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Relationship between vertical jumping performance and anthropometric

characteristics during growth in boys and girls

Article in European Journal of Pediatrics · August 2008

DOI: 10.1007/s00431-008-0771-5 · Source: PubMed

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Eur J Pediatr (2009) 168:457–464
DOI 10.1007/s00431-008-0771-5

ORIGINAL PAPER

Relationship between vertical jumping performance

and anthropometric characteristics during growth
in boys and girls
Abdou Temfemo & Jullien Hugues & Karen Chardon &
Samuel-Honoré Mandengue & Said Ahmaidi

Received: 20 March 2008 / Accepted: 20 May 2008 / Published online: 3 July 2008
# Springer-Verlag 2008

Abstract The aim of the study was to compare vertical Keywords Child . Growth . Performance . Vertical jumping
jumping performances in boys and girls during growth. The
maximum heights attained in a countermovement jump
(CMJ) and squat jump (SJ) were measured using an Introduction
Ergojump Bosco System. Average power output (PO) was
recorded, and percentage of fast-twitch (%FT) muscle fiber During growth, children’s daily tasks, games, or sporting
distribution was estimated during the rebound jump. events often involve short-term, high-intensity exercise.
Differences in the maximum CMJ and SJ (CMJ–SJ) heights However, the relationships between performance and age
were calculated. Regressions between PO and age, lean remain poorly documented, particularly in girls [29, 30].
body mass (LBM), and leg muscle volume (LMV), This is partly attributable to the lack of valid and
respectively, were computed for 240 boys and 239 girls appropriate testing protocols. For ethical reasons, the
(aged 11–16 years). Height, LMV, and body mass values measurement of anaerobic metabolism by biopsy is not
were larger in boys than girls aged 14 years. Both groups possible in exercising children. Consequently, research
had a similar body mass index independently of age. The efforts have focused on the measurement of maximal
CMJ, SJ, PO, and %FT were larger in boys than in girls short-term power output [14, 28–30]. There are several
between 12 and 16 years of age. Strong correlations were investigations dealing with the changes in anthropometric
found between PO and age in the population as a whole, characteristics during growth in boys and girls [1, 10, 15,
and between PO and LBM, PO and LMV in each group. 28, 29]. In terms of performance, Klausen et al. [24]
The CMJ–SJ decreased with increasing age in both groups reported the absence of a sex difference between girls and
without significant differences. Conclusion Jumping per- boys aged 10–13 years. However, they did report an
formance increases during growth, with gender differences increase in height jump in boys from 13 to 15 years of
manifesting from 14 years onwards due to the much greater age, and stable performance in girls during the same 3-year
increase in leg length and LMV in boys than in girls. period. Malina and Bouchard [26] found, after combining
the results of several studies, that jump heights doubled
A. Temfemo : J. Hugues : S.-H. Mandengue : S. Ahmaidi (*)
between ages 5 and 13 years and were similar in boys and
Faculté des Sciences du Sports, EA 3300, “Adaptations girls. These researchers reported sex differences in jump
Physiologiques à l’Exercice et Réadaptation à l’Effort”, height with larger increases in height for boys compared to
Université de Picardie Jules Verne, girls at puberty. Their results showed a highly significant
Avenue P. Claudel,
difference in jump performance between boys and girls
80025 Amiens Cedex, France
e-mail: [email protected] from the age of 14 years onwards. However, the observed
jumping performance changes remain questionable [29, 30]
K. Chardon since the relationships between physical performance and
Faculté de Médecine, EA 3901,
anthropometric characteristics during growth in boys and
Université de Picardie Jules Verne,
3 rue des Louvels, girls were not studied. In addition, most studies comprised
80000 Amiens Cedex, France small groups of children who were tested using the force-
458 Eur J Pediatr (2009) 168:457–464

velocity test [30] or Wingate anaerobic test [14] and when 2003 and 2005 (240 boys and 239 girls). They were
components of force and velocity are considered in jump instructed to jump as quickly as possible to a maximum
performance [15], it is of major interest to investigate the height during each trial. The children were properly
percentage of fast twitch muscle fibers as the parameter familiarized with the procedure in order to avoid unneces-
provides information on muscle force during growth. sary countermovement during the SJ.
The objective of this study was to determine the
relationships between the anthropometric characteristics Anthropometric characteristics
[leg length, leg muscle volume, lean body mass, and
percentage of fast-twitch (%FT) muscle fibers] and the Initial anthropometric measurements, including standing
vertical jumping performance in boys and girls during body height, leg length, body mass index (BMI), body mass
ballistic type activities, such as the squat jump (SJ), (BM), lean body mass (LBM), leg muscle volume (LMV),
countermovement jump (CMJ), and consecutive counter- and percentage of fat body mass (%fat), were carried out.
movement or rebound jump (RJ) [5, 6]. The CMJ and SJ Height, leg length, BM, upper-thigh circumference, middle-
were chosen because they have been found to be the most thigh circumference, under kneecap circumference, maxi-
reliable and valid field tests for assessing the explosive mum calf circumference, intercondylar distance, ankle
power output of the lower limbs in physically active circumference, and the bicipital, tricipital, subscapular,
subjects [27]. We chose the non-invasive 15-s RJ test to supra iliac skinfold, quadriceps, and calf skinfold thick-
assess the %FT muscle fibers [6] as this test accurately nesses were measured following the techniques recommen-
describes the anaerobic performance during jumping. The ded by the International Biological Program [32]. Skinfold
Ergojump Bosco System (psion) [7] was also used to score thicknesses were measured on the right side of the body
to measure the performances during the three ballistic type using the Harpenden Skinfold Caliper (Baty International,
activities. This test minimizes the differences between the Sussex, UK). The %fat was calculated using Siri’s formula
various vertical jump assessing systems [18]. We only [12]. Lean BM was determined by subtracting fat BM from
selected children who participated in physical education the total BM. Leg muscle volume was assessed using the
courses aged from 11 years onwards and for whom the anthropometric method of Jones and Pearson [23] in which
jumping performance was found to be reproducible in terms the leg is compared to a truncated cone. This method has
of the angular displacement of the knee and duration of been validated for adults [17] as well as for children [22].
contact [31]. Only subjects with a BMI between 18.9 and 29.9 were
accepted for the study.

Methods Vertical jumping test

Experimental design Jumping performance was evaluated with an electronic

apparatus called a psion [7] (Ergojump Bosco System;
The performance experiments were conducted for 2 weeks. Junghans GMBH, Schramberg, Germany), which consists
The first week was aimed at collecting the anthropometric of a digital timer (0.001 s) connected by a cable to a
data and familiarizing the children with the testing resistive platform. The timer was triggered by the feet of the
procedure. During the second week, all subjects performed subject at the moment of release from the platform and was
the SJ, countermovement jump CMJ, and the RJ in their stopped at the moment of touch-down. The flight time of
school gymnasium under the supervision of the same the subject during the jump is thus measured. The position
investigator. The tests were performed in the afternoon of the jumper on the platform was the same for the take-off
(1400–1600 hours) to rule out a possible effect of the and in the landing. Horizontal and lateral displacements
circadian rhythm on the performance. Prior to the study, the were reduced to rule out confounding work output
children and their parents had been fully informed of the interferences. For all jumps, subjects retained the ‘‘hands
aim, protocol and procedure of the investigation, and they on hips’’ position until the landing phase. For the SJ test,
had signed a written consent. The experimental procedures the subjects were positioned on the Bosco apparatus with
were in accord with the ethical standards of the Helsinki the knees at an angle of 90°. For the CMJ, the subjects were
Declaration of 1975. in a standing position and, prior to jumping, counter-moved
until the knee was flexed approximately to 90°. Three tests
Populations were performed for each type of jump, with a 2-min resting
period between tests to avoid fatigue; the best result was
Healthy white subjects aged between 11 and 16 years were retained for analysis. The RJ involves a CMJ for 15 s,
recruited from French secondary and high schools between which was also performed to calculate the average power
Eur J Pediatr (2009) 168:457–464 459

output
 ½PO ¼ g2 :Tf :15=4nð15 Tf Þ [6] and the %FT variance (ANOVA) test a posteriori (with Bonferroni
%FT ¼ 48:31 þ ðg2 :Tf :15Þ 1:04nð15  Tf Þ muscle fi- correction since the comparisons were repeated) allowed
ber distribution [5]. The PO is the average power output the differences between age and gender to be assessed.
expressed in watts kg-1; g is the acceleration of gravity
(9.8 m-2); Tf is the sum of the total flight times (s); n is the
number of jumps performed during the RJ. The RJ has Results
emerged as a consistent test in athletes as well as in school
boys in terms of testing the angular displacement of the The number of boys and girls as well as their mean values
knee and the duration of contact [6, 31]. Consequently, the for age, height, leg length, BMI, BM, LBM, LMV, and %
equations described here can be used for adult and children. fat are shown in Table 1. A significant gender difference
The difference in maximum jump height between the CMJ was found only for BM from 15 years of age onwards, with
and the SJ represents the effect of the surplus of effective higher values in boys. There was a higher %fat in girls
energy gained in CMJ and ultimately results in the jump independently of age. No gender difference was found for
height in CMJ being greater than that in SJ [3]. LBM at the ages of 11 and 12 years, but from 13–16 years,
there was a higher value in boys. The BMI did not differ
Statistics between boys and girls. A significant gender difference in
height was found from 14 years of age in favor of the boys.
Mean values are given with one standard deviation (SD) for At ages 14, 15, and 16 years, leg length and LMV were
the anthropometric parameters (age, height, leg length, larger in boys.
BMI, BM, LBM, LMV, and %fat,) and the jumping The parameters describing jump performance data are
performance (SJ, CMJ, RJ, PO, and %FT) for the different shown in Table 2. There was no significant gender difference
ages. STATVIEW software (StatView SE–Graphics, Abacus at the age of 11 years. However, for all parameters, the boys
Concepts, Berkeley, CA) was used for all analyses. showed significant higher values than the girls from ages 13
Polynomial regression analyses tested the relationships to 16 years.
between PO and age, and power regressions were used to The differences in maximum jump height (Fig. 1) between
describe the relation between PO and BM, or PO and LMV. the CMJ and the SJ (CMJ–SJ) decreased with increasing
Linear regressions were calculated between PO and SJ, PO age.
and CMJ, PO and RJ, and PO and %FT in boys and girls. Figures 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 show the correlation between
The significance was set to P<0.05. The analysis of average PO and jumping performances (Figs. 2, 3) and the

Table 1 Anthropometric characteristics in the boys and girls of the study during growth

Anthropometric characteristics Age (years)

Sex 11 12 13 14 15 16

Number Boys 41 38 40 39 41 41
Birls 40 41 40 37 41 40
Age (months) Boys 137.6±±3.5 150.6±3.1 163.0±2.9 173.9±3.0 186.5±2.8 198.5±2.8
Girls 138.2±2.8 149.8±3.0 161.9±3.2 174.3±3.2 187.1±3.1 197.2±2.5
Height (cm) Boys 148.0±6.6 155.6±6.9 162.7±6.4* 168.4±6.2** 172.5±6.5*** 174.1±6.3***
Girls 149.1±5.9 156.3±6.5 159.8±6.9 163.2±7.5 163.7±6.5 164.3±6.8
Body mass (kg) Boys 41.9±5.3 46.0±4.1 51.9±5.1 56.0±4.8 60.4±5.7** 62.8±5.1***
Girls 43.0±4.2 47.7±5.1 50.9±4.2 54.6±4.7 56.9±4.7 58.1±4.6
Fat (%) Boys 15.9±1.9 14.5±1.5 16.1±2.5 17.4±2.0 17.9±1.8 18.5±1.9
Girls 18.7±1.6*** 19.6±2.0*** 21.3±3.0*** 22.8±2.4*** 23.4±2.2*** 24.0±2.3***
Lean body mass (kg) Boys 35.3±4.8 39.4±3.6 43.6±4.3** 46.3±4.4*** 49.6±5.0*** 51.2±4.3***
Girls 34.9±3.7 38.4±4.5 40.0±3.6 42.2±4.2 43.6±3.9 44.1±3.9
Body mass index (%) Boys 19.1±1.2 19.0±1.4 19.6±1.1 20.0±1.3 20.7±1.5 21.0±1.6
Girls 19.3±1.4 19.5±1.2 19.9±1.5 20.6±1.1 21.2±1.3 21.5±1.4
Leg length (cm) Boys 72.6±4.2 76.3±5.3 80.7±4.7 84.7±4.5*** 86.4±4.3*** 88.7±4.4***
Girls 73.3±5.2 76.5±6.1 79.3±4.6 80.4±4.1 81.4±3.7 82.8±4.1
Leg muscle volume (dm3) Boys 3.9±0.9 4.2±0.9 4.7±1.1 5.4±1.1*** 6.0 ±1.1*** 6.4±1.2***
Girls 3.9±1.0 4.2±0.9 4.5±0.9 4.7±1.0 5.0±1.1 5.3±1.1

*p<0.05, **p<0.05, ***p<0.05.

Values are given as mean values ± standard deviation
460 Eur J Pediatr (2009) 168:457–464

Table 2 Jump performance in the boys and the girls of the study during growth

Age (years)

Sex 11 12 13 14 15 16

Number Boys 41 38 40 39 41 41
Girls 40 41 40 37 41 40
Squat jump (cm) Boys 20.5±2.2 24.4±2.5* 28.2±3.2** 33.2±2.7*** 36.5±3.9*** 39.7±3.8***
Girls 20.3±2.3 22.9±1.8 26.6±2.5 29.7±2.8 32.4±2.6 33.7±2.6
Countermovement jump (cm) Boys 25.3±2.1 28.9±2.3* 32.5±2.8** 36.9±3.0*** 39.9±3.2*** 42.9±3.1***
Girls 25.3±2.4 27.5±2.1 30.7±3.0 33.2±3.3 35.5±3.1 36.8±3.2
Rebound jump (cm) Boys 24.8.1±2.2 26.7±2.6* 30.3±3.2** 33.4±2.7*** 36.1±3.9*** 38.7±3.8***
Girls 23.1±2.3 24.7±2.1 27.4±2.5 29.6±2.7 31.6±2.6 32.8±2.9
Average power (W kg-1) Boys 17.7±1.9 19.7±2.3* 21.9±2.9** 23.6±2.1*** 25.4±2.4*** 26.4±2.3***
Girls 17.2±1.7 18.6±2.4 20.7±2.3 21.4±2.5 22.6±2.1 23.3±2.2
Percentage of fast-twitch fibers (%) Boys 22.1±3.1 23.8±3.2* 25.2±3.4** 27.5±2.8*** 28.5±2.4*** 31.8±2.4***
Girls 21.1±2.6 22.3±2.8 23.5±2.6 25.9±3.3 27.1±3.2 27.6±4.2

*p<0.05, **p<0.05, ***p<0.05.

Values are given as mean values ± standard deviation

different anthropometric characteristics (Figs. 4, 5, 6). For CMJ, and PO), and percentage of muscle fiber distribution
jumping performance, both groups showed strong correlations from 14 years of age onwards. The difference in maximum
between average PO and the SJ (boys: r=0.84; girls: r=0.78; jump height between the CMJ and the SJ decreased with
Fig. 2a), average PO and the CMJ (boys: r=0.85; girls: r= increasing age in the boys as well the girls.
0.78; Fig. 2b), average PO and the RJ (boys: r=0.82; girls: r= The lack of gender difference in height and BM at ages
0.73; Fig. 3a), and average PO and %FT muscle fibers (boys: 11–13 has been reported by Beenakker et al. [2] who found
r=0.81; girls: r=0.72; Fig. 3b). The results of the regression that the boys were taller and heavier than girls from an age
analysis reveal correlations between average PO and age of 15 years old onwards. In our study, both boys and girls
(Fig. 4), average PO and LBM (Fig. 5), and average PO and were tall and heavy at age 16 years. Our values are
LMV (Fig. 6). comparable to those reported by Deheeger and Rolland-
Cachera [10] and Fredriks et al. [16] but are smaller than
those found by Beenakker et al. [2] and Albertsson et al.
Discussion [1]. Deheeger and Rolland-Cachera [10] reported that the
percentage of children with body overweight was compa-
The cross-sectional study reported here showed significant rable in 8-year-old boys and girls; thereafter, the boys were
sex differences in anthropometric characteristics (height, more often overweight than the girls. The %fat was higher
body mass, LBM, and LMV), jumping performance (SJ, in the girls than in the boys at ages 11–16. Consequently,
the LBM was higher in boys from 12 years of age onwards.
6
Boye et al. [8] also showed that the fat-free mass was
*
** * higher in boys during the prepubertal and pubertal periods.
** *
There was, however, no significant gender difference in the
*
5 BMI until 11 years of age, which confirms the results of
* *
Deheeger and Rolland-Cachera [10] and Boye et al. [8].
CMJ-SJ (cm)

4
For leg length and LMV, the boys had higher values than
the girls at 14 years of age and older. The leg length values
found in our study (Table 1) are comparable to those found
3 by Martin et al. [28] in a cross-sectional study and by
Fredriks et al. [16] in a longitudinal one. After 13 years of
2
age, the significant differences in LMV in favor of the boys
11 12 13 14 15 16 11 12 13 14 15 16 confirmed the findings of the longitudinal study of Martin
Girls Boys et al. [29].
The gender differences in jump performances (maximum
Fig. 1 Differences in maximum jump height between the Counter-
movement jump and squat jump (CMJ–SJ) in girls and the boys heights in CMJ, SJ, and PO) could be explained by the
between 11 and 16 years of age increase in %FT muscle fibers with the increase in leg
Eur J Pediatr (2009) 168:457–464 461

Boys: y = 0.45 x + 8.64 Boys: y = 0.49 x + 5.57

Fig. 2 Relationships between
r = 0.84; p < 0.001 r = 0.85; p < 0.001
short-term leg average power
(PO) and the countermovement Girls: y = 0.43 x + 8.74
jump (CMJ) (a) and squat jump Girls: y = 0.47 x + 5.763
r = 0.78; p < 0.001 r = 0.78; p < 0.001
(SJ) (b) in the girls and boys of
this study Boys Boys
35 a) 35 b)
Girls Girls
30 30

25 25

PO (W.kg -1)
PO (W.kg -1)
20 20

15 15

10 10
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Squat jump (cm) Counter movement jump (cm)

length and LMV, which favored the boys from the age of leaping and other bounding movements can be improved by
14 years onwards (Table 2). This result is consistent with making a countermovement [3]. The greater height reached
earlier reports of the jump performance depending on the in the CMJ test could be explained by the active state
muscle force and muscle velocity [15]. Consequently, the initiated during the preparatory countermovement, whereas
boys achieved a higher PO in the RJ test than the girls. Our in the SJ, the countermovement is inevitably developed
results (Table 2) confirm those of Davies and Young’s study during the propulsion phase, so that the muscles can
[9] who did not find gender differences in short-term produce more force and work during shortening [3]. The
jumping power output in 11-year-old children. Doré et al. difference found in maximum jump height between CMJ
[11] reported similar anthropometric characteristics and and SJ (3–5 cm from 11 to 16 years of age) was similar to
cycling performance in the boys and the girls between that (2–4 cm) found by Bobbert and Casius [3]. Bobbert et
8 and 14 years. In our study, the boys had higher values of al. [4] previously observed a 3.4-cm greater average
PO in jumping than the girls from the age of 14 years difference in jump height in the CMJ than in the SJ in
onwards. Recent studies comparing PO during growth [11, male volleyball players—even when the body position at
29] also report similar observations. the start of push-off was the same. In our study, the higher
The boys and girls jumped higher in the CMJ than in the values of the difference CMJ–SJ were observed at ages 11,
SJ (Table 2). It is well-established that jumping, hopping, 12, 13, and 14 in both the girls and the boys (Fig. 1),

Boys: y = 1.12 x + 0.14 Boys: y = 0.76 x + 2.35

Fig. 3 Relationships between
r = 0.82; p < 0.001 r = 0.81; p < 0.001
short-term leg average power
(PO) and the rebound jump (a) Girls: y = 0.89 x + 4.04 Girls: y = 0.57 x + 6.75
and percentage of fast twitch r = 0.73; p < 0.001 r = 0.74; p < 0.001
muscle fibers (b) in the girls and
boys of this study Boys a) b)
35 35 Boys
Girls
Girls
30 30

25 25
PO (W.kg -1)

PO (W.kg-1)

20 20

15 15

10 10
12 16 20 24 28 12 17 22 27 32 37

Rebound Jump (cm) Percentage of fast twitch fiber (%)

462 Eur J Pediatr (2009) 168:457–464

37 yBoys = 11.99x0.39; R2 = 0.33

yBoys = -3E-05x3 + 0.01x2 - 2.06x + 117.45; R2 = 0.62 37
yGirls = -2E-05x3 + 0.01x2 - 0.94x + 50.43; R2= 0.50 yGirls = 15.22x0.19; R2= 0.11
Boys
32
32 Boys Girls

Girls
27

PO (W.kg-1)
27
PO (W.kg-1)

22

22 17

12
17 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
LMV (l)

Fig. 6 Relationships between average power (PO; W kg−1) and lean

12 leg volume (LLV; l) in the girls (discontinuous line; y=15.22x0.1952,
125 135 145 155 165 175 185 195 205 r2 =0.1124;, p <0.001) and boys (continuous line; y=11.989x0.3893,
r2 =0.331, p<0.001) of this study
Age (months)

Fig. 4 Relationship between average power (PO; W kg−1) and age

(months) in the girls (discontinuous line; y ¼ 2E  05x3 þ of the SJ and using a similar toe-off in the two tests. Thus,
0:0074x2  0:9405x þ 50:428, r2 =0.5041, p <0.001) and in boys since no greater variability in the standard deviation was
(continuous line; y ¼ 3E  05x3 þ 0:0134x2  2:0607x þ 117:45, observed during growth, we suggest that the decrease in the
r2 =0.62, p <0.001)
difference between the CMJ and the SJ with increasing age
is specifically the result of muscular growth. Thus, the
demonstrating the higher active state propulsion during the important change in SJ during growth could be due to the
CMJ than the SJ at these ages. In our study, we cannot increase in muscle length and muscle force. Bobbert and
explain the variability in performance by the variability in Casius [3] reported that muscle work is the integral of
the take-off velocities, particularly in the SJ, as reported by muscle force with respect to the muscle–tendon complex
Harrison and Gaffney [20]. To rule out the possibility that length, with muscle force depending on the state of activity,
non-optimal coordination in SJ explained the difference in length of the contractile elements, and velocity. Based on
jump height between both types of exercises, we recom- these findings, we suggest that the change during growth in
mended avoiding any movement that could skew the result CMJ–SJ could be due to the increase in the length of the
contractile elements and velocity.
yBoys = 11.99x0.39; R2 = 0.33
The high correlations (r> 0.50, p <0.001) observed
37
between the average PO and maximal height in the CMJ
yGirls = 15.22x0.19; R2= 0.11 (Fig. 2a), SJ (Fig. 2b), RJ (Fig. 3a), and the %FT fibers
32 Boys (Fig. 3b), respectively, in both groups of subjects, with
Girls greatest values in the boys, can be explained by the fact that
the PO was measured during the RJ [6]. Bosco et al. [5]
PO (W.kg-1)

27
found the best correlation between the PO calculated for the
first 15-s period of a 60-s jump test and the individual
22 muscle fiber composition expressed as the %FT muscle
fibers. Our investigation also showed high regressions
17 between average PO and age (Fig. 4), with the boys having
the highest values. The results of the regression analysis
demonstrated a significant, higher increase of average PO
12
20 30 40 50 60 70 with age in the boys than in the girls. No significant gender
LBM (kg) difference was found in average PO until the age of
14 years. In terms of the interaction between age and
Fig. 5 Relationships between average power (PO; W kg−1) and lean
gender, the correlations between average PO and lean BM
body mass (LBM; kg) in the girls (discontinuous line; y =
2.9576x0.5229, r2 =0.2171, p <0.001) and boys (continuous line; y= (Fig. 5) and those between the PO and LMV (Fig. 6) were
1.7695x0.6715, r2 =0.3781, p <0.001) of this study the highest in the boys and the lowest in the girls. Our
Eur J Pediatr (2009) 168:457–464 463

results illustrate that these anthropometric characteristics 8. Boye KR (2002) Anthropometric assessment of muscularity
during growth: estimating fat-free mass with 2 skinfold-
are significant explanatory variables for average power
thickness measurements is superior to measuring midupper arm
when gender is being compared. Relative to girls, the muscle area in healthy prepubertal children1-3. Am J Clin Nutr
highest increase in the average PO in boys could result 76:628–632
from prominent qualitative muscular factors. 9. Davies CT, Young K (1985) Mechanical power output in children
aged 11 and 14 years. Acta Paediatr Scand 74:760–764
Hautier et al. [21] reported a strong relationship between
10. Deheeger M, Rolland-Cachera MF (2004) Longitudinal study of
the fiber composition of the vastus lateralis muscle and the anthropometric measurements in Parisian children aged ten
optimal pedaling frequency. In terms of gender differences,, months to 18 years. Arch Pediatr 11:1139–1144
it has also been suggested that the increase in testosterone 11. Doré E, Martin R, Ratel S, Duché P, Bedu M, Van Praagh E
(2005) Gender differences in peak muscle performance during
levels [25] in boys induces a selective hypertrophy of type II growth. Int J Sports Med 26:274–280
muscle fibers [19]. Likewise, motor coordination has also 12. Durnin JVGA, Rahaman MM (1967) The assessment of the
been shown to depend on physical activity [13], and boys amount of fat in the human body from measurements of skinfold
mostly exhibit a higher level of physical activities than girls. thickness. Br J Nutr 21:681–689
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