Chapter 5

Logarithmic, Exponential, and
Other Transcendental Functions
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

The Natural Logarithmic
Function: Differentiation

Objectives
◼ Develop and use properties of the natural
logarithmic function.
◼ Understand the definition of the number e.
◼ Find derivatives of functions involving the natural

logarithmic function.
The Natural Logarithmic Function
The General Power Rule
has an important disclaimer—it doesn’t apply when

n = –1. Consequently, you have not yet found an
antiderivative for the function f(x) = 1/x.
In this section, you will use the Second Fundamental

Theorem of Calculus to define such a function.
This antiderivative is a function that you have not

encountered previously in the text.
It is neither algebraic nor trigonometric, but falls into a
new
class of functions called logarithmic functions.
This particular function is the natural logarithmic

function.
From this definition, you can see that ln x is positive for
x > 1 and negative for 0 < x < 1, as shown in Figure 5.1.
Moreover, ln(1) = 0, because the upper and lower limits of
integration are equal when x = 1.
Figure 5.1
To sketch the graph of y = ln x, you can think of the natural
logarithmic function as an antiderivative given by the
differential equation
Figure 5.2 is a computer-generated

graph, called a slope (or direction)
field, showing small line segments
of slope 1/x.
The graph of y = ln x is the solution

Figure 5.2
that passes through the point (1, 0).
The next theorem lists some basic properties of the
natural logarithmic function.
Using the definition of the natural logarithmic function, you
can prove several important properties involving operations
with natural logarithms. If you are already familiar with
logarithms, you will recognize that these properties are
characteristic of all logarithms.
Example 1 – Expanding Logarithmic Expressions
Example 1 – Expanding Logarithmic Expressions
cont’d
When using the properties of logarithms to rewrite
logarithmic functions, you must check to see whether
the domain of the rewritten function is the same as the
domain of the original.
For instance, the domain of f(x) = ln x2

is all real numbers except x = 0, and
the domain of g(x) = 2 ln x is all
positive real numbers. (See Figure 5.4.) Figure 5.4
The Number e
The Number e
It is likely that you have studied logarithms in an
algebra course. There, without the benefit of calculus,
logarithms would have been defined in terms of a base
number.
For example, common logarithms have a base of 10 and

therefore log1010 = 1.
The base for the natural logarithm is defined using the

fact that the natural logarithmic function is continuous,
is one-to-one, and has a range of ( , ).
The Number e
So, there must be a unique
real number x such that lnx = 1,
as shown in Figure 5.5.
This number is denoted by the

letter e. It can be shown that e is
irrational and has the following Figure 5.5
decimal approximation.
The Number e
Once you know that ln e = 1, you can use logarithmic

properties to evaluate the natural logarithms of several
other numbers.
The Number e
For example, by using the property
ln(en) = n ln e
= n(1)
=n
you can evaluate ln (en) for various values of n as shown
in the table and in Figure 5.6.
Figure 5.6
The Number e
The logarithms shown in the table are convenient
because the x–values are integer powers of e. Most
logarithmic functions are, however, best evaluated with
a calculator.
Example 2 – Evaluating Natural Logarithmic Expressions
The Derivative of the Natural
Logarithmic Function
The Derivative of the Natural Logarithmic Function
The derivative of the natural logarithmic function is

given in Theorem 5.3.
The first part of the theorem follows from the

definition of the natural logarithmic function as an
antiderivative.
The second part of the theorem is simply the Chain

Rule version of the first part.
Example 3 – Differentiation of Logarithmic Functions
On occasion, ot is convenient to use logarithms as aids in differentiating

nonlogarithmic functions.
This procedure is called logarithmic differentiation.

Example 6 – Logarithmic Differentiation
Find the derivative of
Solution:
Note that y > 0 for all x ≠ 2. So, ln y is defined.
Begin by taking the natural logarithm of each side of
the equation.
Then apply logarithmic properties and differentiate
implicitly. Finally, solve for y'.
Example 6 – Solution
cont’d
Because the natural logarithm is undefined for negative

numbers, you will often encounter expressions of the form
The next theorem states that you can differentiate
functions of the form as though the absolute value
notation was not present.
Example 7 – Derivative Involving Absolute Value
Find the derivative of
f(x) = ln | cosx |.
Solution:
Using Theorem 5.4, let u = cos x and write

The Natural Logarithmic
Function: Integration

Objectives
■ Use the Log Rule for Integration to integrate a rational
function.
■ Integrate trigonometric functions.
33
Log Rule for Integration
34
The differentiation rules
and
produce the following integration rule.
35
Because the second formula can also be
written as
36
Example 5 – Using Long Division Before Integrating
Find the indefinite integral.
Solution:
Begin by using long division to rewrite the integrand.
Now you can integrate to obtain
37
Example 5 – Solution cont’d
Check this result by differentiating to obtain the original

integrand.
38
The following are guidelines you can use for integration.
39
Example 7 – u-Substitution and the Log Rule
Solve the differential equation
Solution:
The solution can be written as an indefinite integral.
Because the integrand is a quotient whose denominator is

raised to the first power, you should try the Log Rule.
40
There are three basic choices for u. The choices u = x and

u = x ln x fail to fit the u'/u form of the Log Rule.
However, the third choice does fit. Letting u = lnx produces
u' = 1/x, and you obtain the following.
So, the solution is 41

Integrals of Trigonometric
Functions
42
Example 8 – Using a Trigonometric Identity
Find
Solution:
This integral does not seem to fit any formulas on our basic
list.
However, by using a trigonometric identity, you obtain
Knowing that Dx[cos x] = –sin x, you can let u = cos x and

write
43
44
Integrals of Trigonometric Functions
The integrals of the six basic trigonometric functions are
summarized below.
45

Inverse Functions

Objectives
◼ Verify that one function is the inverse function of another
function.
◼ Determine whether a function has an inverse function.
◼ Find the derivative of an inverse function.
48
Inverse Functions
49
Inverse Functions
50
Inverse Functions
Here are some important observations about inverse
functions.
1. If g is the inverse function of f, then f is the inverse

function of g.
2. The domain of f –1 is equal to the range of f, and the

range of f –1 is equal to the domain of f.
3. A function need not have an inverse function, but if it

does, the inverse function is unique.
51
Inverse Functions
This idea is generalized in the next theorem.
52
Figure 5.12
Existence of an Inverse Function
53
Not every function has an inverse function, and Theorem
5.6 suggests a graphical test for those that do—the
Horizontal Line Test for an inverse function.
This test states that a function f has an inverse function if

and only if every horizontal line intersects the graph of f at
most once (see Figure 5.13).
54
Figure 5.13
The next theorem formally states why the Horizontal Line
Test is valid.
55
The following guidelines suggest a procedure for finding an
inverse function.
56
Suppose you are given a function that is not one-to-one on
its domain.
By restricting the domain to an interval on which the

function is strictly monotonic, you can conclude that the
new function is one-to-one on the restricted domain.
57
Example 4 – Testing Whether a Function Is One-to-One
Show that the sine function

f(x) = sin x
is not one-to-one on the entire real line. Then show that
[–π/2, π/2] is the largest interval, centered at the origin, on
which f is strictly monotonic.
58
Example 4 – Solution
It is clear that f is not one-to-one, because many different
x-values yield the same y-value.
For instance,
sin(0) = 0 = sin(π)
Moreover, f is increasing on the open interval (–π/2, π/2),

because its derivative
f'(x) = cos x
is positive there.
59
Example 4 – Solution cont'd
Finally, because the left and right endpoints correspond to

relative extrema of the sine function, you can conclude that
f is increasing on the closed interval [–π/2, π/2] and that on
any larger interval the function is not strictly monotonic
(see Figure 5.16).
Figure 5.16 60
Derivative of an Inverse Function
61
The next two theorems discuss the derivative of an inverse
function.
62
63

Exponential Functions:
Differentiation and Integration

Objectives
◼ Develop properties of the natural exponential function.
◼ Differentiate natural exponential functions.
◼ Integrate natural exponential functions.
66
The Natural Exponential Function
67
The function f(x) = ln x is increasing on its entire domain,
and therefore it has an inverse function f –1.
The domain of f –1 is the set of all reals, and the range is the
set of positive reals, as shown in Figure 5.19.
Figure 5.19
68
So, for any real number x,
If x happens to be rational, then
Because the natural logarithmic function is one-to-one, you

can conclude that f –1(x) and ex agree for rational values of x.
69
The following definition extends the meaning of ex to
include all real values of x.
The inverse relationship between the natural logarithmic

function and the natural exponential function can be
summarized as follows.
70
The familiar rules for operating with rational exponents can
be extended to the natural exponential function, as shown in
the next theorem.
71
An inverse function f –1 shares many properties with f.
So, the natural exponential function inherits the following

properties from the natural logarithmic function.
72
73
Derivatives of Exponential
Functions
74
Derivatives of Exponential Functions
One of the most intriguing (and useful) characteristics of
the natural exponential function is that it is its own
derivative.
In other words, it is a solution to the differential equation

y' = y. This result is stated in the next theorem.
75
Integrals of Exponential Functions
76
Each differentiation formula in Theorem 5.11 has a
corresponding integration formula.
77

Exponential Functions:

Objectives
◼ Develop properties of the natural exponential function.
◼ Differentiate natural exponential functions.
◼ Integrate natural exponential functions.
80
81
The function f(x) = ln x is increasing on its entire domain,
and therefore it has an inverse function f –1.
The domain of f –1 is the set of all reals, and the range is the
set of positive reals, as shown in Figure 5.19.
Figure 5.19
82
So, for any real number x,
If x happens to be rational, then
Because the natural logarithmic function is one-to-one, you

can conclude that f –1(x) and ex agree for rational values of x.
83
The following definition extends the meaning of ex to
include all real values of x.
The inverse relationship between the natural logarithmic

function and the natural exponential function can be
summarized as follows.
84
An inverse function f –1 shares many properties with f.
So, the natural exponential function inherits the following

properties from the natural logarithmic function.
85
86
Derivatives of Exponential
Functions
87
Derivatives of Exponential Functions
One of the most intriguing (and useful) characteristics of
the natural exponential function is that it is its own
derivative.
In other words, it is a solution to the differential equation

y' = y. This result is stated in the next theorem.
88
89
Each differentiation formula in Theorem 5.11 has a
corresponding integration formula.
90

Bases Other Than e and
Applications

Objectives
◼ Define exponential functions that have bases other than
e.
◼ Differentiate and integrate exponential functions that

have bases other than e.
◼ Use exponential functions to model compound interest

and exponential growth.
93
Bases Other than e
94
Bases Other than e
The base of the natural exponential function is e. This
“natural” base can be used to assign a meaning to a
general base a.
95
Bases Other than e
These functions obey the usual laws of exponents. For
instance, here are some familiar properties.
1. a0 = 1 2. axay = ax + y
3. 4. (ax)y = axy
When modeling the half-life of a radioactive sample, it is

convenient to use as the base of the exponential model.
(Half-life is the number of years required for half of the
atoms in a sample of radioactive material to decay.)
96
Bases Other than e
Logarithmic functions to bases other than e can be defined in
much the same way as exponential functions to other bases
are defined.
97
Bases Other than e
Logarithmic functions to the base a have properties similar
to those of the natural logarithmic function.
1. loga 1 = 0
2. loga xy = loga x + loga y
3. loga xn = n loga x
4. loga = loga x – loga y
From the definitions of the exponential and logarithmic

functions to the base a, it follows that f(x) = ax and
g(x) = loga x are inverse functions of each other.
98
Bases Other than e
The logarithmic function to the base 10 is called the

common logarithmic function. So, for common
logarithms,
99
100
To differentiate exponential and logarithmic functions to
other bases, you have three options:
(1) use the definitions of ax and loga x and differentiate

using the rules for the natural exponential and
logarithmic functions,
(2) use logarithmic differentiation, or
(3) use the following differentiation rules for bases other

than e given in the next theorem.
101
102
Occasionally, an integrand involves an exponential function
to a base other than e. When this occurs, there are two
options:
(1) convert to base e using the formula ax = e(In a)x and then
integrate, or
(2) integrate directly, using the integration formula
which follows from Theorem 5.13.

103
104
Applications of Exponential
Functions
105
Applications of Exponential Functions
As n increases, the balance A approaches a limit. To
develop this limit, use the following theorem.
106
Applications of Exponential Functions
Given Theorem 5.15, take another look at the formula for
the balance A in an account in which the interest is
compounded n times per year. By taking the limit as n
approaches infinity, you obtain
107

Inverse Trigonometric
Functions: Differentiation

Objectives
◼ Develop properties of the six inverse trigonometric
functions.
◼ Differentiate an inverse trigonometric function.
◼ Review the basic differentiation rules for elementary

functions.
110
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
111
None of the six basic trigonometric functions has an
inverse function.
This statement is true because all six trigonometric

functions are periodic and therefore are not one-to-one.
In this section, you will examine these six functions to see

whether their domains can be redefined in such a way that
they will have inverse functions on the restricted domains.
112
Under suitable restrictions, each of the six trigonometric
functions is one-to-one and so has an inverse function, as
shown in the following definition.
113
The graphs of the six inverse trigonometric functions are
shown in Figure 5.26.
114
Figure 5.26
Example 1 – Evaluating Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Evaluate each function.
Solution:
a. By definition, implies that
In the interval [ –π/2, π/2], the correct value of y is
–π/6.
115
Example 1 – Solution (cont)
cont’d
b. By definition, y = arccos 0 implies that cos y = 0. In the

interval [0,π], you have y = π/2.
c. By definition, implies that In

the interval [ –π/2, π/2], you have y = π/3.
d. Using a calculator set in radian mode produces
116
Inverse functions have the properties
f (f –1(x)) = x and f –1(f (x)) = x.
When applying these properties to inverse trigonometric

functions, remember that the trigonometric functions have
inverse functions only in restricted domains.
For x-values outside these domains, these two properties

do not hold.
For example, arcsin(sin π) is equal to 0, not π.

117
118
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric
Functions
119
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The derivative of the transcendental function f (x) = ln x is

the algebraic function f'(x) = 1/x.
You will now see that the derivatives of the inverse

trigonometric functions also are algebraic (even though the
inverse trigonometric functions are themselves
transcendental).
120
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The next theorem lists the derivatives of the six inverse

trigonometric functions. Note that the derivatives of arccos
u, arccot u, and arccsc u are the negatives of the
derivatives of arcsin u, arctan u, and arcsec u, respectively.
121
Review of Basic Differentiation
Rules
122
Review of Basic Differentiation Rules
An elementary function is a function from the following list
or one that can be formed as the sum, product, quotient, or
composition of functions in the list.
123
Review of Basic Differentiation Rules
With the differentiation rules introduced so far in the text,
you can differentiate any elementary function.
For convenience, these differentiation rules are
summarized below.
124
Review of Basic Differentiation Rules cont’d
125

Inverse Trigonometric
Functions: Integration

Objectives
■ Integrate functions whose antiderivatives involve inverse
trigonometric functions.
■ Use the method of completing the square to integrate a

function.
■ Review the basic integration rules involving elementary

functions.
128
Integrals Involving Inverse
Trigonometric Functions
129
Integrals Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The derivatives of the six inverse trigonometric functions

fall into three pairs. In each pair, the derivative of one
function is the negative of the other.
For example,
and
130
When listing the antiderivative that corresponds to each of

the inverse trigonometric functions, you need to use only
one member from each pair.
It is conventional to use arcsin x as the antiderivative

of rather than –arccos x.
131
132
Completing the Square
133
Completing the Square
Completing the square helps when quadratic functions are
involved in the integrand.
For example, the quadratic x2 + bx + c can be written as the

difference of two squares by adding and subtracting (b/2)2.
134
Example 4 – Completing the Square
Solution:
You can write the denominator as the sum of two squares,
as follows.
x2 – 4x + 7 = (x2 – 4x + 4) – 4 + 7
= (x – 2)2 + 3
= u2 + a2
135
Now, in this completed square form, let u = x – 2 and a = .
136
Review of Basic Integration Rules
137
Review of Basic Integration Rules
You have now completed the introduction of the basic
integration rules. To be efficient at applying these rules,
you should have practiced enough so that each rule is
committed to memory.
138
Review of Basic Integration Rules cont’d
139

Hyperbolic Functions

Objectives
◼ Develop properties of hyperbolic functions.
◼ Differentiate and integrate hyperbolic functions.
◼ Develop properties of inverse hyperbolic functions.
◼ Differentiate and integrate functions involving inverse

hyperbolic functions.
142
143
You will look at a special class of exponential functions
called hyperbolic functions. The name hyperbolic function
arose from comparison of the area of a semicircular region,
as shown in Figure 5.29, with the area of a region under a
hyperbola, as shown in Figure 5.30.
Figure 5.29 Figure 5.30 144

The integral for the semicircular region involves an inverse
trigonometric (circular) function:
The integral for the hyperbolic region involves an inverse

hyperbolic function:
This is only one of many ways in which the hyperbolic

functions are similar to the trigonometric functions. 145
146
The graphs of the six hyperbolic functions and their domains and ranges are
shown in Figure 5.31.
147
Figure 5.31
Note that the graph of sinh x can be obtained by adding the
corresponding y-coordinates of the exponential functions
and
Likewise, the graph of cosh x can be obtained by adding

the corresponding y-coordinates of the exponential
functions and
148
Many of the trigonometric identities have corresponding
hyperbolic identities.
For instance,
149
150
Differentiation and Integration of
151
Differentiation and Integration of Hyperbolic Functions
Because the hyperbolic functions are written in terms of ex

and e–x, you can easily derive rules for their derivatives.
The following theorem lists these derivatives with the
corresponding integration rules.
152
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
153
Unlike trigonometric functions, hyperbolic functions are not
periodic.
You can see that four of the six hyperbolic functions are
actually one-to-one (the hyperbolic sine, tangent, cosecant,
and cotangent).
So, you can conclude that these four functions have inverse
functions.
The other two (the hyperbolic cosine and secant) are

one-to-one if their domains are restricted to the positive real
numbers, and for this restricted domain they also have
inverse functions. 154
Because the hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of
exponential functions, it is not surprising to find that the
inverse hyperbolic functions can be written in terms of
logarithmic functions, as shown in Theorem 5.19.
155
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions:
156
Differentiation and Integration of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
The derivatives of the inverse hyperbolic functions, which

resemble the derivatives of the inverse trigonometric
functions, are listed in Theorem 5.20 with the corresponding
integration formulas (in logarithmic form).
You can verify each of these formulas by applying the

logarithmic definitions of the inverse hyperbolic functions.
157
Differentiation and Integration of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
158

Chapter 5

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 5

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 5

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Logarithmic, Exponential, and

Other Transcendental Functions

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

◼ Understand the definition of the number e.

◼ Find derivatives of functions involving the natural

has an important disclaimer—it doesn’t apply when

In this section, you will use the Second Fundamental

This antiderivative is a function that you have not

This particular function is the natural logarithmic

Figure 5.2 is a computer-generated

The graph of y = ln x is the solution

For instance, the domain of f(x) = ln x2

For example, common logarithms have a base of 10 and

The base for the natural logarithm is defined using the

This number is denoted by the

Once you know that ln e = 1, you can use logarithmic

The derivative of the natural logarithmic function is

The first part of the theorem follows from the

The second part of the theorem is simply the Chain

On occasion, ot is convenient to use logarithms as aids in differentiating

This procedure is called logarithmic differentiation.

Because the natural logarithm is undefined for negative

Find the derivative of

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

■ Integrate trigonometric functions.

produce the following integration rule.

Find the indefinite integral.

Now you can integrate to obtain

Check this result by differentiating to obtain the original

Solve the differential equation

Because the integrand is a quotient whose denominator is

There are three basic choices for u. The choices u = x and

So, the solution is 41

Knowing that Dx[cos x] = –sin x, you can let u = cos x and

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

◼ Determine whether a function has an inverse function.

◼ Find the derivative of an inverse function.

1. If g is the inverse function of f, then f is the inverse

2. The domain of f –1 is equal to the range of f, and the

3. A function need not have an inverse function, but if it

This test states that a function f has an inverse function if

By restricting the domain to an interval on which the

Show that the sine function

Moreover, f is increasing on the open interval (–π/2, π/2),

Finally, because the left and right endpoints correspond to

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

◼ Differentiate natural exponential functions.

◼ Integrate natural exponential functions.

If x happens to be rational, then

Because the natural logarithmic function is one-to-one, you

The inverse relationship between the natural logarithmic

So, the natural exponential function inherits the following

In other words, it is a solution to the differential equation

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.