Food Safety and Hygiene Practices

 wash and dry your hands thoroughly before handling food, and wash and dry them again frequently during work
 dry your hands with a clean towel, disposable paper towel or under an air dryer
 never smoke, chew gum, spit, change a baby’s nappy or eat in a food handling or food storage area
 never cough or sneeze over food, or where food is being prepared or stored
 wear clean protective clothing, such as an apron
 keep your spare clothes and other personal items (including mobile phones) away from where food is stored and prepared
 tie back or cover long hair
 keep fingernails short so they are easy to clean, and don’t wear nail polish because it can chip into the food
 avoid wearing jewelry, or only wear plain-banded rings and sleeper earrings
 completely cover all cuts and wounds with a wound strip or bandage (brightly colored waterproof bandages are
recommended)
 wear disposable gloves over the top of the wound strip if you have wounds on your hands
 change disposable gloves regularly
 advise your supervisor if you feel unwell, and don’t handle food.

Cleaning and Sanitizing of Utensils, Equipments used in food preparation and Kitchen Premises

Cleaning is the removal of all dirt, such as dust, grease, food scraps and other deposits, from the surface of all equipment and
food areas. This can be completed by:

 scraping
 rinsing
 washing
 rinsing again to remove all the soap.

Sanitizing is the process of sterilizing (killing bacteria) in an area by using a chemical product and following usual cleaning
procedures. Bleach is the base of most sanitizing products, and must be used according to the directions on the label.

Heat is also an effective sanitizer. When water and oven temperatures are used to sanitize equipment, temperature must be over
75ºC. Most commercial dishwashers can be set at minimum temperatures to ensure utensils are free from bacteria.
Stock

Stock is a flavored liquid preparation. It forms the basis of many dishes, particularly soups, stews and sauces. Making stocks
involves simmering animal bones or meat, seafood, or vegetables in water or wine, adding mirepoix or other aromatics for more
flavor.

Elements of a Stock

A stock is composed of four ingredients: the nourishing element, mirepoix, bouquet garni, and liquid. These ingredients are
usually mixed in the following proportions to make most stocks:

 5 parts nourishing element

 1 part mirepoix
 bouquet garni
 10 parts liquid

Nourishing Element

The most important ingredient in a stock is the nourishing element. A nourishing element includes any one or a combination of the
following: Fresh bones (beef, lamb, chicken, fish, veal, or game) Meat trimmings Fish trimmings for fish stock Vegetables for
vegetable stock The nourishing element provides flavor, nutrients, and color. Some nourishing elements may bring other benefits
to the stock, such as bones, which add gelatin.

Mirepoix

Mirepoix is a mix of coarsely chopped vegetables that is used in a stock to add flavor, nutrients, and color. The ingredients vary
with each recipe, but usually include two parts onions, one part celery, and one part carrots.

Bouquet Garni

French for garnished bouquet, a bouquet garni is a combination of fresh herbs and vegetables, such as carrots, leeks, celery,
thyme, and parsley stems, that are tied in a bundle with butcher’s twine. This bundle is added directly to the liquid and is allowed
to simmer. The bouquet garni is removed before the stock is used in other foods.

Liquid

Liquid, almost always in the form of water, makes up the largest portion of stock. The liquid used to make stock should be cold
when you begin to cook. This brings out the maximum flavor of the ingredients and prevents the stock from turning cloudy. When
all the ingredients are prepared, the ratio of liquid to the nourishing element should be 2 to 1.
Types of Stocks

White Stock

A white stock is made from chicken, beef, veal, or fish bones simmered with vegetables. White stock is generally colorless while
it is cooking. To keep the stock as clear as possible, you may blanch the bones before adding them. However, some chefs think
doing so causes flavor to be lost.

Brown Stock

Brown stock is made from either beef, veal, chicken, or game. It gets its color from roasting the ingredients without water, in a hot
oven. The browned bones, mirepoix, and tomatoes or tomato product combine to give a brown stock its color. This mixture is then
transferred to a stockpot and simmered along with water and herbs.

Fish Stock

Fish stock is made by slowly cooking the bones of lean fish or shellfish. The procedure to make fish stock is the same as to make
a white stock, although the cooking time for fish stock is shorter. If lemon juice or other acids are added to the water, the result is
a flavorful liquid called a fumet. A fumet is more strongly flavored than regular fish stock since it is reduced by 50%.

Vegetable Stock

Vegetable stocks, which do not include meat products, are an important addition to many healthful dishes. In addition, vegetable
stock forms the base for many vegetarian and vegan dishes. The basic ingredients of a vegetable stock are vegetables, herbs,
spices, and water. Proportions and kinds of vegetables will vary with different recipes. Vegetable stock needs to be simmered only
30 to 45 minutes. If you want a particular flavor of vegetable stock, use more of that vegetable. Then, add neutral-tasting
vegetables such as celery and onions to round out the flavor. All-purpose vegetable stock does not include strongly flavored
vegetables, such as artichokes, brussels sprouts, or cauliflower. These vegetables tend to overpower other flavors. Some dark-
green, leafy vegetables, such as spinach, develop an unpleasant odor when they are cooked for too long.

Glazes

A glaze is a stock that is reduced and concentrated. This results in a flavorful, thick, and syrupy liquid that turns solid when it is
refrigerated. Glazes are created through reduction. Reduction is the process of evaporating part of a stock’s water through
simmering or boiling. Small amounts of glaze can be used to flavor sauces, vegetables, meat, poultry, and fish.
How to Prepare White Stock

1. Cut bones into 3- to 4-inch piecess. Chicken and fish bones do not need to be cut.
2. Rinse the bones in cold water to remove any impurities. You can blanch the bones, if desired. Place the bones in a
stockpot.
3. Add cold water until the bones are completely covered. Cold water dissolves impurities and blood in the bones it covers.
These impurities will clump and rise to the surface when the water heats, where they can be skimmed off the top. Using
hot water will cause the impurities to clump too rapidly. This prevents them from rising to the top and results in a cloudy
stock.
4. Bring water to a boil. Then, reduce it to a simmer to slowly release the full flavor of the ingredients.
5. To keep the stock clear, use a skimmer or ladle to remove any impurities and fat from the surface. Skim as needed.
6. Add the mirepoix. Boiling makes the stock cloudy, so keep the water at a simmer.
7. Make sure liquid is still completely covering the bones. Bones will not release their flavor unless they are under water,
and will darken if exposed to air.
8. For the best flavor, simmer stock for the recommended amount of time: Fish bones: 30-45 minutes Chicken bones: 3-4
hours Beef or veal bones: 6-8 hours
9. Skim all of the impurities and fat from the stock.
10. Cool the stock quickly, as discussed later in this section.

Brown Stock

The steps to make white stocks and brown stocks are mostly the same. The main difference is that for brown stocks, the bones and
mirepoix are browned by roasting. Follow these steps for brown stock:

1. Cut the beef or veal bones into 3- to 4-inch pieces.

2. Browning is slowed down by moisture, so do not wash or blanch the bones.
3. Place the bones one layer deep in a roasting pan.
4. Roast bones in the oven at 375°F (191°C) or higher for more than an hour, stirring occasionally. Some chefs lightly oil the
bones before browning.
5. Place the browned bones in a stockpot and cover with water. Bring the water to a simmer.
6. Reserve, or keep, the excess fat from the roasting pan.
7. Deglaze the pan with water. To deglaze means to add a liquid and stir over heat until the drippings are dissolved.
8. Add the deglazed mixture to the stockpot.
9. Combine the mirepoix and reserved fat in a pan, while the bones are beginning to simmer. Brown in the oven or on top of the
range.
10. Skim impurities and fat from the stock as it begins to simmer.
11. Add the tomatoes or tomato product and caramelized vegetables to the stockpot, up to three or four hours before the end of
cooking. Do not stir the stock or it will become cloudy. Continue following the steps for making white stock.

How to Prepare a Glaze

1. Place a large quantity of stock in a heavy pan.

2. Bring the stock to a simmer.
3. Skim the surface as needed.
4. Clean the sides of the pan with a moistened, natural-bristle brush as the stock reduces and becomes syrupy.
5. Transfer the stock to a smaller pan when reduced by half to two-thirds.
6. Continue to reduce until the stock coats a spoon.
7. Strain the stock through a chinois, or china cap, and pour into containers.
8. Follow recommended procedures for cooling stock; then label, date, and refrigerate or freeze the containers.
Sauce Basics

One of the best ways to add flavor and excitement to any dish is with a good sauce. In fact, a good sauce can turn a mediocre, or
average, dish into a memorable one. People enjoy sauces with a variety of foods, from chicken to vegetable dishes. Learning to
make a good sauce is a basic step toward becoming a great cook. Generally, a sauce is a flavored, thickened liquid. It is usually
formed by adding a thickening agent, seasonings, and flavorings to stock. A thickening agent is an ingredient, such as cornstarch,
that adds body to the sauce. Two sauces that are not made with stock are béchamel, a basic French white sauce made with milk
and a thickener, and hollandaise sauce. Hollandaise sauce is made from lemon juice, butter, and eggs. Sauces are meant to
complement the foods they accompany. They should never overpower or detract from the food. It takes a lot of time to make a
good sauce. Many restaurants use condensed or powdered commercial bases mixed with water to create stocks. The stocks and
sauces then do not need to be reduced, since there is no gelatin in these commercial bases. Although quality may be a concern,
these bases do guarantee a consistent flavor and texture. Premade sauces are also available, but they may not have the flavor of
freshly made sauces.

Sauce Ingredients

Sauces are made of liquid ingredients, thickening agents, and seasonings and flavorings. Classic sauces rely on combinations of a
few basic ingredients.

Liquid Ingredients

The liquid ingredient in most sauces serves as the base, or body. You will commonly use some type of stock as the base for a
sauce. You may use white stock made from chicken, veal, or fish. Other sauces call for brown stock. Vinegar or tomato products
may be added to sauces for acidity. Sometimes milk is used as a base. Clarified or drawn butter is another liquid ingredient in
sauces.

Thickening Agents

A major difference between stocks and sauces is that a sauce must be thickened. Most thickening agents are forms of starch.
Starch granules will absorb moisture when placed in a liquid, a process called gelatinization. Most sauces use this process in
thickening. A good sauce will have these four characteristics:

 No lumps
 A flavor that is not floury or pasty
 Sticks to the back of a spoon
 Will not break apart when it cooks down

Thickening agents include flour, cornstarch, arrowroot, instant starches, bread crumbs, and vegetable purées.

Flour Bread or all-purpose flour is most often used to thicken the fat from the pan in which the entrée has been sautéed. Flour
may also be combined with butter that has just been melted as a quick way to thicken a sauce or soup.

Cornstarch Cornstarch is a powdery, dense flour with almost twice the thickening power of flour. It is often used in desserts and
sweet sauces. A sauce made with cornstarch will be almost clear in appearance and have a glossy texture.

Arrowroot Arrowroot is similar to cornstarch, but more expensive. It is made from the roots of several tropical plants. Arrowroot
creates a clearer sauce than cornstarch does. It is also used in frozen foods because the sauce will not break down when it is frozen
and then reheated.

Instant Starches Instant starches have been dried after being cooked. They can thicken a liquid without being heated. They are
used more commonly in baking than in sauce making.

Bread Crumbs Because they are cooked, bread crumbs can thicken a liquid quickly. Keep in mind, however, that a sauce that is
thickened with bread crumbs will not be smooth.

Vegetable Purées A purée is a food that has been mashed, strained, or finely chopped into a smooth pulp. Purées can be used to
thicken sauces. A vegetable, such as potatoes, or a combination of vegetables may be cooked with herbs, spices, and other
flavorings and then puréed. If you need to thin a purée, add water, cream, or stock. A coulis is a sauce made from a fruit or
vegetable purée. Vegetable purées and coulis are healthful choices because they do not rely on the fat content of the heavier
sauces.

Seasonings and Flavorings

The liquid ingredients may make up the basic flavor of most sauces, but the seasonings and flavorings you include will add the
finishing touches. You can change the character of your sauce simply by changing an ingredient or two. You already know that
seasonings and flavorings can be used to enhance the flavors of a dish. Salt, pepper, mustard, vinegar, spices, and herbs can all
change the flavor of a sauce.
Thickening by Reduction

Sauces are also thickened by reduction, the process of simmering down a liquid. A liquid can be cooked down to one-half or one-
fourth of its original amount. This concentrates the flavor even more, because the amount of water is reduced. Use several layers
of cheesecloth and a china cap to strain the sauce for the greatest smoothness. Cheesecloth is a loose-woven cotton cloth used in
cheesemaking and cooking. Straining will also remove the stems and leaves of any spices, herbs, or other seasonings. This will not
remove the flavor. Sauces will be judged by their quality in the following categories:

 Appearance, for shine and color

 Flavor
 Texture, or smoothness
 Thickness, as appropriate to the type of sauce
 Clarity, or how clear it is

Storage

Sauces are generally prepared to be used the same day. If a sauce must be stored, pour melted butter on top or cover the sauce
with oiled parchment paper before storing. This will reduce the amount of fat that will come to the surface of the sauce. Sauces
should be labeled, dated, and kept refrigerated. Place the sauce in a plastic storage container with a tight-fitting lid.
Mother Sauces

The five basic sauces are known as mother sauces, or grand sauces. These sauces are all made by combining a liquid with a
thickening agent. Compound sauces are made from these mother sauces. For example, a mother sauce such as béchamel forms the
basis for an additional five sauces.

1. Sauce Espagnole Made from thickened brown stock, sauce espagnole, which is French for Spanish sauce, also contains
some type of tomato product. In general, this type of sauce has few added seasonings. Demi-glace is made from sauce
espagnole. It is half espagnole sauce and half brown stock that has been reduced by half. Demi-glace comes from the
French for half-glaze. Demiglace forms the basis for many compound brown sauces. Some chefs use demi-glace more
often than they use espagnole sauce as an individual sauce.
2. Tomato Sauce Tomato sauce is made by simmering a tomato product with flavorings, seasonings, and stock or another
liquid. Although basic tomato sauce is made with vegetables only, some variations add meat. Tomato sauce is a very
versatile sauce.
3. Béchamel Sauce Also known as a cream sauce or a white sauce, this mother sauce is made by thickening milk with a
white roux, seasonings, and flavorings. A roux is a cooked mixture made from equal parts of fat and flour by weight.
4. Velouté From the French word for velvety, velouté sauce, also known as blond sauce, is made by thickening a light-
colored stock with a light-colored roux. The sauce is named after the type of stock it contains.
5. Hollandaise Sauce From the French word for Dutch, hollandaise sauce is made from emulsified egg yolks, clarified
butter, seasonings, and often lemon juice. Emulsifying takes place when substances, such as water and oil, are mixed
with an emulsifier like egg yolks. Once mixed, these substances will not separate.

Other Sauces

From the five basic mother sauces come hundreds of different compound sauces. For example, adding olive oil and herbs to a
basic tomato sauce creates a marinara sauce. Not all sauces, however, come from these mother sauces. Some sauces are made
from a purée of fruits or vegetables. Other sauces are made from meat juices or butter.

 Salsa
Salsas can include a combination of raw vegetables or fruits, spices, onions, and chiles. They can be used for more
than dipping vegetables or chips, however. Salsas can also be used as sauces for potatoes, poultry, meat, or fish
entrees.
 Relishes
Relishes are another type of sauce. Often made with fruits or vegetables, this sauce may be used as a condiment or a
sauce for meat, poultry, and fish. The sauce may be cooked or pickled, meaning preserved in a seasoned solution of
vinegar or brine. Relishes may be sweet, savory, or spicy. They also vary in texture from smooth to chunky.
 Gravy
Gravy is a type of sauce made from meat or poultry juices; a liquid such as milk, cream, or broth; and a thickening
agent such as a roux. Pan gravy is made from the deglazed pan drippings of roasted meat or poultry. The pan gravy
is served with the meat. You may also serve gravy with a side dish such as mashed potatoes.
 Compound Butters
You can make a compound butter by adding seasonings to softened butter. You may have eaten at a restaurant where
herbs, such as basil, chives, or parsley, have been blended into the butter served with the bread. Sometimes a
compound butter is placed on top of a piece of fish or meat just before serving it. As the butter melts, it flavors the
food. It also makes an elegant presentation.
 Independent Sauces
Applesauce, cocktail sauce, sweet and sour sauce, and barbecue sauce are four common examples of independent
sauces. These sauces may be served hot or cold.