent a negative emotion or outcome. While there are
definitely factors that motivate people to behave in a way that seeks
excellence, avoidance works in the opposite way, pressuring people to
avoid consequences. This drive can be activated when games threaten
to decrease points during periods of inactivity.

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 Unpredictability

Unpredictability suggests that people love to be kept in suspense! When

there is an element of unpredictability, people become intrigued and
curious as to what could happen next. Curiosity can be a very powerful
force, and thus, making sure that users cannot foresee what will happen
often encourages them to be more engaged.

Social Influence

Social influence suggests that people are more likely to participate

in a task if it allows them to interact with their community. It is no
secret that people can get influenced by the opinions of their peers. In
fact, it can be argued that the majority of people behave in a way that
ensures acceptance from their community. Further, this drive explains
the existence of concepts such as companionship, mentorship, envy and
collaboration (Pole, 2020).

The need to feel acknowledged and approved by others can sometimes

inadvertently fuel competition. This can be exemplified in games using
elements such as leaderboards, where top performers are announced
and applauded. However, leaderboards are often dynamic in nature,
requiring top performers to actively participate in order to secure
their ranks.

Empowerment

Empowerment is the core drive that honors people’s autonomy and

ability to creatively express themselves. In general, engagement
increases when users are given the chance to control their own projects
on their own terms. This creative freedom allows users to enjoy their
task and explore other options available in the product. In a sense,
empowerment suggests that a successful product should leave room
for personalization.

Principles of Gamification

As previously alluded to, the reason behind gamification’s effectiveness

is due to its central principles and how they satisfy the universal core
drives. The human desire for things like meaning, accomplishment
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and social influence are all accounted for in gamification, making
it incredibly powerful for the marketing, education and healthcare
industries. This section of the chapter will list and describe each of the
five principles, and how they are integrated in games.

Meaningful purpose or knowledge of benefits

In everything that people do, they do so with a reason. Having a purpose

propels people to complete tasks even if they don’t necessarily find
pleasure in doing so. With that said, the most effective gamification-
based products remind users why they should care about the task
at hand (Floryan et al, 2019). If the purpose is unclear or seemingly
irrelevant to the goal, the user may slowly lose interest and motivation.
Additionally, users should be able to understand exactly how and why
their effort will be rewarded, as this will allow a peak in motivation
(Floryan et al, 2019). While reward systems are known to support
engagement, techniques such as tokens and coins are not guaranteed to
help if the purpose is not clearly portrayed (Floryan et al, 2019).

Feedback

After encouraging users to complete a certain task, it is also necessary

to keep their engagement. One strategy to keep the momentum going
is through the use of feedback (Floryan et al, 2019). Gamification-
based products should be designed in a way that praises achievements.
This encourages consistent effort from the consumer, who will then
become more motivated to reach their goal. Feedback should react
to the changes in a consumer’s behaviour, and can include sending
inspirational messages (Floryan et al, 2019).

Visibility of Progress

In addition to feedback, it is important for users to visualize their

progress in order to stay motivated (Floryan et al, 2019). Particularly in
intervention-centered initiatives, such as weight loss apps, a road map
of the initial and current state is appealing and can give users a sense
of personal development (Floryan et al, 2019). A weight loss journey
truly takes a lot of motivation and discipline, and without an idea of the
progress made, many people can feel overwhelmed by the challenge.

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If people are not able to see results, they may become confused or
frustrated and lose the motivation to continue through (Floryan
et al, 2019).

Supporting Player Archetypes

The supporting player archetype is a unique principle that differs from

the others because it is dependent on the product consumer, rather
than the system itself (Floryan et al, 2019). While the system should
be well-crafted to support the user, the system alone cannot guarantee
results. Each user will have their own personality and values, thus, can
respond differently to the gamification-based product. Classifying a
user’s personality, also referred to as archetype, can help developers
understand what kind of design would be suitable. The main archetype
categories include achiever, socializer, explorer and griefer (Floryan
et al, 2019).

Freedom of Choice

The freedom of choice principle relates to the core drive for empowerment.
To recall, Yu-Kai Chou described the drive for empowerment as a
longing for control over one’s life. When people are given the flexibility
to make their own decisions and freely express themselves, they become
more driven and satisfied with the outcome. Successful games often
allow their players to explore different alternatives and create their own
path (Floryan et al, 2019). Essentially, players are able to personalize
their journey and enjoy the process of achieving their goals (Floryan
et al, 2019).

Chapter Summary

Gamification is the concept of converting otherwise tedious tasks into

projects that resemble games. It is not uncommon for someone to dread
facing a certain responsibility, even if they understand its necessity.
Gamification promotes a greater level of motivation, thus making it an
appealing tool for industries like marketing, education and healthcare,
whose successes depend on the will of their participants. However,
gamification-based initiatives often fall short of their potential and
tend to fail commercially. This is likely due to a lack of comprehension

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regarding the principles of gamification, and how they translate into
game features.

The reason why gamification is so effective is because it acknowledges

and satisfies the human core drives. Famous gamification expert Yu-
Kai Chou reveals that what all people have in common are a desire for
meaning, accomplishment, empowerment, ownership, social influence,
scarcity, unpredictability and avoidance of consequences (Shannon,
n.d). When a game successfully satisfies these longings, the users
become more engaged and motivated to follow the game’s prompts.

The drive for meaning describes people being more likely to act in a
certain way if it contributes to their higher-calling. In real life, students
may be more motivated to study if they can imagine how it will lead
them to a noble career. By contrast, games may motivate their players
to execute tasks by providing them with a narrative and an end goal.
Perhaps the user takes the role of a knight who has to save their damsel
in distress. Such a plot would allow players to understand exactly what
to do and why. This drive for meaning is satisfied by the gamification
principle called meaningful purpose or knowledge of benefits. In order
for gamification-based initiatives to meet their expectations, they
must allow the user to understand the significance of their actions. If
their productivity is being rewarded with things like points or badges
but the purpose is unclear, then the initiative will likely not produce
optimal results.

The drive for accomplishment describes the natural tendency to seek

more success after a goal has already been met. This can be illustrated
in the education system when teachers give well-behaved or high
performing students stickers as a reward. The sense of satisfaction a
child may feel after receiving a sticker can propel them to further their
skills, thus leading to a momentum of success. This knowledge can be
applied to games through the use of a point system or leaderboards.

Empowerment describes the desire for autonomy and freedom of

expression. Many players enjoy the ability to have options and to feel in
control of their journey. This drive is appeased by the freedom of choice
principle, which urges developers to allow room for personalization.

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Ownership outlines the desire to obtain and protect possessions. This
can be seen virtually and in reality as the accumulation of wealth.
Social influence on the other hand is related to the idea that humans
are naturally social and crave the interaction, and perhaps even
competition, with their peers. This desire can be satisfied through the
use of leaderboards which announce the top performers in the game.

Scarcity narrates the ironic rule that people tend to want what they
cannot get. When a particular object is known to be rare or unattainable,
people become even more motivated and challenge themselves to
acquire it. This is exemplified in games that prompt users to search for
an object like a rare pokemon or gem. The scarcity of the object makes
it perceivably more valuable, and thus, users feel more accomplished
when they are able to find it. Unpredictability details how human
curiosity is a large source of motivation. When an individual is unsure
about what will occur next in the game, they become intrigued and
increasingly engaged.

Finally, avoidance of negative consequences demonstrates that

sometimes the pressure of dodging failure can be an effective motivator.
Games can take advantage of this by employing the concept of “winning
streaks.” Streaks often present users with the number of consecutive
days they have completed a task. For example, Duolingo, a popular
language-learning app, counts the number of consecutive days the
player has persisted through their lessons. The game then challenges the
user to continue their “winning streak” by remembering to make a daily
habit out of their lessons. Otherwise, their streak would be broken.

Overall, gamification is a powerful tool that can motivate people to

achieve their goals, no matter how daunting they may seem. However,
in order to reap all the benefits of gamification, it is essential to reflect
on the human core drives and how the principles of gamification can
satisfy them.

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 Chapter 3: Motivation

When you wake up in the morning, you likely brush your teeth, have
breakfast, and get ready for the day. You may spend your day attending
classes as a student, running errands, or working a full-time job. All
of these activities have one thing in common; they are the result of
motivation. Throughout this chapter, we will discuss the concept of
motivation from a psychological perspective, and will look at how
motivation impacts different aspects of human life.

What is Motivation?

Motivation has been defined as the process whereby goal-directed

activities are initiated and sustained (Cook & Artino Jr, 2016). In other
words, motivation is what allows us to achieve our goals. These goals
may be grandiose, for example, aiming to get a job at a highly reputable
company, or they may be as straightforward as aiming to read a page
of a book before bed every night. Regardless, without the motivation
to do so, human beings cannot achieve their goals. In fact, motivation
influences every decision we make and affects every aspect of human
behaviour. For example, a class of students may all learn the same
subject however some students may be more motivated to learn than
others, resulting in variability in performance on tests.

Theories for Motivation

Multiple theories have been created in an attempt to explain why

humans experience motivation. One such hypothesis is the evolutionary
theory of human motivation, which states that motivation is purposeful
behaviour directed toward the ultimate goal of inclusive fitness (Bernard
et al., 2005). Inclusive fitness is defined as an individual’s reproductive
genetic output plus the reproductive output of an individual’s kin
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(Bernard et al., 2015). Based on the evolutionary theory of motivation,
humans act instinctively and are naturally motivated to perform actions
that benefit their fitness or the fitness of their kin. There are many
debates surrounding this theory, as it does not account for motivation
to perform actions that do not benefit human fitness. An example of
this is thrill-seeking behaviour. Some people enjoy dangerous activities
like skydiving, roller coasters, and extreme sports. These sports arguably
pose a threat to human fitness, yet some are motivated to engage in these
activities repeatedly. It is difficult to explain this mindset through the
evolutionary theory for motivation, hence why many doubt this theory.

Another theory often used to explain motivation is Maslow’s Hierarchy

of Needs. Abraham Maslow was a world-renowned psychologist in
the twentieth century. He believed that human beings have needs that
can be hierarchically ranked, and that humans are motivated to fulfill
these needs in hierarchical order (University of Minnesota, 2017). Once
basic, lower level needs are satisfied, they no longer serve as motivation.
Instead, we start looking to satisfy higher needs. Figure 1 depicts
Maslow’s pyramid of needs, with the most basic and high priority needs
located at the bottom, and the lowest priority needs located higher up
in the pyramid.

Figure 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

17
According to Maslow, the most basic human needs are physiological.
Such needs include access to food and water. Without satisfying these
needs, humans cannot even begin to think about satisfying other urges
as physiological needs are crucial for survival (University of Minnesota,
2017). For this reason, these needs take priority at the bottom of the
pyramid as seen in figure 1. Once physiological needs are fulfilled,
humans are motivated to satisfy their safety needs. Safety needs include
protection from danger, pain, and uncertain futures. Safety and survival
go hand-in-hand, hence why these needs are placed right above
physiological needs in figure 1. Social needs are next in the hierarchy,
and refer to social interactions and bonding with other humans. This
includes forming lasting relationships and attachments to others in
order to promote health (University of Minnesota, 2017). After social
needs, esteem takes priority. Esteem needs refer to the desire to earn
the respect and admiration of others, feel important/validated, and be
appreciated. Finally, at the top of the pyramid we have self-actualization
which refers to the acquisition of new skills and talents in order to
essentially become “the best version of yourself ”. Doing so will allow one
to achieve individual life goals (University of Minnesota, 2017). Maslow’s
theory has gained popularity over the years, and many organizations
have used this theory to motivate employees in corporate settings. For
example, paychecks are used to satisfy physiological needs, however
some companies also provide health insurance for the purpose of
satisfying safety needs. Company dinners and events satisfy employees’
social needs, while bonus earnings based on performance satisfy esteem
needs. Satisfying employee needs results in higher employee motivation
and thus better performance which ultimately benefits corporations.
This is just one of the many applications of theories for motivation in
real life.

Expectancy theory states that the amount of effort allotted to a

particular task is determined by an internal calculation that individuals
conduct to assess their own situation (University of Minnesota, 2017).
Individuals will assess whether or not additional effort will lead to
positive outcomes, hence why this theory is called expectancy theory.
Individuals will also assess whether or not the positive outcome they will
receive upon completing a particular task is valuable/satisfying enough
to put in a certain amount of effort. The satisfaction resulting from such
an outcome is referred to as valence (University of Minnesota, 2017).

18
Expectancy theory has garnered attention and support in recent years,
with many using it to explain human motivation in the workplace.

Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation

It is believed that there are two types of motivation; intrinsic motivation

and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that
develops out of genuine interest for a particular action or activity rather
than out of desire for a particular reward (Kusurkar et al., 2012). One
example of this is a child joining their local soccer team because they
genuinely enjoy the sport. Extrinsic motivation on the other hand, refers
to motivation that develops from a desire for a particular reward or
expected outcome/gain (Kusurkar et al., 2012). An example of extrinsic
motivation is a child joining their local soccer team because they want
to receive a sports scholarship in the future. This child does not have
genuine interest in the sport, rather they are motivated to participate
in order to achieve their future educational goals. The concept of
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation arguably contradicts some of the
theories we discussed earlier in this chapter. For example, the concept
of intrinsic motivation does not align with the evolutionary explanation
for motivation, which states that every action performed by humans is
instinctive and for the purpose of promoting inclusive fitness. Intrinsic
motivation is motivation without any incentive, which according to
the evolutionary theory for motivation, is not possible because there is
always some incentive to human action.

Neurochemistry and Motivation

Motivation can be linked to a variety of factors. These factors may be

psychological, social, or emotional in nature, but did you know that the
neurochemical composition of your brain may affect your motivation
level? The neurotransmitter dopamine is of particular importance when
it comes to motivation. Dopamine is primarily found in the cerebral
cortex and subcortical areas of the brain, and has been long known
to promote behaviours through positive reinforcement (Broomberg-
Martin et al., 2010). Many may wonder how such a phenomenon is
possible. When you engage in rewarding experiences, the dopamine
neurons in your brain become strongly activated, producing short-
term bursts of activity. If the reward from a particular experience
is greater than expected, dopamine neurons are strongly excited.
19
Similarly, if the reward from a particular experience is smaller than
predicted, dopamine neurons are inhibited (Broomberg-Martin et al.,
2010). In other words, dopamine neurons operate based on cues from
the environment. These cues may indicate an increase in reward or
decrease. Given this information, the question still remains; how does
dopamine influence motivation levels? When you set out to achieve
a particular goal, dopamine is released when this goal is about to be
accomplished. Upon release, dopamine delivers a strong sense of reward
and satisfaction. Humans naturally seek out dopamine boosts because
we crave the sense of reward and excitement that we receive, and this
“seeking out” is what we refer to as motivation (Neurohealth, 2019).
The motivating effect of dopamine was even present thousands of years
ago. It helped our prehistoric ancestors survive by giving them a boost
of energy/motivation when they were presented with an opportunity to
locate food (Neurohealth, 2019). We know that dopamine plays a role
in motivation and reward-seeking behaviour, but what happens when
someone is deficient in dopamine? This is what researchers sought
out to investigate when they conducted a study on the food-seeking
behaviour of dopamine-deficient rats. Shockingly, dopamine-deficient
rats were so unmotivated that they starved to death despite there being
food readily available! (Neurohealth, 2019) This further emphasizes the
importance of dopamine in motivation level, and the importance of
motivation in survival.

Ways to Increase Motivation

Everyone knows the feeling, you have a huge amount of work to

complete and deadlines to meet, yet you just can’t find the motivation
to meet these deadlines. You feel fatigued, lazy, stressed, and stuck in a
rut. This is often referred to as ‘burnout’ and is nothing to be ashamed
of. In fact, according to the Microsoft Work Trend Index, nearly half of
Canadians experience daily burnout (Coop, 2021). This is a staggering
statistic that forces us to ask ourselves; what can we do to combat this?
How can Canadians and people across the globe combat burnout and
find the motivation to complete daily tasks and meet deadlines? Science
shows that goal setting is a highly effective method of increasing
motivation at work (Gómez-Miñambres, 2012). It is crucial that these
goals are both attainable and challenging, so that workers may feel a
sense of pride and accomplishment after achieving their set goals. It
is this sense of pride that will motivate them to achieve future goals
20
as well (Gómez-Miñambres, 2012). Goal setting is useful not only in
professional settings, but even for daily tasks. Whether your goal is big
or small, achieving it will give you that sense of accomplishment that
will motivate you in the future.

Another way to increase motivation is through frequent rewards.

Researchers at Cornell University recently conducted a study
investigating this. They found that individuals who received immediate
rewards were more motivated to work compared to those who received
delayed rewards after the completion of a particular project (Woolley
& Fishbach, 2016). These researchers found that immediate rewards
resulted in increased intrinsic motivation by providing workers with
a positive experience overall. Even more interesting, researchers found
that this motivation remained long after the reward was removed
(Woolley & Fishbach, 2016). Clearly, short-term rewards are an effective
way to increase motivation and may even help individuals overcome
burnout. Many people use this phenomenon as a tool to increase
motivation in daily life. For example, many parents may choose to
reward their children for completing small tasks or getting good grades
at a young age. Such rewards motivate and encourage children to repeat
this behaviour in the future in order to achieve that same reward again.
It is important to note that rewards do not need to be extravagant. They
could be as simple as taking a break to watch a television show, or going
out to eat at a restaurant after successfully completing a week of work.
Rewarding yourself is incredibly important and is a highly effective
method of preventing burnout and increasing overall motivation.

Quite possibly the most interesting factor that influences motivation

is self-confidence! Self-confidence refers to an individual’s overall
perception of themselves, and is something that many people struggle
with (University of South Florida, n.d.). Someone with low self-
confidence will have an overall negative attitude toward themselves and
their abilities/skills, while someone with high self-confidence will have
a more positive perception of themselves (University of South Florida,
n.d.). So how does this relate to motivation? A recent study conducted
by researchers observing the effects of self-confidence on athletic
performance showed that self-confidence is positively correlated with
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in athletes (Sari et al., 2015). The
study also found that low self-confidence was associated with decreased
motivation in athletes. (Sari et al., 2015). This study emphasized the
21
importance of careful communication. Sports coaches may give negative
feedback to athletes in an attempt to improve their athletic performance,
however this feedback may have the opposite effect, lowering the
athlete’s self-confidence, leading to an overall decrease in their extrinsic
and intrinsic motivation. This decrease in motivation will likely also
result in a decrease in athletic performance, hence why coaches should
pay careful attention to the way they address their athletes (Sari et al.,
2015). Similarly, when coaches provide positive feedback to athletes in
an attempt to increase their self-confidence, these athletes may go on
to perform exceptionally well due to an increase in overall motivation
(Sari et al., 2015). This research stresses the importance of being kind to
oneself and others in order to maintain motivation and prevent burnout.

Chapter Summary

Throughout this chapter we have discussed motivation from a

psychological perspective, and have looked into multiple theories
aiming to explain this concept. The evolutionary theory for motivation
states that humans are instinctively motivated to engage in behaviours
that will contribute to their inclusive fitness. Maslow’s theory of
motivation states that human needs can be hierarchically ranked, and
that humans are motivated to fulfill these needs in this hierarchical
order. The expectancy theory for motivation explains that the amount
of effort allocated to a particular task is determined by an internal
calculation conducted by individuals to assess their own situation.
There are two types of motivation. Intrinsic motivation refers to
motivation that develops out of genuine interest for an action, rather
than out of desire for a particular outcome. Extrinsic motivation on the
other hand, develops out of desire for a particular outcome, without
any genuine interest for the given action. Motivation is essential in
order for individuals to achieve their goals, and there are many factors
that have been proven to impact human motivation. Dopamine is a
neurotransmitter primarily found in the cerebral cortex and subcortical
areas of the brain that is known to affect human motivation through
positive reinforcement. When an individual is about to complete a
particular goal/task, dopamine neurons release the neurotransmitter.
Upon its release, dopamine provides humans with a strong sense of
reward/satisfaction, and it is this feeling that motivates individuals to

22
continue to achieve their goals. Multiple studies have also shown that
goal setting, frequent rewards, and high self-confidence all increase
individual motivation, emphasizing the importance of these factors
when setting out to achieve a particular goal.

23
 Chapter 4: Theories of Gamification

An Overview to the Theory of Gamified Learning

There are many applications of gamification used in our modern world

today. Gamification and game psychology incorporates characteristics
of video games and applies them in a non-game context (Landers, 2014).
Gamification can be used in many different non-game applications
including for personal use, productivity, training games, newsgames and
health games (Deterding et al., 2011; Sawyer & Smith, 2008). The goal
of gamification is to motivate people to engage in targeted behaviours.
However, there are ambiguities and discrepancies in determining
which features of gamification research lead to an increase in the target
behaviours (Landers, 2014). There are many different scenarios where
game psychology can be implemented to improve user experience and
increase user engagement (Deterding et al., 2011).

Gamified learning allows for immediate and constant feedback on

correct or incorrect answers. Some learning platforms, such as Kahoot
and Quizlet, give students opportunities to practice and build on their
knowledge, while simulating an engaging and competitive environment
for learning and continuous development (Fulton, n.d.). Gamified
learning techniques can also be applied to make learning more
engaging, sociable, and fun for students. The use of leaderboards and
score sheets allows students to see the progress they are making as they
complete tasks and understand new concepts. It has been described that
“the social interaction of competition creates connections with other
students” (Fulton, n.d.). Through these types of learning initiatives,
students learn to collaborate and work together to solve problems, which
builds mutualistic relationships and connections among them. Based
24
on the idea that players will spend hours to gain the medal or game
achievement that they are after, this type of gamification parameter
can be applied to improve students’ traditional learning experiences.
This type of learning methodology also fosters collaboration because
students can learn together and from each other as well.

In gamification theories, there is a distinction between game versus

play. This is an important distinction to consider when implementing
gamification theories. The diagram below shows that games are usually
played and they are characterized by governing rules and competition.
However, “play” refers to a category that is different and broader than
games. Current gamification applications are mostly digital, although
this does not have to be a limiting barrier (Deterding et al., 2011). In
our modern world today, there are many applications of gamification
strategies being used in different settings to facilitate a wide range of
purposes. For example, “department stores, convenient stores, airlines,
and credit card companies have implemented loyalty points to keep
customers buying their products” (Fulton, n.d.).

A diagram differentiating the elements that contrast the features

in a game vs. a toy (Deterding et al., 2011).
25
There are many approaches to incorporating gamified learning in game
psychology research. Some key components that will be discussed in
this chapter include the Serious Games Approach and the incorporation
of the Bedwell Taxonomy. Gamification design elements will be
examined to understand how these theories can be applied to direct
targeted behaviours. There are three main theories to gamification and
game psychology that will be discussed in detail. These are the Self-
Determination Theory, the Flow Theory, and the Self-Efficacy Theory.
Finally, the overarching applications of gamification will be discussed
with respect to how they are applied in modern life.

The Serious Games Approach

The Serious Games approach looks at the “manipulation of game

attributes [which] is typically intended to affect learning without this
type of behavioural mediator/moderator” (Landers, 2014). Serious
games can apply to a broad range of applications and they do not equate
to games designed only for learning or thinking applications. There are
many other names that are being used that also refer to the application
of serious games. These names include educational games, simulation,
virtual reality, alternative purpose games, and digital game-based
learning, among many others. A common mistake is that “most labels
define a specific output ignoring the larger possibility space for serious
games. This implies the possible space for serious games only equals
that specific label” (Sawyer & Smith, 2008). Current research shows that
the serious games community is “moving toward research focusing on
direct comparisons between learning outcomes of serious games and
those of more traditional training methods” (Bedwell et al., 2012). This
type of methodology gears towards better achieving learning goals,
which directly facilitates the improvement of student learning.

The aim of establishing the Bedwell Taxonomy is to create “a universal

taxonomy of game attributes [that] would provide a common language
and starting point for researchers examining the effects of these
attributes” (Bedwell et al., 2012). There are two ways in which the focus
on affecting learning-related behaviours or attitudes can be achieved.
The first way is a moderating process which would strengthen the
relationship between the instructional design quality and the desired
26
learning outcomes. The second method is a mediating process which
influences learning directly (Landers, 2014). Research on the impact
of serious games (which will be discussed later in this chapter) focuses
on many factors, including motivation, emotion, and attention. These
areas of study relate to the psychological constructs that occur within
the context of designing games (Bedwell et al., 2012).

The focus of the Serious Games approach is to use games for non-
entertainment purposes. Gamified elements can be used to mediate
different purposes in gamified applications including fun social
entertainment, and personal use. To implement these strategies, the
technical and social elements of games would need to be examined to
find the best matches to apply these concepts in a variety of settings.
In other words, technical elements should be interpreted as affording
gameful interpretations and enactments, rather than being gameful.
It is important to consider the fact that technical games represent
a composite category. Common elements of games (such as goals,
objectives, and rules) do not solely work in isolation, they are not
independent from one another, and they need to be assembled together
in order to constitute a game. Game designers need to determine which
design elements they should incorporate into the full set of game
elements that encompass their main objectives for the original purpose
of creating the game (Deterding et al., 2011).

The Serious Games approach utilizes five key gamification design

elements to create impactful activities that help users achieve their goals.
The first design element looks at the quality of interface design patterns,
which include badges, levels, or leaderboards. The second element
takes an in-depth look at the specific game design patterns or game
mechanics that are used to run the game. The third element is focused
on harnessing design principles or heuristics. These are guidelines that
are used for approaching a design problem, and these guidelines can
also be used to evaluate the quality and efficacy of a design solution.
The fourth element compares different conceptual models of game
design units, including the Mechanics-Dynamics-Aesthetics (MDA)
framework (Deterding et al., 2011). The MDA framework describes
how game products are produced by developers and consumed by
gamers. Games can be “purchased, used and eventually cast away
like most other consumable goods” (Hunicke et al., n.d.). Thomas W.
Malone is a psychologist from Stanford University, who suggested
27
that challenge, fantasy, and curiosity are important game design units
in building sensory and cognitive connections in the brain to make
the learner eager to learn more and fill the gaps in their knowledge
structures (Malone, 1981). Game design atoms, such as players, avatars,
and game bits are described in making serious games more appealing
and intriguing to their users (Brathwaite & Schreiber, 2009). The
final and fifth gamification design element is the inclusion of design-
specific practices, such as playtesting. There are three main phases of
playtesting. Phase 1 describes Self-Testing, where the design team will
evaluate the initial prototype of the game. Phase 2 is a play test with
friends and colleagues, where they will suggest improvements to refine
the game. Phase 3 tests the game with strangers, where their advice and
comments are 100% subjective (Boller, 2013). There are also design
processes such as playcentric design or value-conscious game design
that are considered in this last element (Deterding et al., 2011).

The Self-Determination Theory

The Self-Determination Theory describes how people choose their own

fate based on their innate psychological needs, also commonly known
as their “gut feeling”. Psychologists and researchers who believe in
this theory typically study the development of human personality and
motivation (Fulton, n.d.). They commonly assume that “human beings
are driven by their desire to grow” (Fulton, n.d.; Legault, 2017).

Motivation can be divided into two distinct pathways: intrinsic

motivation and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is described
as “doing something for the pure enjoyment of the activity” (Fulton,
n.d.). There are three key psychological needs that are believed to be
innate and universal for every individual. These needs are competence,
connectedness, and autonomy. Competence allows individuals to
feel that they have gained mastery over the tasks that they set out to
complete. When individuals feel competent in their own abilities and
skills, they are more likely to take steps that will help them achieve more
of their future goals. Building connections and relationships allows
people to feel a sense of attachment and belonging to others, which can
ease their comfort in believing in their own unique skill sets. Lastly,
autonomy is a key psychological need because people need to feel in
control of their own actions and behaviours. It is important to consider
the impact and amount of autonomy that an individual has because
28
it allows the individual to reflect on their personal definitions of core
values and meaning (Fulton, n.d.; Sailer et al., 2017). This allows them
to clearly make decisions that will benefit their future growth in life
(Cherry, 2021; Fulton, n.d.).

Extrinsic motivation can be informally described as “things which

are imposed on an individual in an attempt to motivate completion
of an activity” (Fulton, n.d.; Sun et al., 2017). External incentives are
common examples of extrinsic motivation, which include receiving
grades for a completed assignment or exam, paychecks or monetary
salary for completing a job. There are two types of extrinsic motivation.
A type of extrinsic motivation is identified regulation. This is where
the individual wants to gain an incentive for something external that
holds or adds personal value to them. This scenario makes them adapt
to the extrinsic force at the same time. The highest level of extrinsic
motivation is integrated regulation. This type of motivation occurs
when an individual’s own values align with the external or personal
values that are integrated with the external incentive. For example, we
can see when external motivators become internalized when gamers
will consistently play for hours on end in order to gain access to the
special badges, medals, power-ups, and boosts that could be added to
their avatar. This behaviour becomes heightened when the external
incentives are only available for a limited time, forcing the gamer to
continue playing until they reach their internal goals. However, it
is important to remember that gaining or losing these items do not
impact the individual’s physical lifestyle outside of the game, as they
carry no monetary value in real life (Fulton, n.d.). Introjected regulated
motivation is when an individual feels guilt or feels that they have a
sense of duty associated with completing a required task. An example
of this type of motivation is pride, because it motivates us to complete
tasks using feelings (Sun et al., 2017).

The Flow Theory and Online Learning

As this book is written during the COVID-19 pandemic, online

learning is very relevant to many, if not all, parts of the world. Online
learning and lesson planning should be designed with the flow theory
in mind. Thinking back to traditional classroom settings, students are
supposed to be learning the material at the same time and at the same
pace, because the teacher is addressing all the students in the class
29
simultaneously. However, a drawback to this teaching methodology is

that it promotes static learning, which can motivate some students and
demotivate others (Fulton, n.d.).

There is an interrelated cycle of five factors that are linked to each other
to stimulate flow during the learning process. Clear task goals need to be
established so that the learner is given the information that they require
in order to complete an assigned task. This comes from getting constant
and reliable feedback from the gamification theory of learning. An
intense period of concentration with no external distractions stimulates
an enriching learning experience, however to the student, time can feel
like it’s passing very slowly and they can feel tired and exhausted more
easily. Autonomy (from the self-determination theory, explained above)
is needed to further engage flow. Students should feel that they are in
control of their learning. This allows students to reach out and ask for
help if they are feeling overwhelmed by a high volume of information
being given, or if they are having difficulties understanding the material.
There also needs to be a balance between challenge and skill, to prevent
the sense of being overwhelmed or out-of-control, as discussed earlier.
The last factor of engaging flow is receiving clear feedback. This allows
the student to keep track of how they are progressing as it tells them
about areas where they are doing well, and areas where they may need
to improve (Duncan & West, 2018).

The Self-Efficacy Theory

The Self-Efficacy theory, originally proposed by Albert Bandura at

Stanford University in 1977, has been applied to many domains,
including education, business, athletics, careers, health and wellness
(Wentzel & Miele, 2009). This theory describes what the individual
believes, or how they perceive their own capability of accomplishing
a task (Fulton, n.d.). The development of self-efficacy has been shown
to be an important contributing factor to influencing an individual’s
motivation, achievement, and self-regulation (Bandura, 1994). It has
been described that “students who feel more efficacious about learning
should be more apt to engage in self-regulation (e.g., set goals, use
effective learning strategies, monitor their comprehension, evaluate

30
their goal progress) and create effective environments for learning
(e.g., eliminate or minimize distractions, find effective study partners)”
(Wentzel & Miele, 2009).

Individuals can determine their own levels of self-efficacy by examining

their experiences in the following sources of self-efficacy information:
actual performances, vicarious experiences, forms of social persuasion,
and physiological indexes (Wentzel & Miele, 2009). Using this
information, individuals can gauge how confident they are in their
abilities of completing a task if they believe that they are capable enough
of completing them. Social persuasions can also influence an individual’s
perception of their own self-efficacy beliefs If someone gives them a
comment and says “I know you can do it”, that individual is more likely
to believe that they can truly succeed in a task (Bandura, 1994).

Conclusion

Gamification and game psychology encompasses many social and

cognitive theories of learning, including the Self-Determination
Theory, the Flow Theory, and the Self-Efficacy Theory. Together, these
theories explain how game designers are able to incorporate game
design elements into non-entertainment approaches to help people
achieve their goals in a variety of domains, including productivity and
education. In gamification applications, the Serious Games approach is
a common methodology that is used to stimulate a desired behaviour or
action. This approach can be employed in many learning and thinking
motives, however this is not the only way. They can also be used for
social entertainment and personal gain, where it can be employed for a
variety of usages.

31
 Chapter 5: Game Design Elements

Introduction

Video games were invented to draw gamers away from the outside
world and transport the player into an environment that accommodates
to their liking. Video games have been around since the early 1970s.
The first commercial arcade video game, Computer Space by Nutting
Associates, was introduced in 1971. In 1972, Atari introduced Pong to
the arcades. (Tyson, 2021). The start- up of video games in the early 1970s
introduced a world of gaming that would progressively become into a
world wide industry that integrates real world elements into a virtual
world. What makes video games so addictive is a question that many
seem to misunderstand. Throughout this chapter, the exploration of the
elements of graphics and the purpose of optimized gaming, The Nature
of the AAA Game Industry and Game Developers, and the importance
of story writing that brings the game to life will be discussed. Each of
these game elements contribute to the addiction of games and, as well
as elevatinge the gamers’ experience to drastically influence the input
of hours that players would log in to play. To understand what makes
games so addictive, we must first explore the element of graphics and
the purpose of optimized gaming.

The Elements of Graphics and the Purpose of Optimized Gaming

Gameplay and graphics are mutually supportive and inextricably

intertwined. The graphics enrich the gameplay whichand the gameplay
lets the graphics draw you into the game. (Murnane, 2018). The purpose
of the graphical element of graphics is to transport the player into
an immersive world that pays attention to details, and in some cases,
this influences the gameplay experience. It’s important to take note of
several ways in which a players’ perception could affect discussions of
32
how graphics and gameplay interact. Some gamers may think that how
a game looks is irrelevant to playing the game. They don’t care as long as
the game is playable and enjoyable. Questions about how graphics and
gameplay interact are of no interest to players like this. (Murnane, 2018).
Seasoned gamers who direct their attention to the overall experience of
the game find themselves enjoying their experience even ifplay through
if graphics are not state- of- the- art quality. However, the experience
of the casualcausal gamer would contradict perceptions against those
who believe that graphics are not the most important element in
gaming. The common video-game adage that gameplay beats graphics
implies an imagined scale, in which the importance of graphics and
gameplay can be measured. Tthis represents a very limited view of the
roles that gameplay and graphics serve when gamers play video games.
(Murnane, 2018). The relationship between graphics and the narrative
of the game are elements that contribute to the positive perceptions of
the game itself. Although, graphics are meant to create an optimized
gaming experience for players, conflicting opinions on whether graphics
should be a priority for game developers rather than developing a
strong narrative has created a particular divide within the gaming
community. In the case where a game provides a strong story to follow,
gamers who acknowledge graphics on top of the story may develop a
negative experience. It seems counterintuitive for game developers
to create a game that particularly has a particularly stronger element
than the other. An example of a game where the players’ experience
was altered by the lack of story writing in contrast to graphics is Watch
Dogs Legion. This game was the third installment of Ubisoft’s Watch
Dogs series and was speculated to provide players with an immersive
experience as a rebellious hacker in the United Kingdom. The graphics
of the game were remarkable, yet the narrative and gameplay is what
caused players to have a distantdistain perspective on the game. Some
reviews of the game suggested that the game developers prioritized the
graphical aspect of the game instead of developing a story that would
complementcompliment the entire game. This is one popular case that
represents the importance in creating a game that provides a beautiful
and immersive landscape with an interesting story to follow.

Furthermore, to compare the impact of graphics within video games,

we’ll take a look at two highly anticipated games celebrated for their
realistic gameplay. Enhanced versions of Forza Horizon 3 and the
Game of the Year Edition of Hitman are graphics showcases. Both
33
games displays are in native 4K graphics. Both games combinepile
sophisticated graphical enhancements that are rarely seen in traditional
console games. Both games look absolutely beautiful, and yet the
gorgeous graphics greatly enhance gameplay for one of the games and
are almost irrelevant for the other. (Murnane, 2018). The game Hitman
is a perfect example for superior graphics because the game requires the
player to pay attention and carefully study the environment. Whatever
the environment presents you, the player could utilize many elements
in the game to successfully complete the objective. The gameplay
and graphics in Hitman are mutually supportive and inextricably
intertwined. The graphics enrich the gameplay and the gameplay lets
the graphics draw you into the game. (Murnane, 2018). The element
of graphics in Hitman contribute to the duration of the story by
incorporating detailed environments for players to interact andwith to
develop different tactics to complete several objectives.

In addition, Forza Horizon 3 is a challenging, yet adrenaline-fueled

racing game. The players’ attention during a race is locked on the road
ahead with information displayed on your HUD. During a players’ run,
the vehicle is moving at such high speeds that even switching visual
attention from the road to the HUD can be challenging at times. The
environments that the driver experiences are far more than spectacular,
but you have little toor no time to look at them. (Murnane, 2018). Forza
Horizon 3’s gameplay and graphics are great, but one has very little to do
with the other. The player is exposed to the beautiful world in between
races but while in a race, the visual quality of the environment is almost
incomprehensible. The graphics can be fully enjoyed by spectators, but
watching someone play the game is not the same experience. Typically
the graphics are divorced from the gameplay when you’re racing.
(Murnane, 2018). Graphics and gameplay interact in subtle yet essential
ways. The beautiful graphics in Forza Horizon 3 havehas a slight impact
because the gameplay doesn’t give you the opportunity to enjoy them.
While in Hitman, the game provides players’ with a detailed, graphically
beautiful landscape to use and formulate strategies through them.

Graphics and gameplay are largely separate entities that play a little role
in enhancing gameplay in both of these games. (Murnane, 2018). The
element of graphics has evidently been one of the reasons why video
games are so addictive. By creating a realistic world, gamers who’ve spent
elongated hours could find themselves lost in the virtual environment
34
of the game, providing them with a place of solitude from reality. To
extend our understandings on how gaming elements encourage an
addiction to gaming, we must explore the nature of the AAA gaming
industry and its developers.

The Nature of the AAA Game Industry and Game Developers

In the video game industry, AAA (Triple-A) is an informal

classification used to categorize games produced and distributed
by a major publisher, which typically has higher development and
marketing budgets than other mid-level game developers. (Steinberg,
2007). The popular demand for the AAA tier games has developed
an overwhelming expectation for video game studios to produce a
product that would exceed all expectations. This certain element of
video games served dramatic eaffects on gamers as their interests in
high quality gameplay arouse gamer cravings. AAA games from highly
celebrated game developing studios contributes to gaming addictions,
as gamers who search for gaming experiences that would incorporate
a style of gameplay for long- lasting sessions. AAA games are expected
to generate high attention prior to the initial release for the purpose of
allowing gamers to get a sense of immersion into the video game. Tthe
term “AAA+” was used to describe AAA- type games that generated
additional revenue over time, in a similar fashion to multiplayer online
games, by using “software-as-a-service methods” such as season passes
and expansion packs.

The similar construction “III” (Triple-I) has also been used to describe
high-production-value games in the independent gaming industry.
High anticipation towards a game that generates “hype” prior to the
initial announcement of the release date is common for AAA game
developers. Games such as Call of Duty and Fortnite haves generated
a historical amount of media attention which ultimately led to the
growing popularity of each title. Despite of the generated revenue
and high anticipation, sSome would speculate that the direction of
AAA games are slowly in decline. With the integration of “play- to-
win” elements to multiplayer online games, gamers are drawn to play
longer sessions to gain the special items provided through a “season
pass.” The “pay- to- play” feature contributes to a “gap in play” or a skill
differencetial between players, which discourages new players, due to
the fact that additional micro-transactions are encouraged to reach a
35
higher standard of gameplay. It is widely believed that the integration of
“play- to- win” features in AAA games has developed a perception that
micro-transactions contribute to a gambling element into online games.
This providesProviding players with incentives the more they play the
game. Ultimately this contributes to an increase in gaming addictions as
players are expected to spend and obtain these incentives.

In addition to the incorporation of “play- to- win” features in AAA games,

the generated hype from highly celebrated game developing studios has
allowed the gaming community to “put the product on a pedestal”. The
gaming community is known to develop high expectations for AAA
games on top of mid-level grade releases. Starting in 2020 leading up
to the launch of the PS5 and the Xbox Series X, two studios started
using the term AAAA (Quadruple-A) to describe upcoming games
in development.

The announcement of CD Projekts’ CyberPunk 2077 was dubbed as the

“most immersive, open-world” game that would have met the standards
of a AAAA game in development. (Grub, 2020). Upon the initial release,
CyberPunk 2077 generated world-wide popularity as gamers were set
to believe that the game would meet all expectations, and change the
landscape of open- world role play gaming. Despite of the generated
hype of CD Projekts’ highly anticipated game, upon release, gamers
were met with disappointment. From graphical defects, to the game
being “unplayable” for most gaming consoles, CyberPunk 2077 became
the gaming industry’s biggest mishap. The nature of AAA games has
drastically affected the way gamers that perceived the gaming industry,
as many felt betrayed and disappointed with the way gaming studios
advertised their games. With the upsetting backlash of CyberPunk
2077’s launch, the gaming community’s perception on AAA games
is now viewed with negative connotations. HoweverAlthough, some
gamers still look forward to AAA gaming titles to fulfill their desires
for a game to log in multiple hours of gameplay, and wouldn’t be able to
receive the same level of satisfaction from other mid-level games. The
influence that AAA games haves on gamers contributes to the overall
addiction of video games. Despite of criticism against AAA games that
proposed “play- to- win” features, and outlandish promises, seasoned

36
video gamers would find themselves playing the game regardless of
negative perceptions. It seems that the direction most AAA games are
leaning towards is a money- based approach without developing an
ambitious lore to transport players into the world of the game.

While some would argue that the integrity and originality of gaming is
coming to an end, new generations of gamers view gaming as a source
of income rather than an experience. With the integration of Esports,
or professional competitive gaming, this platform transformed the
gaming community intoas an entertainment business. Popular game
streamers use gaming as a platform to gain attention, and eventually
opening up opportunities for paid gaming sessions. In the AAA gaming
industry, many speculate that the ambitious roots of original story
telling and authentic innovations of graphical art work embedded into
the game areis now an uncommon reality for new generation games.
Older generation games such as Assassin’s Creed, Halo, and Fable are
now considered as an “obsolete” gaming experience for entertainment-
based gamers. Before Esports came to light, gamers played games
primarily for an ambitious experience that transports players into a new
world created by game developers. NowadaysNow and days, with the
incorporation of “season passes” and “play -to- win” features in several
AAA titles, gamers are limited from receiving gameplay that is new and
original. This display of new generation gaming is shown through Epic
Games’ Fortnite. The introduction of this game changed the landscape
of multiplayer online games through the integration of the “Battle pass”
and the newly structured, free-for-all based “Battle Royale”. Fortnite’s
impact on gaming has influenced games such as Call of Duty and
Apex Legends with the concept of “Battle Royale” as the headline of
its online experience. Since then, Esports and competitive online
gaming has surfaced as an opportunity for aspiring gamers to gain a
source of income through streaming platforms. This element of video
games has encouraged video game addictions through the motivation
of money and prosperity by playing these competitive online games, i.
In extension to game elements that encourage video game addictions.
In the case where a highly anticipated AAA game provides gamers with
a captivating story-line, players would ultimately develop an addiction
through the process of the game itself.

37
 The Importance of Story Writing

A video game’s narrative is important because it helps the player feel

more involved and immersed into the game. It gives everything in the
game meaning and helps the player understand what they need to do
as the game progresses. The main advantage of video games is that,
unlike other types of narrative, the player is part of the story. The player
lives the entire experience, and shares the successes and setbacks of
the main character. (Suàrez, 2020). The purpose of a good narrative in
a video game is to transport the player into the world that only they
can control. It allows players to escape from the realities of the outside
world and ultimately carry them through a story that revolves around
their actions. In most video games, stories are usually told in two ways:
through videos and through animations. The stories are supported by
the dialogue and the player’s actions. It is all of these elements that make
up the narrative in video games. (Suàrez, 2020). What leads to gaming
addictions is a good narrative, which fully encapsulates the personality
of the player into a video game. Examples of a good narrative told
within a video game is presented through RoleplayRole-Play -Games,
(RPGs), aAdventure games, and pPlatform games. In an RPG- style
video game, the story is the main focal point. Players have to solve
mysteries and progress as the story evolves. Games such as The Legend
of Zelda or Fallout integrate the narrative and the gameplay brilliantly.
(Suàrez, 2020). IWhile in aAdventure games, the player is given much
more freedom to explore. There are one or more main storylines, but
the player has the freedom to create their own mini stories. These are
normally stories in which the player has to solve puzzles or complete
challenges to progress. (Suàrez, 2020). This serves additional challenges
for players who wish to alter their experience through countless hours
of gameplay. As for pPlatform games, the narrative isn’t too direct.
There is a story and an objective to reach or mission to complete, but
there is’s a much greater emphasis on the skill of the player to progress
through the game. In many games, such as Super Mario Bros or Mario
64, the character and their personality are the main elements of the
narrative. (Suàrez, 2020). The element of story telling in video games
allows players to fall deep into the lore of the video game which leads to
the development of an addiction towards the game.

38
 Closing Summary

In conclusion, video game elements such as graphics, highly- anticipated

video games developed by the AAA gaming industry, and story-telling
contributes to the development of a video game addiction. Although
these elements are relatively overlooked by the community, video
games that possess remarkable gameplay and passionate integrations of
lore, graphics, and a strong narrative haves allowed gamers to use video
games as a place of solitude away from the real world. Video games
have a lot of potential uses as part of therapy. One study suggested that
playing Tetris in the few hours after a traumatic event might reduce
flashbacks from the event itself. (Daramus, 2020). Game design elements
will continue to progress as new generation consoles will display higher
quality pictures, and video game addictions will also continue to become
a trend as long as the gaming industry produces quality games with a
strong narrative, beautiful graphics, and a reliable community.

39
 Chapter 6: History of Gamification

Introduction

Gamification, as previously explained, is the action of adding game-

like mechanics to everyday aspects of life. Whether it be to school,
work, home life, or even mundane tasks such as grocery shopping,
you are bound to find some form of gamification. Gamifying a task or
activity increases one’s motivation to participate as well as increases the
addictivity of the task or activity. Gamification makes people want to
pursue goals and reach new limits, but it adds a fun element. By having
these tasks resemble the games that people play in their leisure, the
feeling of said leisure is brought into difficult tasks, making them feel
less daunting and less like work and more like play. With the boom in
personal computer(PC) gaming and competitions with games such as
World of Warcraft, League of Legends and Valorant, and the popularity
surrounding the release of gaming consoles such as the PlayStation 5
and the Xbox X series, it’s no wonder that people have are capitalizing
on the feature that make these games so highly addictive, and translating
them to the everyday.

Gamification has increased productivity and made mundane duties

more enjoyable, but how did it all start? Who first had the idea for
gamification and how did they implement it? How did it grow into the
multi-billion dollar industry sourced by fortune 500 hundred companies
that it is today(Lynkova, 2021)? What was before gamification, and why
did we move away from it and make the push towards gamification?
Throughout this chapter these questions will be addressed. This chapter
will delve into the full history of gamification and how it has grown
since its inception.

40
 Games and Gamification

Before getting into the topic of gamification. The distinction between

games and gamification should be made. Alongside this, the history
and development of video games should be highlighted, as they actively
sparked, set the stage, and acted as a template for the implementation
of gamification.

The difference between a game and gamification is very hard

to decipher. Both usually have levels and rewards, badges, and a points
system. As gamification is the act of making something like a game,
there are not many differences. If there were then gamification would
not necessarily be effective or done properly. There are two main
distinguishing features between a game and gamification. The first is
that a game is a thing and gamification is an act. A game is something
that exists, gamification is an action that is taken upon something that
is not a game. It adds game-like elements to non games, making people
more likely to do them or achieve success. The second distinction is
that a game is self-contained, whereas gamification requires an outward
or real world component(Christians, 2018). A game has rules and
regulations that you need to stay within to play. When considering
something that has been gamified, there are less contrasts and confines.
Additionally, gamified activities cause progress or change in the real
world, whereas the only impact that games have on the real world are
depletion of batteries or raised electricity bills.

Two games that were instrumental in the making of gamification were

MUD1 and the NES. MUD1, which stands for Multi-User Dungeon, was
a game made in 1978 by Roy Trubshaw and Richard Bartle(Wells, 2009).
This game was the first real time multi user game, and it established the
idea of community video games(Wells, 2009). It was a text based game,
with the players inputting typed answers and following a narrative with
others in a dungeon quest. MUD1 laid the foundation for cooperating
with others in online games, and can be credited as a pioneer for the
format that many video games today follow. The majority of online
games today are real time and involve either a duo or multiple users on
a team.

NES stands for Nintendo Entertainment system. The first NES that
could change game cartridges was the Famicom which was released in
41
July of 1983(Cunningham, 2013). This console allowed for users to play
any game that had a cartridge available, and they were not confined
to just one. By 1990, 30% of American households had an NES(Smith,
2020). This proved how widespread and popular they were. The large
number of household processing an NES could be used as a projection
as to how many children had these as starter systems and would then go
on to upgrade to newer versions, eventually fueling the gaming console
industry today.

MUD1 and NES were important to the development of gamification

because they sparked a generation of gamers, also known as
millennials(Christians, 2018). Without this system and this game in
play, gaming might not be as widespread and popular, the amount of
gamers would be diminished, and gamification may not be where it
is today. Looking at the fervour in which people played these games
allowed the innovators of gamification to understand game popularity
and the passion that games can invoke. If video games were not as
popular as these two things made them, the foundation of gamification
may not have been found at all.

The game Pokemon GO is a perfect example of both the impact of

MUD1 and NES. Pokemon GO is an interactive multiplayer game that
was published by Nintendo. The basis of Pokemon GO is that you walk
around, collect pokemon and battle other trainers. There is discourse
about whether Pokemon GO is a game or the gamification of exercise.
Pokemon GO incentivises players to walk around their neighborhood
or their cities in order to find new and rare Pokemon. This walking is
a form of exercise, and it is rewarded by leveling up as a trainer in the
game and getting more Pokemon. You can also walk to gyms and battle
other trainers. The game which launched in time for the summer was
credited with getting a whole generation active. For example, instead of
school aged children inside in front of fans or air conditioning staring at
the computer or the TV, they were outside with friends exploring their
surroundings and meeting new people that also played the game at sites
such as gyms. Though there is very compelling evidence that Pokemon
GO was just the gamification of walking, it is simply a game. The reason
for this is to play Pokemon Go you do not necessarily have to walk
anywhere. If you are in a highly dense neighbourhood that possesses
multiple landmarks, you could very well sit in the same spot all day and
still be as successful as someone who walked 10 kilometers(Christians,
42
2018). In this, Pokemon GO does not actually need an outward
interaction. Therefore, Pokemon Go should be considered to be in the
category of a game(Christians, 2018).

The Evolution of Gamification

The term Gamification was coined in 2002 by Nick Pelling(Smith,

2020). Before this, gamification was around, but not in the way that
it is today. For gamification to occur, or for something to be gamified,
game elements have to be added to an existing real world task. Game
mechanics could be: rewards, badges, points, level ups/status upgrades,
etc. The earliest indication of one of these elements added to everyday
life was in 1896 with S&H Green Stamps(Smith, 2020). The stamps were
sold by the S&H company to retailers. Consumers that bought from
said retailers would earn a certain amount of stamps per purchase, with
more money spent equalling more stamps earned. With these stamps
they could trade for items off to the S&H catalog(Christians, 2018).
This established one of the first known loyalty programs, as people were
more inclined and rewarded to shop at the retailers with the Green
stamps. Retailers gained revenue because people were more likely to
shop at their store, and S&H paid for the supplies in the catalog with the
money that they gained by selling the stamps to the retailers. In a way, it
was a double tiered loyalty program that had the stamps cycle full circle.

Another example of this would be the boy scouts badge system(Christians,

2018). When thinking of gamification, it is not always obvious. Scouts
getting badges for tasks, can actually be attributed to the gamification
of tasks such as fire using or making a campsite, or learning and being
proficient in other survival techniques. The badges are like badges in
video games, they are a form of positive feedback or reward that the
scout receives for being a master of a skill.

The next progression was the implementation of various loyalty

programs. In the 1980’s America Airlines, Holiday Inn, and National
Car Rental all developed their own form of a loyalty program(Smith,
2020). American Airlines’ AAdvantage was much like frequent flyer
programs, much like the ones that are commonplace today. All of these
loyalty programs provide incentive with rewards, discounts, or free
night stays. All ways to make sure that the customer stays loyal and
returns to their brand when they need to use a service like that again.
43
In 1999, the United States Armed forces came out with a first person
shooter game called America’s Army which was designed to entice
recruits(Pandley, 2017).

All of these programs described above used elements of gamification.

Interestingly, these programs were not overtly games, but rather,
influenced the consumer to purchase more goods or perform better.
Furthermore, these examples of gamification did not make the consumer
necessarily feel like they were being incentivized or manipulated.

The Creation and Development of Modern Gamification

As stated earlier the man who is credited with inventing the word
gamification is Nick Pelling. He was an interface designer who worked
with ATM’s and vending machines(The history of Gamification: From
the beginning to right now, 2019). Past this, Pelling did not have any
real influence in the business of gamification. In 2005 the company
Bunchball was founded by Rajat Paharia(The history of Gamification:
From the beginning to right now, 2019). The company’s focus was to
add game mechanics to tasks to increase brand loyalty, much like the
Holiday Inn and American Airlines initiatives. These mechanics also
helped to boost online engagement, as users were more likely to log
onto a site everyday if there was a reward for them. Bunchball did not
use the term gamification at its start, but that was essentially what they
were doing. In 2007 Bunchball gamified a site called Dunder Mifflin
Infinity, which was based off of the popular show The Office(Smith,
2020). It was a social networking site that allowed players to “work” at
Dunder Mifflin, and collect rewards which they would use to pay for
upgrades to their desk(Christians, 2018). Also in 2007 the game Chore
Wars was launched(The history of Gamification: From the beginning
to right now, 2019). This site was the start of gamifying home life, with
parents using the site to incentivize their kids into doing chores by
adding a narrative of a fantasy world(The history of Gamification: From
the beginning to right now, 2019).

In 2009 both Foursquare and Quest to Learn led the way for innovation
in the gamification industry. Foursquare was a map app that
incentivized players to visit different parts of the city, mapping it out,
using badges as a reward and a leaderboard to promote competitiveness
with others(Christians, 2018). This allowed for Foursquare to have an
44
accurate map, as people would constantly visit places and give reports
to earn badges and different achievements within the app(Christians,
2018). In 2009 Quest to Learn accepted a sixth grade class into their
program(Smith, 2020). This was the first instance of gamification in
education. This trend continues today; starting with kindergarten
classrooms awarding stickers to students who obey their teachers,
going all the way to high school students who can get extra credit for
submitting optional assignments.

In the 2010’s gamification truly boomed. In 2010 Jane McGongial gave

her famous TedTalk entitled “Gaming Can Make a Better World”, in
which she told of ways that gaming can actually improve the earth
and quality of life(The history of Gamification: From the beginning to
right now, 2019). In 2011 Gamification Co. held their first conference,
allowing gamifiers from all corners to meet together and discuss their
ideas(The history of Gamification: From the beginning to right now,
2019). In 2014 there was a lull in gamification, as the companies who had
implemented the strategy forgot about the true meaning of what it was to
gamify something(The history of Gamification: From the beginning to
right now, 2019). A key example of this was the hotel Marriotts training
program. Marriott released an app that was meant to both train new
employees and entice others to apply(Christians, 2018). This ploy failed
on both accounts with the app not having enough scenarios to properly
train a new employee, and was found boring and uninformative by those
who were in a position to apply(Christians, 2018). Without having a
clear end goal and a concrete way of achieving it, gamifying something
can lead to the opposite effect of what was originally intended. Due to
failures like this one, gamification was declared dead.

The following year a Gallup survey showed that only 31% of workers
were engaged in their work, and of all of the groups millennials had
the lowest number of engaged workers(Smith, 2020). Due to this
gamification came back in every way and continues to be a prominent
tool in the kits of human resource departments to up productivity in
the workplace. If a person looked around in their life, they would see
how much gamification has evolved and how much they interact with
gamified processes everyday, from work, to school to home.

45
 Conclusion

The future of gamification is very bright, but it is also fraught with

ethical implications, Gamification is a great tool when used for good;
this good ca be helping people to recycle, or reduce waste, or fix climate
change, or even simply to be more productive in their day to day and
make it easier and more fun for them to reach their goals. The problem
with gamification is that incentive and positive feedback loops can
very easily be turned into manipulation and spiralling debt. When
gamification is used in the consumer industry, to be rewarded you have
to spend money. The same way that people can be addicted to video
games is the same way someone can get addicted to the rewards of a
loyalty program. If they both use the same methods and mechanics to
get you to do something, it’s easy to follow that they can both result in
the same sort of addiction.

The problem here is that instead of spending time you are spending
money, and if you go far enough down the rabbit hole you start spending
money you do not have. This is when gamification methods can get
dangerous. It is a well known fact that corporations do not care about
the budget of their consumers, and consumer self control is not always
possible. For gamification to go forward in a positive manner there need
to be restrictions as to how far incentives can go, or there needs to be
widespread education on gamification tactics especially when it comes
to consumer products, so that t people can protect themselves against it.

Chapter Summary

This chapter touched on the history of gamification. Before

gamification,there were incentivized loyalty programs such as the
S&H Green Stamps programs, American Airlines’ AAdvantage, and
also programs with Holiday Inn and National Car Rental. There were
also programs that incentivized people to join organizations, like
the Boy Scouts and the American Army. MUD1 and NES’s helped
to popularize games and allowed researchers to see their effects on
people, which established the basis of gamification. In the 2000’s the
word gamification was born and companies like BunchBall went into
the business of gamification. There was a lull in the industry in 2014
when companies lost sight of the purpose of gamification, and treated
it as a cure all instead of the process that it was. This caused failures in
46
the implementation of gamification and greatly lessened the demand
for it. The following year there was a Gallup survey showing the lack of
engagement of workers, which led to a new wave of gamification on all
fronts. Today it is a multi billion dollar industry that shows no sign of
slowing down.

47
 Chapter 7: The role of Dopamine in
Gamification

Introduction

Gamification is the addition of game-like elements to non-game

activities to make “electronic transactions both enjoyable and fast;”
these elements include extrinsic rewards like points after completing
a task, badges, and leaderboards (Fitz-Walter, n.d.; Burke, 2014). The
term has only recently been coined in 2002, but the phenomenon has
been around since the 1900s when new groups such as the Boy Scouts
earned badges and ranks (Burke, 2014; Fitz-Walter, n.d.).

School classrooms and businesses have begun to employ this technique

to develop skills. It is hard to engage workers and motivate them to be
productive when there are long hours of menial tasks (Vorhauser-Smith,
2014). It has been shown that monetary incentives are no longer enough
to change the behaviours of employees to make them more productive
(Burke, 2014). Extensive work sessions have shown to result in a lack
of dopamine, which is the neurotransmitter that causes motivation
(Browne et al., 2018). Recently, many businesses have noticed that
gamification engages and motivates people to learn skills and complete
tasks (Burke, 2014). Effective games employ visual, auditory, and
sounds like voices and music to make tasks more interactive, allowing
for mental stimulation and more engagement (Vorhauser-Smith, 2014).
More corporations are willing to gamify their employee’s environment
so they can enforce learning behaviours that increase the level of
engagement in work (Cook, 2013). Gamification has proved successful
in many areas, expanded on in chapter 10 (Burke, 2014). The scientific
reason behind this involves the neurotransmitter dopamine.

48
 Dopamine

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter responsible for many actions in the

brain (Wildermuth, 2018). The neurotransmitter is released through the
reward pathway in the brain when one receives a reward (Marczewski,
2018; Growth Engineering, 2014). There are two main dopaminergic
pathways (Pariyadath et al., 2016). The first one, called the mesolimbic
pathway, begins in the midbrain when dopamine neurons project to
the ventral striatum (VS) in response to cues that predict reward or
anticipate a reward (Howard-Jones et al., 2016). Other areas of the
brain involve the ventral tegmental area, nucleus accumbens, amygdala,
hippocampus, and prefrontal context (Neuroscientifically Challenged,
n.d.). It mediates pleasure and rewarding experiences. The other major
pathway is the mesocortical pathway, which projects to the prefrontal
cortex (Pariyadath et al., 2016). It also fires in response to rewards and
to cues that indicate when or whether a reward will arrive. Continual
activation of these dopaminergic pathways can predict strong declarative
memory formation, which is the long-term storage of facts so this is a
good predictor of success in the classroom (Growth Engineering, 2014).

Role of Dopamine in Gamification

Dividing tasks into small manageable goals ensures there is a constant

reward as one works towards the long-term goal. This trains the brain
to anticipate and predict when a reward will come (Palmiter, 2008).
Rewards give that feeling of pleasure, causing us to have the motivation
to repeat the action or skill (Growth Engineering, 2014). Motivation is
the energy that causes us to want to achieve goals, even if it is unconscious
(Playmotiv, 2019). In games, it encourages players to carry out the
task because our body instinctively wants to carry out an action that
releases dopamine. For mundane learning activities, gamified elements
add the feeling of pleasure to these redundant tasks. This makes the
task more attractive and worth the participant’s time (Lumsden et al.,
2016). The brain will then perceive these tasks as something positive
(Playmotiv, 2019).

There are other neurotransmitters that are affected by gamification, such

as oxytocin, serotonin, and endorphins (Marczewski, 2018). However,
dopamine is the only one said to have a role in associative learning, a vital
component for the success of gamification endeavours (Marczewski,
49
2018). Associative learning occurs when a positive association is
developed between the learned behaviour and the pleasure felt from
achieving the reward (Marczewski, 2018; Growth Engineering, 2014).
Thus, there is a strong link between reward and learning.

The Reinforcement Mechanism

Games usually have a problem-solving, deduction, and spatial thinking

component. When playing a game, the players increase their skill little
by little, as they move up a level (Burke, 2014). By meeting a short-
term goal each time (i.e. a level), the person can slowly meet a long-
term goal. As one learns to master the game, performance is optimized.
Most games follow a similar loop: challenge, achievement, and reward
(Pacewicz, 2015). This loop is a reinforcement mechanism as each
time a reward is earned, the desire to keep playing is reinforced when
dopamine is released in the brain. Reinforcing desired behaviour has a
long history, famously used by B.F. Skinner and his operant conditioning
experiment in 1953 (Ahn et al., 2019). Gamification is a variation of
this, with positive reinforcement attained through dopamine release
after receiving a reward (Browne et al., 2018).

Rewards are incentives that have been found to enhance cognitive

processes like working memory which is the short term holding of
information (Howard-Jones et al., 2016). A reward can be anything
from scoring a goal in hockey, taking an illicit drug, or achieving a
high score on a video game (Growth Engineering, 2014). It is not just
because adding game elements makes the activity more fun, it is the
reward system that activates in our brain that motivates us to continue
doing a task (Fitz-Walter, n.d.). When dopamine is released, the body
feels pleasure (Marczewski, 2018).

When released in higher than usual amounts, dopamine goes beyond

the synapse between neurons and flows to other regions of the brain
(Hughes & Lacy, 2016). This causes a powerful pleasurable feeling.
Pleasure makes us more receptive to learning, since this feeling
drives our motivation (Miller, 2013). Our bodies prefer immediate
gratification rather than long-term goal-oriental tasks (Scherbaum et
al., 2017). In a study on heroin addicts, it was found that immediate
gratification influences our behaviour such that there is less optimal
decision making. After the first burst of pleasure, the brain is driven to
50
seek that same feeling again (Hughes & Lacy, 2016). Thus, the reward
response loop is born. This is true in gaming even if there are losses or
they are at a more challenging level.

Pleasure is not the only thing that is important, the motivation aspect
is needed for us to want to achieve long-term goals and increase
productivity (Lee, 2013). Dopamine acts as an intrinsic motivator
(Wildermuth, 2018). In a study on dopamine-deficient mice, they were
less likely to participate in goal-oriented behaviour (Palmiter, 2008).
Likewise, high levels of dopamine are found in the most motivated
individuals. Independence and autonomy is a key aspect of motivation
(Lumsden et al., 2016). There is an increased release of dopamine in
these situations. Dopamine has been shown to focus attention and
heighten arousal, as seen when adding extrastriatal dopamine to those
with ADHD. Performance was improved, leading to more effective
training in cognitive tasks. Making activities a game tricks people into
thinking they have the freedom of choice to participate (Pacewicz,
2015). Psychologically, we do not enjoy being forced into participating
in an activity; we would rather have a choice (Brown, 2021). In learning
situations, we want to learn more when we have the autonomy to do so
(Paradiso Solutions, n.d.). The incentive is the opportunity to receive
rewards, like with the Starbucks rewards system. Users of the program
believe they are in control of when they make their next purchase of
coffee. What they may not realize is that every time they earn more
points and level up, their behaviour is reinforced through the dopamine
pathway. The points can be thought of as triggers that remind people to
alter their behaviour; in this case, they learn to buy more coffee.

Along with autonomy to participate comes competition with others.

Players compete for virtual statuses to win virtual rewards (Pacewicz,
2015). Competition with others encourages the release of dopamine,
as we are motivated to surpass other players when one player’s gain is
another player’s loss (Playmotiv, 2019; Miller, 2013). In a game, it is a
safe environment as we understand that what is happening is not real.
Thus, participants are more willing to take risks and try to complete
new things (Playmotiv, 2019). Our brain releases more dopamine when
experiencing new things; linking learning/professional tasks to new
goals, makes them seem more attractive. This also allows for social
engagement as humans have a natural tendency to socialize (Pacewicz,
2015). Attention and fame are pleasurable, reinforcing the desire to
51
continue the game. This is why leaderboards showing a player’s rank
relative to others is an effective incentive to improve one’s own skill.
The learning process is more active in a gamified scenario (Paradiso
Solutions, n.d.). Competition or cooperation can enhance this, as having
shared goals fosters engagement with others and with the task too. The
more goals achieved, the more dopamine released, and the higher the
motivation is to progress further.

It was found that if the game is based on 50% chance and 50% skill,
participants had the highest amount of dopamine released (Vorhauser-
Smith, 2014). The uncertainty surrounding whether or not you will
get a reward increases the brain’s response (dopamine release) to the
anticipated reward (Howard-Jones et al., 2016). Dopamine can also
be released in anticipation of an imminent reward, called incentive
salience (Marczewski, 2018). Anticipation causes a big release of the
neurotransmitter, so what really motivates us is the pursuit of the goal, not
actually attaining the goal (Vorhauser-Smith, 2014). The anticipation of
a reward and the uncertainty of a reward are also associated with faster
learning (Howard-Jones, 2015). Therefore, an effective gamification
strategy should use these two phenomena.

Applying Gamification

Gamification in marketing has become a multi-billion dollar industry

(Lowman, 2016). This theory can be applied to many diverse ventures.
For example, an app designed to remind people to take their medication
was developed using gamified elements as half the people with chronic
disease do not follow their treatment plan (Shestel, n.d.). On the
Fitness App, progress bars are filled and can be made public to foster
competition and inspire commitment. “Dopamine Marketing” is a new
business concept to explain why gamification has proved so successful
in capitalist ventures (Dooley, 2012). In a research study, a company
made an ad with a baby elephant (every time it appeared, dopamine is
released in the viewer’s brain), causing more people to watch the ad to
the end and form a positive association with the dopamine release and
the company’s brand name (Sumiga, 2018).

It is not just for marketing, any sort of behaviour can be changed

(Wilson, 2018). FastCoDesign invented a smart inhaler that uses a
video game design to teach those with asthma how to use it. The T-haler
52
can be connected to a computer; a tic-tac-toe board game is shown on
the screen to show the right and wrong ways of the inhaler’s use.

Dating apps, like Tinder, have aspects of gamification through their

matching concept (Lowman, 2016). Anticipating a match increases the
dopamine activity in the brain, as feeling validated gives us pleasure.
Some businesses are developing apps based on a similar concept
between potential employees and employers, matching with candidates
shows an active interest from both parties.

Physical therapy has used games for attractiveness, motivation, and

engagement in therapy (Janssen et al., 2017). In digital games, there is a
release of dopamine in the striatum and the frontal cortex, which are the
areas connected with hand-eye coordination (Seeger, 2015, p. 292). Visual
capabilities, such as tracking objects are also enhanced (Paturel, 2014).
Learning or re-learning is facilitated through dopaminergic systems,
which have long-term potentiation of synaptic neural connections.
Learning through attaining rewards for each level stimulates the neural
connection in the brain, strengthening the dopaminergic pathway with
each repeated action (Paturel, 2014). Although, the researchers do
note that gamification does not always guarantee a therapeutic effect
(Janssen et al., 2017).

Duolingo, the platform for learning languages, is built around

gamification to induce goal-oriented behaviour (Coppola, 2017). The
learning process is divided into levels, holding lessons and skills in each.
The skills have themes; one theme is the words that are foundational
parts of the language. After one skill is mastered, the learner moves on to
a more complex skill at a different level, earning XP (Experience Points)
for each lesson completed. People will complete each level because it
gives a greater sense of accomplishment the more skills you master,
releasing dopamine each time. Khan Academy does something similar,
using prizes, badges, and levels to teach educational concepts. These
two platforms’ success can be attributed to their use of gamification that
causes the release of dopamine.

Controversy Surrounding Gamification

Gamification is not effective on its own if long-term goals are too

ambitious or if they do not align with the interests of the players
53
(Playmotiv, 2019). The science behind gamification is contested.

Some have even condemned the dopamine loop as pseudoscience,

a “neural myth” and not a real scientific concept (Pacewicz, 2015).
The psychological mechanism that causes an increase in incentives/
motivation is not well understood (Howard-Jones et al., 2016).

Others have connected gamification with the addiction to video games

(Paturel, 2014). There has been a long-standing concern about the
effects video games have on youth, whose brains are still developing.
Continual release of dopamine may “rewire” the brain such that the
executive control centre will choose instant gratification and take more
risks instead of waiting for long-term goal completion. With games all
around us, it is unclear how this will affect the brain long-term.

The success of gamification may be gendered. It was found that the

point-based rewards system was more likely to engage boys than girls in
a study on physical activity in children (Ahn et al., 2019). Additionally,
there are differences in dopamine release between biological females
and males, where estrogen enhances dopamine release. The gendered
effects of gamification are still being studied and it is unclear how much
biological sex affects receptiveness to it.

Even though many businesses have adopted gamification aspects, in

2014, 80% of them were projected to fail due to poor design (Burke,
2014). Rewards must be constant for behaviour to change, if stopped
there is no longer an incentive to continue (Nicholson, 2015, p. 1). After
the person masters increasingly complex skills, there is less motive
to continue unless there is a complementary increase in the rewards
(Nicholson, 2015, p. 2). Some have pointed out that this is not a good
strategy for long-term goals that seek to keep productivity up for years.
As there is no reason to keep playing a game once the final level is
reached, once the skill is mastered there are no more rewards to keep
up the engagement.

Chapter Summary

Gamification takes advantage of the reward system loop that causes

the release of dopamine. Dopamine makes us feel pleasure, creating
a positive reinforcement with the learned behaviour and the reward.
54
Elements such as points and scoreboards are attractive incentives that
boost engagement and ensure people have the motivation to continue
to commit to the task.

55
 Chapter 8: Legal restrictions of Gamification

Overview

“If you use the power of games to give people an opportunity to do

something they want to do then you’re doing good. If you’re using the
power of games to get people to do something you want them to do,
then you’re doing evil.”

Jane McGonigal

With the emergence of gamification, comes laws and regulations

that businesses must adhere to. With rules, consequences for non-
compliance also ensue as legal and ethical considerations need to be
thought of in the workplace.

Legal Considerations

When implementing gamification, it is crucial to consider the laws in

place in the country as well as any country where the gamification will
be applied to. There is plenty of room for error, and a flexible design is
needed to adjust the gamification based off the most updated local rules
(Kumar and Herger, 2021).

Labour Laws

Labour laws protect employees and have been around for a long time
around the world. Many countries have laws that serve to protect
employees, as well as unions for specific occupations. Many white-
collar office workers employee unions as well, and they function to
understand these laws and to advocate on the behalf of the employees of
the company as well as protect them from unjust exploitation (Kumar
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and Herger, 2021). Data collection about employees is also supervised
by the workers’ council. This council focuses on the purpose of the data
collection as well as the amount. They then determine if this is feasible
and realistic, as well as backed up by evidence (Kumar and Herger,
2021). They then gather information on where the data is stored,
find new ways to achieve their goals while utilizing less data. Most
importantly, they ensure the data is anonymized and that they can not
trace the information back to individual employees. Finally, they make
sure to answer whether or not the data is able to influence performance
review decisions, which ultimately have an impact on salary increase,
bonus calculations, promotions, or layoffs (Kumar and Herger, 2021).
As one can see, these laws influence gamification because aspects
such as leaderboards need workers’ council approval in companies.
Companies need to justify that their games do not adversely affect
employee’s performance review, wages, salary, or bonus plan in any way.
Subsequently, it is important for companies to be flexible as if certain
features such as leaderboards are not approved by the workers’ council,
they would need to find alternate features to add to the gamification
to go about product release, or leave a plethora of time for seeking
reapproval (Kumar and Herger, 2021).

Data Privacy Laws

As general labour laws vary by country, data privacy laws also vary
as well. Many countries ban the use of data including the collection
and processing of it, if it may lead to the identification of individuals
(Kumar and Herger, 2021). This is unless there are other laws in place
that allow this to occur, or if the personal information is approved to be
used for gamification by the individual whose information it belongs to.
It is crucial to note that employees and customers need to explicitly opt-
in to have their data collected, as the default is to opt-out. Consequently,
the employee/customer needs to sign a document, click a button, or
check a checkbox to approve of their personal information being used
(Kumar and Herger, 2021). They need a significant understanding
that their data will be used for such purposes to make progress in the
construction of the gamification.

57
 Virtual currencies and banking laws

Virtual currencies and assets are also subject to many legal challenges
and restrictions, and it is essential to discuss the laws and regulations
of such. It is also imperative to consider how the virtual currency/asset
was acquired, how it was used, when it was used, and who used it.
There have many operators of virtual worlds and currencies related to
gamification that have had lawsuits aimed at them (Kumar and Herger,
2021). This includes the Linden Lab and their Secondlife- VIrtual Land
Dispute and Class Action VIrtual Land Dispute, respectively. Other
names include Zynga (Poker Chip Theft)- one of many social game
companies. As a consequence of the economic crisis in 2008, more
stringent regulations have been put in place to protect consumers and
regulate providers of other financial services (Kumar and Herger, 2021).
However, one might say the greatest significance gamification brings is
the rewards that are offered. Thus, considering ideas such as if players
could trade their virtual points with other players, or challenges in
which virtual betting is overseen by gambling laws and state monopoly
laws is necessary (Kumar and Herger, 2021).

Data ownership

Consider the data your family physician obtains from you during your
visits. Or data collected from apps such as Snapchat on your phone.
Who owns this data? This is still up to debate in many countries, and
some companies ushc as Facebook have had to adjust their rules as a
result. If an employee earns flier points frequently in an enterprise such
as during business trips on behalf of the company, it is not certain to
ascertain who the points belong to (Kumar and Herger, 2021). Some
businesses have stepped up and have said that these points below to the
employee, but this is not a given, and certainly does not hold across the
board, nor is it molded into place. In many professional environments,
points employees earn from their personal participation would directly
or indirectly benefit their ranking in the leaderboard (Kumar and
Herger, 2021). However, a pivotal perspective is if in the event that the
employee is deprived of this ranking, the fate of the company needs to
be contemplated. Repeatedly, having a backup plan or a conservative
approach to data ownership would benefit the enterprise/company
long term, as the laws are constantly changing (Kumar and Herger,
2021). Many employees and customers want to play a role in how their
58
information needs to be used, and they need a seat at the table for this
debate. Ultimately, this is their data, they deserve to be involved in the
conversation concerning what information is collected, who sees the
data, the purpose of this data collection, how much data is collected,
and the agency to opt out if they desire to (Kumar and Herger, 2021).

Ethical considerations

“Ethics refers to well-founded standards of right and wrong that prescribe

what humans ought to do, usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits
to society, fairness, or specific virtues.”

Manuel Velasquez, Claire Andre, Thomas Shanks, S.J., and Michael J.

Meyer from the Santa Clara University in California

This quote was how the following individuals defined ethics as.
Applying this to gamification, players need to be treated ethically, fairly,
and with respect. Even if the nature of the game is online, everyone
deserves to be treated with dignity and as human no matter if a game
is played or not. However, fair compensation policies are still in effect
despite the onset of gamification. This is a compelling point to make as
gamification would not motivate employees no matter the amount of
gamification employed if employees are not paid fairly according to the
current market (Marczewski, 2017).

Manipulating vs. Nudging

“(...) gamification can never be successful exploitationware, because it

only works when the behaviours that are motivated are behaviours that
the user wants to perform in the first place. It’s not some magic solution
where you can manipulate users to perform behaviours against their
will”

Adena DeMonte, of Badgeville

Adena DeMonte points out that gamification would not work if

manipulation and nudging are at play. Thus, following the rules and
rewarding the user when they deserve it are necessary for the successful
functioning of the games. However, economist Richard Thaler and legal
scholar Cass Sunsetin beg to differ in their book ‘Nudge Improving
59
Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness’. They believe
encouraging and nudging people to make “good” choices is possible
without players performing behaviours against their will. They argue
that positioning fruits at the beginning and unhealthier food items
in a remote position in a cafeteria, or setting the default option for
choosing a health care plan to a government selected one, or setting the
default to donate organs would result in better choices to be made by
individuals without sacrificing their freedom or have them be exploited
(Marczewski, 2017). It is important to design this socal game and take
responsibility for any repercussions that may result. The virtual world
is connected to the real world as one, and the games that players take
part in in this virtual world may have an impact on their lives in the
real world (Marczewski, 2017). There is immense power involved in
the planning and implementation of gamification, and gamification
designers need to be cognizant and appreciate of this responsibility
and act in good faith for the benefit of all parties. Using this power in
heinous acts such as forcing people to purchase products and services
they do not require using in-game purchase screens that will not go
away or providing information regarding the player’s legal rights in an
incomprehensible way people would understand infringes on player’s
freedom (Marczewski, 2017).

Player Cheating

Inevitably, cheating will result when players try to cheat the gamified
system. This is human nature and is present in all aspects of our sphere
from cheating on a test to cheating on the game ‘grounders’ at school.
The designer of the gamification must therefore attempt to curtail this
cheating to the best of their abilities, a game that would be resistant to
cheating in order to provide an enjoyable and fun experience for all
players (Thorpe and Roper, 2017). Strategies must be put into action
to prevent cheating from occurring, and this encompases decreasing
the perceived value of rewards, increasing the effort required to game
the system, and total transparency, social shame, and accountability.
Decreasing the perceived value of rewards would deter cheating as this
would lessen the motivation they have. Humans put more effort and
time into things they believe they would acquire less value or benefits
from engaging in this game (Thorpe and Roper, 2017). Individuals
often resort to cheating when they are desperate to win something
such as plotting to insert their name into a lottery system. This could
60
be solved by using intrinsic rewards without transferable value in the
real world, the use of perks with low exchangeable value, or the use
of rewards that have a large perceived-value differential between the
target audience and the rest of the world. Efforts need also be increased
to game the system through the use of complex reward metrics that
players would not understand such as GOogle PageRank, metrics
that are less susceptible to gaming, and time-bounded unique-user
or content-reciprocity metrics (Thorpe and Roper, 2017). Finally, the
feeling of humiliation or distress when others find out about players’
misplays or misacts would deter players from cheating in the first
place. Many people care about their reputations and how they look to
others so their self image holds the utmost importance to them, and
would never imagine the prospect of others ostrazing them or the fear
of social shame. Lack of accountability has corroded public respect for
many business and politicians in the past, consequently, it is important
to holds those who cheat accountable for their actions and their impact
on others (Thorpe and Roper, 2017).

Social Media Gamification

Gamification has already generated legal concerns from business

consultants, academics, game industry professionals, and
communications professionals. Social media gamification can lead to a
breach in basic constitutional rights and data privacy, as well as labour
and banking laws. Advertisers can take advantage of users, resulting
in an alteration of decisions and behaviour. Editors of Le Monde
Diplomatique (Bréville and Rimbert, 2014) revealed the negative
connotations with manipulative titles such as “Losing on points: Do you
play games, or are they playing you?” The Pew Research Center’s report
argues that “digital games can be compelling and lead to behavioural
manipulation.” Further, Alan Strudler’s (2005) take on manipulation
is that “one person manipulates another when he intentionally causes
that person to behave as he wishes through a chain of events that has
the desired effect only because the manipulated person is unaware of
that chain”. With this, online companies are manipulating workers and
participants by not disclosing their goals of their gamification system.

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 Conclusion

Many businesses and enterprises are using gamification as a strategic

business practice. As discussed, the laws of gamification vary from
country to country, but some legal and ethical considerations are
universal. Employers need to ensure they will not exploit their employees,
while employees deserve a seat at the table with respect to the use of
their personal data (Kumar and Herger, 2021). The law surrounding
virtual currencies is also important to consider as the blur between the
virtual world and the real world is very real. The power involved with
designing these games offers those privileges and power. One needs to
learn to control this power in a safe and fair way for players, and much
effort needs to go into averting cheating at all costs (Kumar and Herger,
2021). Gamification may be an exciting way to incorporate elements of
game playing to other activities to encourage engagement, however, the
benefits of the rewards will only be reaped if the rules are followed, and
the game is made fair and safe to all.

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 Chapter 9: Examples of Addition of Game
Elements to Non Game Activities

Introduction

Applications of gamification can be found in many real world scenarios.

One interesting application of game elements is the integration of
gamification in education. By incorporating game elements in an
educational setting, teachers are able to motivate and engage students
in the learning process. Gamification can also be found in other fields
such as marketing, in which companies use gamification to increase
sales, customer loyalty, and engagement. Some examples that will
be discussed will be the use of gamification by companies such as
Foursquare and Starbucks. Further applications of gamification will also
be discussed, including the integration of gamification in the workplace.
Gamification in the workplace can lead to higher employee engagement
and loyalty, however this chapter will also note the potential drawbacks
of this integration. Finally, this chapter will also discuss the application
of gamification in health, as a tool to motivate people to exercise and
improve their overall health. By exploring these different examples, this
chapter aims to illustrate the far reaching influences of gamification and
its wide range of applications in real life.

Gamification in Education

Game elements can be incorporated in the educational environment

in order to promote motivation and skill-building. This is because
teachers are always looking for ways to engage students in the learning
process, and incorporating game elements is a good strategy to increase
students’ participation in the classroom. One gamification technique
that can be applied to the educational setting is rewarding efforts and the
achievement of results with awards and badges (Kiryakova, Angelova,

63
& Yordanova, 2014). This in turn increases students’ motivation for
participation and learning.

Upon closer examination, it becomes clear why the implementation of

game elements in education makes sense. In a typical game, the player’s
decisions and actions are focused on achieving a certain goal, such as a
win. The process of attaining such a goal can be slowed down or deterred
by various obstacles which the player has to face. This idea can be applied
to education; in a lesson, there normally is a learning objective that the
students aim to achieve. The ‘actions’ that students have to carry out to
achieve this goal may be partaking in a range of learning activities such
as doing practice problems and homework. In a game, it is vital to track
a player’s progress, as the gameplay depends on their past moves and
results. Similarly, in an education setting, students’ progress is tracked
in order for teachers to gage whether or not students have achieved the
learning objective (Kiryakova, Angelova, & Yordanova, 2014).

Steps for Integrating Gamification in the Learning Environment

Given the parallels between a game and the learning process, it follows
that gamification has been implemented in many educational settings.
Kiryakova, Angelova, & Yordanova (2014) describe the necessary steps
to effectively integrate game elements in a learning environment. These
steps will be discussed in the following paragraphs.

The first step in the successful integration of gamification in education

is to determine the learners’ characteristics. This means teachers need
to define what skills that learners may need in order to achieve their
learning objectives, and whether the tasks are too difficult or too easy
based on the learners’ profiles. If the tasks are on either of the extremes
(too easy or too hard), then there is a risk of demotivation of learners,
and hence this may lead to an overall negative outcome.

Following the determination of learner characteristics, the next step

will be to clearly define learning objectives. This is because the point of
education is to achieve these objectives, and without them, learning and
the gamification of such learning will seem pointless to the students.
Hence, it is vital for educational instructors to have a clear plan of what
educational content and activities they want to include in the learning

64
process, and also how game elements should be implemented in order
to achieve these learning objectives.

The determination of learner characteristics and learning objectives

creates a strong foundation for integrating gamification activities
in the learning process. Simões, Redondo, & Vilas (2013) describes
the necessary characteristics of these gamification activities. Firstly,
these activities should give students multiple attempts to achieve the
designated goal - in other words, students should be given the chance
to repeat activities after unsuccessful attempts. This allows for the
improvement of skills over time, and also prevents students from feeling
demotivated due to an unsuccessful attempt. Another characteristic of
these activities is feasibility, meaning the activities should be achievable
by the students. These activities should also exhibit increasing difficulty
- each subsequent task should be more complex than the last, to ensure
that students are building upon their existing skills and acquiring new
ones as well. Moreover, these activities should be designed so that
students can achieve objectives through multiple ways, as this can
motivate students to come up with their own strategy and to develop
diverse skills.

The last step to integrating gamification in education is implementing

game elements in the learning process. Kiryakova, Angelova, &
Yordanova (2014) provide many examples of such integration. For
instance, students can accumulate points, transition to higher levels,
and win awards based on their performance in the learning activities.
Individual rewards can take the form of badges, and successes through
collaborative work can be tracked on leaderboards.

Gamification in Marketing

Marketing is an innovative and ever-changing field, and companies

are constantly aiming to adapt their strategies to attract customers and
retain their attention. This is why companies are starting to integrate
gamification in their marketing strategies. Park & Bae (2014) revealed
a 2013 survey showing that more than 70% of Forbes Global 2000
companies expressed their intention of using gamification in their
marketing.

65
Gamification in marketing can take the form of earning points, badges,
and free products from the company. These loyalty programs effectively
engage customers, as they become immersed in the brand experience
through their participation in these activities and games. Hence, the
desired result is an increase in customer retention and engagement. The
integration of gamification in marketing can be observed in companies
such as Coca-Cola, McDonalds, Nike and Sony (Yang, Asaad, &
Dwivedi, 2017).

One of the first companies to use gamification in their business strategy

was by the Sperry & Hutchinson Company. The company distributed
custom made stamps to shops, supermarkets, and gas stations. When
customers would purchase from these outlets, they would receive a
stamp. The customers could then trade in these stamps for prizes from
the Sperry & Hutchinson Company (Yadav et al., 2020). This use of
gamification effectively increased customer loyalty and engagement.

Huotari & Hamari (2011) further explain why gamification can have
a positive influence on a brand’s image and customer retention. Using
the mobile service Foursquare as an example, the researchers explain
how gamification creates a form of ‘service packaging’: this is when
the customer is presented with a core service that is further enhanced
by a rules-based service system that incorporates game elements. The
core service of Fourspace is that it provides the user with personalized
recommendations of places to go, based on the user’s location. In
addition to this core service, Fourspace also included an element of
gamification: users are able to gain points or gain badges for certain
activities like checking into new places. Huotari & Hamari (2011)
attributes the success that Fourspace experienced with their integration
of gamification, which points to the power that gamification can have
on marketing and mobile apps.

Starbucks is also known to use gamification in their marketing and

customer retention strategies, as detailed by Conaway & Garay (2014).
The use of gamification can be seen with the development of a program
called My Starbucks Rewards. In this program, customers are given a
Starbucks card for free once they register their personal information
online. To move to the next level, named the Welcome level, the
customer needs to recharge their card for about USD$4.00. At this
level, the customer is rewarded with a free drink on their next visit to
66
Starbucks, and also a free drink on their birthday. Using the card, the
customer can collect stars. The next level is the Green level, which can
be achieved once the customer has used the card five times. At this
level, they receive 5 stars. After collecting a certain amount of stars, the
customer can reach the Gold level.

This integration of game elements - such as collecting rewards and

advancing to new levels - proved to be a successful tactic for Starbucks.
Conaway & Garay (2014) notes that My Starbucks Rewards resulted
in higher sales, increased customer retention, and stronger customer
loyalty for the company. This can be attributed to its use of gamification,
since the program motivated customers to move to the next level and to
engage with the company’s products to gain stars.

Samsung is another company that used gamification in their business

strategy. Samsung had a program called Samsung Nation, which
rewarded customers with points and badges for certain behaviours.
Customers were able to receive points for registering their Samsung
product, providing answers for customer Q&A forums, submitting
comments and reviews, watching videos, sharing on Twitter, and more
(Conaway & Garay, 2014). The point of this program was to increase
customer engagement, and this once again demonstrates the influence
of gamification in marketing.

Gamification in the Workplace

Gamification can have the ability to enhance employee engagement

and employee loyalty in an organization. Incorporating game elements
in the workplace may also help build stronger relationships amongst
employees, which can help increase their morale and their productivity
in the workplace. This is why HR processes are beginning to adopt
gamification elements and techniques in their employee recruitment,
engagement, and onboarding processes (Yadav et al., 2020).

Yadav et al (2020) describes an example of gamification in employee

recruitment in the US Army recruitment process in 2002. They developed
a game called America’s Army, in which users could experience realistic
scenarios involving soldier duties. The game also collected user data
and identified individuals who could have potential to perform
well as a soldier. These users would be targeted by the US Army for
67
recruitment. This illustrates an example in which gamification was used
as a recruitment tool, and which reveals the impact of gamification
in the working world. A similar implementation of gamification was
used by the Marriott company for their recruitment process, as detailed
by Yadav et al (2020). Marriott came up with a Facebook game called
“My Marriott Hotel,” where users are immersed in a simulation where
they could perform hotel duty tasks. Depending on their performance
and management, users could be promoted to the next level. In the
game, users are presented a link that directs them to the Marriott
career website - furthermore, using data from the game, the user is
presented with the role that best matches their personality (Yadav et
al., 2020). The integration of gamification in this context demonstrates
the value that gamification can have for businesses, particularly for the
recruitment process.

Microsoft used gamification to solve one of their business challenges,

which was ensuring accurate translations in their products. To tackle
this challenge, they developed a game called “Language Quality Game,”
which could be played by any Mircorosft employee around the world.
The objective of the game was to find translation errors in Microsoft
products, and employees were rewarded points for every error they
found. There was also a leaderboard to track the top performing
employees. This use of gamification was successful, as it provided a
source of motivation for the employees to complete their tasks, and
hence increased their productivity (Yadav et al., 2020).

Potential Disadvantages about Integrating Gamification

in the Workplace

Integrating gamification in the workplace can lead to failure if not

implemented correctly. Yadav et al. (2020) explains the importance of
applying game elements in the workplace in a way that is actually fun
and engaging. The application of gamification should not be aimed at
exploiting the employee. Thus, it is important for a gamified solution
to properly combine the fun aspect of a game with the productive
aspect of work tasks. If this balance is not achieved, employees may feel
dissatisfied and unmotivated.

Perryer et al. (2016) offers an interesting perspective about the potential

drawbacks of gamification in the workplace. The researchers note
68
that the idea of imposing ‘play’ on employees defeats the spontaneity
and factor of choice that is found in traditional play, such as video
games. In the case of video games, the player can choose whether
they want to play, and when they want to play - there is a clear sense
of spontaneity and individual choice that goes into playing the game.
Perryer et al. (2016) describe this approach to play as ‘bottom-up,’
since the player gets to decide what and when to play depending on
what they perceive as fun. The problem with imposing gameplay in the
workplace is that it approaches ‘play’ in a top-down manner; this means
it is management that decides what is ‘fun’ and often introduces these
game elements without employees’ consent (Perryer et al., 2016) . This
takes away from the spontaneity as well as the factor of choice from the
players. In summary, these researchers urge organizations to take into
consideration the potential disadvantages that gamification can bring
to the workplace.

Gamification of Health

Yadav et al. (2020) state that gamification is one of the best ways to
motivate people to change their behaviours and habits. One example
of such behaviour is exercising: gamification can be used to motivate
people to exercise more frequently and to improve their health. This can
be seen in applications such as Fitocracy and Dacadoo, where users are
rewarded with points for their workout activities (Jeffries & Adrianne,
2011). These points can help the user advance to the next level. Users
can also get badges for completing a set of activities, or for achieving
a certain milestone. Some fitness applications, such as Health Month,
also introduced the concept of social gaming, in which successful
users can restore points of other users who have failed to meet their
fitness goal.

Chapter Summary

This chapter explored the many applications of gamification in everyday

life. One application of gamification that was explored in depth was
the integration of game elements in an educational setting. Using
rewards, points, and other incentives, educational instructors are able
to effectively engage their students and motivate them in the learning
process. Another example that was discussed in the chapter was the use
of gamification in marketing. Companies are able to use gamification as
69
a tactic to engage with their customers, as well as create stronger loyalty
to their brand. This chapter also explored the application of gamification
in the workplace, including its potential advantages as well as potential
drawbacks. Finally, this chapter discussed the potential of gamification
in improving people’s overall health and motivating people to exercise
more frequently. In all, this chapter revealed the increasing influence of
gamification in society.

70
 Chapter 10: Criticisms of Gamification

Introduction

In the past few years, the use of gamification in education, marketing

strategies, and employee incentives has grown significantly. Gamification
is the implementation of game or game elements into activities or
tasks found in everyday life. The growing popularity of gamification
has caused many individuals to support its use and others to critique
it. Gamification is controversial for appearing exploitative, being
over-simplified, and relying on extrinsic motivation. Furthermore,
gamification of things like gambling and involvement in the stock
market has been shown to increase addiction. This chapter will provide
the reader with a critique of gamification as well as understanding the
legalities surrounding gamification in society today.

A Critique of Gamification

Games Cannot Solve problems

In 2010, Jesse Schell, a well-known game designer, gave an address at

the Design, Innovate, Communicate, Entertain (DICE) conference
titled “Design Outside the Box” (Schell, 2010). In this presentation,
Schell (2010) described a world where every action and activity one
participates in, whether brushing their teeth, travelling to work or
making dinner, would be measured using sensor technology and
gamified . The goal, Schell described, was to help the world become
more driven and efficient, and ultimately a better place (Schell, 2010).
Not surprisingly, this speech was labelled as “the most disturbing
presentation of the year” (Hung, 2017). Jane McGonigal, agreed with
the notions of Schell in her book titled “Reality is Broken” where she
argued that the world is broken and riddled with problems, but with
71
the help of increased technology and game mechanics, citizens of the
world will more easily be able to solve these problems that riddle society
(McGonigal, 2011). Unfortunately, this mindset has been referred to as
“technological solutionism” (Hung, 2017). Technological solutionism
is a term that describes the action of jumping to technology for a
solution before the route of a problem is understood (Hung, 2017).
Many critics today would suggest that gamification facilitates trying to
solve somewhat uninvestigated problems with technology and “hoping
for the best” (Hung, 2017). These critics suggest that for a solution to
be successful, the problem must be properly defined and understood
(Hung, 2017).

Gamification, Pointsification, or exploitationware?

Many prominent figures in the realm of gamification avoid the use of

the term (Hung, 2017). But why? This is because many criticisms of
gamification stem from the term itself (2017). According to the Merriam-
Webster dictionary, gamification is the process of adding games to
something (such as a task) to encourage participation (Merriam-
Webster, n.d.). However, presentday gamification is not designed as
a full-fledged game. Rather, much of the gamification we see today is
the addition of certain game applications (Hung, 2017). Deterding et
al. (2011) note that “whereas serious games fulfill all necessary and
sufficient conditions for being a game, ‘gamified’ applications merely
use several design elements from games ‘’ (pg.12). So is gamification
really gamification?

Margaret Robertson decries that gamification should be referred to as

“pointsification” because it reduces a game to elements like points and
prizes (Meckler, 2014). She stated “[points and badgers] are great tools
for communicating progress and acknowledging effort, but neither
points nor badges in any way constitute a game...They are the least
important bit of a game, the bit that has the least to do with the rich
cognitive emotional and social drivers which gamifiers are intended to
connect with” (para 4). Therefore, Roberson is a clear supporter of the
theory that gamification puts emphasis on the most meaningless part of
games, and therefore, reduces learning and problem solving skills that
are the most beneficial part of games themselves (Hung, 2017).

72
Furthermore, Ian Bogost suggested the use of the term “exploitationware”
(Bogost, 2015). Bogost suggests that gamification is both reassuring and
easy (Bogost, 2015). It provides Vice Presidents and Brand Managers
with the comfort of knowing that they added a “games strategy” to
their product or service (Bogost, 2015). Bogost explained that in the
term gamification, the term “game”, meaning the complex work that
goes into designing a workable solution, is rendered meaningless by
“-ification” which involves “simple, repeatable, proven techniques or
devices: you can purify, beautify, falsify, terrify and so forth. -ification
is always easy and repeatable, and it’s usually bulls**t. Just add points”
(Bogost, 2015). Bogost (2011) suggests using the term expoitionware
instead because “gamification proposes to replace real incentives with
fictional ones. Real incentives come at a cost but provide value for both
parties based on a relationship of trust. By contrast, pretend incentives
reduce or eliminate costs, but in doing so, they strip away both value
and trust” (para. 5).

Gamification and Motivation

In 2010, Chis Hecker warned game designers not to blindly resort to

achievements (points, levels, leadership boards) but rather focus on
aspects of the game that provide players with intrinsic motivation
(Mekler, 2014). Intrinsic motivation is defined as the pursuit of an
activity because one finds it interesting or enjoyable (Mekler, 2014).
In contrast, external motivation refers to pursuing an activity for
rewards or to avoid punishment such as making a deadline, receiving
money, or getting points (Mekler, 2014). As described previously,
gamification makes use of extrinsic rewards to motivate individuals
within the workplace, in a store, or other aspects of daily life (Mekler,
2014). Interestingly enough, psychological studies show that extrinsic
motivation is for the most part ineffective and will eventually decrease
one’s intrinsic motivation for a said activity over time (Mekler, 2014).
However, a study conducted by Mekler et al. (2013) investigated the
effect of points, levels, and leaderboards on intrinsic motivation. This
study compared the performance of individuals and intrinsic motivation
in four versions of an image annotation task. The four versions included
the use of points, the use of levels, the use of leaderboards, and a control
condition with no game elements (Mekler et al., 2013). Unexpectedly,

73
the results of this study showed that although the groups with external
motivation were more productive than the control group, there was no
difference between groups regarding intrinsic motivation (Mekler et al.,
2013).

Gamification and Issues with Learning Analytics

Using gamification within a learning space poses its own set of challenges.
While it may be feasible for an instructor to monitor how gamification
is working in a small class, once the class size exceeds 15 students
monitoring student learning becomes increasingly more difficult
(Hung, 2017). In larger classes, most individuals rely on quantifiable
data to inform gamification rules and practises (Hung, 2017). For
example, many instructors use learning analytics to understand what
resources are being used most frequently by their students (Hung,
2017). Unfortunately, it should be noted that a student can click on a
resource without engaging with it, and therefore, basing gamification
effectiveness on the number of clicks, downloads, or views may not be
representative of learning (Hung, 2017). There are simply too many
variables that affect how often a student logs into their student account
and accesses the resources that often data regarding “engagement
levels” do not correlate with class success (Hung, 2017). Hung et al
(2017) says that “A gamified system based only on the number of logins,
forum visits, or resource views will not capture students’ performance
accurately and cannot be used as a useful tool to inform gamification.
This does not mean learning analytics are meaningless, and more
sophisticated tools are currently in development that may be able to dig
more deeply into what students do, but until these tools are properly
evaluated and made widely available, the utility of learning analytics as
a tool for gamification remains limited” (Pg. 62).

Can Gamification Be Illegal?

Gamification and Gambling

As discussed in previous chapters, many of the world’s most well-

known brands are capitalizing on gamification through the online
gambling industry. The online transition that the global Covid-19
pandemic brought in 2020 has caused an interest in online gambling,
however, interest in land-based casinos has slowed (Håkansson, 2020).
74
Gamification of gambling allows for an exciting “third dimension”
packed full of adventure. For example, a player could have fun trying to
beat their favourite character from a film while engaging in a side bet.
Casino Heroes is a well-known online adventure game that provides
its players with a mission to accomplish while playing their favourite
casino games (GGG, 2016).

The use of gamification in the online gambling world has allowed for
the retention of players. Retention consists of rewards, goals, status, and
feedback, four things that gamified gambling games provide (Richter
et al., 2014). For example, in a game such as Casino Heroes, players
are involved in a new community that rewards them with new levels,
special features, and money. They are also goals, customers are given a
task to complete. This element of retention is not found as often in land-
based casinos. Additionally, the characteristic constant interaction and
continually reaching targets in order to achieve higher ones in gamified
gambling have made it increasingly addicting.

Fantasy sports games have become increasingly popular as well. For

example, fantasy football, baseball, basketball, and soccer all encompass
the four features of retention. For example, in fantasy sports players
compete in a community against their peers. They have a goal to have
their selected players win. They are constantly ranked and will increase
and decrease in status as the season progresses. Finally, money and
special features are rewarded to the winners.

It is clear that gamification has made gambling fun and addictive.

Inevitably, legal issues and worries arise. For example, in the United
States of America, daily fantasy sports games have become illegal in
Arizona, Hawaii, Idaho, Louisiana, Montana, Nevada, and Washington
(Graw, 2020). In addition to this, some issues have been noted with
the accessibility of fantasy sport and other gamified gambling apps to
underaged individuals. In the past, minors could so easily download
these apps, lie about their age, and participate in addictive gamified
gambling activities. Research by the UK’s gambling commission
revealed that 450,000 children aged 11 to 16 wager money regularly, and
the number of children that are considered to have a gambling problem
have risen to over 50,000 within two years (Maroon, 2019). Currently,
online casinos and many sports-betting websites have regulations in
place to prevent online gambling like ID verification (Maroon, 2019).
75
However, as the previously shared statistics allude to, many children
are still finding ways to access online gamified gambling activities
(Maroon, 2019).

Gamification and the Stock Market

In 2020-2021, the COVID-19 pandemic had forced many individuals

throughout the globe to stay locked into their homes. Millions of
people around the world were bored, leading many to participate in
online gaming (McConnell, 2021). More specifically, many of these
individuals started to participate in the gamified stock market, using
online gamified trading apps like Robinhood (McConnell, 2021). This
app has a “Candy Crush-esque” design, where players are rewarded
for stock market transactions (McConnell, 2021). Players receive
commission-free trading and there is no minimum account balance, a
deal that sounds almost too good to be true (McConnell, 2021).

Is it too good to be true? Statistics show that Robinhood receives an

average of 18,955 dollars for every dollar in a user’s account (McConnell,
2021). But how is this possible? This company uses a practice known
as “order flow” (McConnell, 2021). This is a practice where a financial
firm will bid on or buy an order from a brokerage firm and decide
whether to execute the trade or pass the trade on to the open market
for comparison with other existing quotes (McConnell, 2021). Because
there are so many transactions made through Robinhood daily, order
flow creates significant revenue for this company (McConnell, 2021).
In 2019, the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority fined Robinhood
1.25 million for “best execution” violations after the brokerage firm
routed non-direct stock orders to a select few paying partners without
searching for better-priced alternatives (McConnell, 2021).

The consequences for inexperienced day traders that have been enticed
by and become addicted to the gamified Robinhood forum are dire.
For example, a young app user named Alexandre Kearns committed
suicide after seeing a balance of -730,000 on the app (McConnell, 2021).
Unfortunately, this terrible incident was not isolated (McConnell,
2021). Although many individuals in favour of the free market argue
that investors should be allowed to make their own mistakes. Others
criticize Robinhood and other trading apps like it, for capitalizing on
vulnerable populations that have succumbed to the addictive nature
76
of a gamified stock market (McConnell, 2021). As of yet, there have
been no regulations put in place to protect users from investing more
than they have, taking irresponsible risks, or “playing” without proper
education and training. However, these things may be established with
time and increased tragedies (McConnell, 2021).

Chapter Summary

This chapter gave a critique of gamification as well as dived into if

gamification is in fact illegal and why regulations may be put in place.

Firstly, this chapter discussed how gamification of life cannot

solve society’s many intricate problems. Jesse Schell as well as Jane
McGonigal both argued for gamification being used in almost every
activity in everyday life to produce a more productive and motivated
society. However, critics have deemed these ideologies as “technological
solutionism” where technology is being used to patch up problems that
are not yet fully understood. There is also criticism of “gamification”
as the right word to describe this technological movement. Critics
like Margaret Robertson as well as Ian Bogost suggest that terms like
“pointification” or “exploitationware” should be used instead. These
terms were suggested because gamification involved primarily the use
of points, rewards, rankings, and other extrinsic motivation tools rather
than incorporating problem solving tasks that could be used to increase
cognitive resilience and improve problem solving skills. Furthermore,
Bogost suggested that gamification essentially replaced real incentives
with fictional ones, stripping away both value and trust. Next, this
chapter discussed how extrinsic motivation that is used in gamification
may not be effective within the workplace and may or may not have
a detrimental effect on an individual’s intrinsic motivation towards a
specific task. Finally, this chapter discussed critics regarding gamification
and the use of learning analytics. For example, it was explained how a
gamified system that is based on the number of logins, site visits, or
resource visits does not effectively capture a student’s performance and
is not a predictor of success in the course.

Legalities surrounding gamification were discussed in the context of

gambling and the trade market. Specifically, this chapter discussed the
rise of online platforms for gamified gambling and its addictive nature.
Some gamified gambling apps, including daily fantasy sports apps, have
77
been banned in 7 states in the United States of America. Furthermore,
the increase in online gamified gambling platforms has increased
accessibility to underage users. For example, in 2019 more than 450,000
children between age 11-16 were involved in online underage gambling
in the UK. These shocking statistics have ignited discussions about
how to properly regulate these online platforms to limit underage use.
Furthermore, the use of gamification in online stock trading platforms
like Robinhood has elicited concern within the public. Individuals
with limited experience and no training now have access to this online
format for trading stocks that have been gamified to make it fun and
addictive. Unfortunately, there have been tragedies such as suicides
that have resulted from large monetary losses on these apps. Therefore,
discussions about possible regulations to protect users of these gamified
trading apps have been circulating.

It is the hope that this chapter has provided some information regarding
the criticism and regulations surrounding gamification. Hopefully, these
criticisms will be taken into consideration and changes will be made, so
that gamification can be a primarily positive tool within society.

78
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