1

An empirical study to improve faculty workplace

ergonomics for minimizing the risk of airborne
transmission of diseases
Bankapalli Vamsi1, Pullela Kali Raj Sunad1 and Jay Dhariwal1
1Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India

Abstract. Improving the workspaces underlying "environmental ergonomics" is essential

for better occupational health and safety, especially in populated and developing countries like
India. As a result, controlling airborne diseases in indoor environments is critical because
controlling this mode of transmission has become one of the significant concerns during the
recent COVID-19 pandemic. Enhancing indoor ventilation is one of the most effective ways to
mitigate this risk. In response, in this study, an experimental design was planned and carried out
in smaller volume rooms inside a university building, such as faculty cabins, to improve the
space's ergonomics from the perspective of limiting the transmission of airborne diseases using
CO2 sensor monitoring. CO2 measurements are taken in 16 different ventilation instances
including doors, windows, and exhaust fans. Using the ASTM tracer gas equation, these CO2
values are used to determine the ventilation rates in each circumstance. The Wells-Riley
probability model is used to determine the probability of infection, and the findings for all 16
instances are provided. When all doors and windows are closed and the exhaust is on, the mean
CO2 concentration is the highest; and according to our estimates, the faculty office can achieve
ventilation between 70 and 4145 m3/h during the winter. This study finally exhibits and proposes
a design paradigm that specifies which method to use under certain scenarios.
Keywords: Environmental ergonomics, Indoor air quality, Ventilation design

1. Introduction
Environmental ergonomics is a vital aspect of the field of ergonomics, which
encompasses better indoor environments in terms of climate, lighting, acoustics,
airborne disease reduction, and others for better occupational health and safety [1].
However, out of these, controlling airborne diseases in indoor spaces has become one
of the significant concerns during the recent pandemic caused by severe acute
respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-Cov-2), also known as the COVID-19
pandemic.
Not only the COVID-19 virus, but populated countries like India have long been
hindered by other airborne infections, like a syncytial virus, influenza, measles,
metapneumovirus, adenovirus, tuberculosis, and so on [2]. As a result, it is crucial to
design indoor spaces such that the least probability of infection transmission is possible
for better health and safety. This can be achievable by improving ventilation in indoor
spaces [3]. Klompas et al. emphasized the necessity of a well-ventilated room, claiming
that exposure to an infected person in a poorly ventilated area allows pathogen-
containing aerosols [4]. On the other hand, Morawska and Milton also stress the need
for adequate and appropriate ventilation for giving clean outdoor air in public spaces to
prevent the virus from spreading [5]. Previous literature suggested that enhancing the
ventilation of indoor spaces is critical in minimizing the risk of airborne infections.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, there were studies examining the intersection
of "infection transmission" and "ventilation systems" in various indoor settings such as
classrooms, elevator cabins, car cabins, hospital wards, airplane cabins, salons, etc.

aCorresponding author: Bankapalli Vamsi

Telephone: +91 9381363503
email: [email protected]
2

[6,16]. For instance, Q. Huang et al. analyzed the human factors of dentists by
examining CO2 concentrations in dental clinic buildings and found that "ventilation"
was one of the factors that led to CO2 accumulation by measuring CO2 concentrations
[17]. In contrast, Natalie Bain-Reguis et al. also examine the human factors of students
in twenty Scottish schools during the COVID-19 epidemic considering ventilation as a
tool [18]. All of this previously published studies investigated the quality of indoor air
in terms of airborne disease transmission using mathematical models such as the Wells-
Riley probability function [19] and Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) [20].
However, indoor space size also has a significant impact on altering ventilation rates
[21]. Therefore, it is equally essential to assess infection risk models in spaces with
smaller volumes in the context of environmental ergonomics. One such indoor space
with smaller volumes that can be considered is "faculty office rooms" inside university
buildings.
Moreover, studies of small-volume workplaces, such as faculty cabins, are also
limited in the available literature. Therefore, in our study, we considered faculty
workplaces as our analysis system since these rooms are often utilized for meetings
between professors and students, as well as employees and industry professionals. This
study is one such attempt conducted inside a faculty cabin at the Indian Institute of
Technology, (IIT) Delhi campus. In contrast, the majority of previously conducted
experiments used a randomization methodology. As a response, we used a systematic
experimentation design inspired from "design of experiments (DOE)" ideas, such as
factorial design, in our study. Factorial design is a type of research methodology
for examination of the main and interaction effects of two or more independent
variables on one or more outcome variables. In this study, a four factorial (24 method)
experimental design model was used to plan experiments. Also, the 24 model is only
used to planning of experiments; however, for data analysis, we employed
another method, (not the traditional ANOVA method in 24 DOE). This data analysis
method was described briefly in the following sections.
All the faculty rooms inside the IIT campus are air-conditioned. Considering
thermal comfort, the faculty rooms are mostly not air-conditioned during winter,
allowing faculties to close their doors and windows. As a result, natural ventilation has
been widely recommended and can be an efficient way to reduce pathogen spread [22].
As a result, factors that are associated with natural ventilation, such as doors, windows,
and face masks, can be manipulated based on indoor carbon dioxide (CO2) levels. In
indoor spaces, CO2 levels are produced from the metabolic process of human beings
through exhalation. With inadequate ventilation, the stale air recirculates in the room,
leading to increased CO2 levels. This is why CO2 can be considered a proxy for
airborne transmission of diseases during the COVID-19 pandemic [23]. In this light,
the most effective way to minimize infection spread in indoor spaces is to improve
building ventilation and optimize indoor CO2 levels. The guideline from WHO (1000
ppm), USA (700 ppm), India (1000 ppm), and other countries is to keep CO2 levels
less than 1000 ppm in indoor spaces [23].
In response to the above points, manipulating factors such as doors, windows,
face masks, and exhaust fans in a smart way is preferable to limit infection risk during
winter seasons inside faculty workplaces effectively. Most of the current research has
been carried out in many other nations with relatively colder climates than Delhi during
winters. Thus, observing changes in these climatic circumstances is also preferable. In
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response, CO2 monitoring experiments were planned inside a faculty office cabin
(faculty room-3, figure 1) on 10th December 2021.

2. Methods and Materials:

2.1. Experimental design:
The dimensions of the office room are 115 inches x 158 inches x 178 inches. The room
has two windows (42 inches by 20 inches), one door (33 inches by 79 inches), and one
exhaust fan (v = 1.6 m/s). The exhaust fan velocity was determined using a vane probe
(Ø 16 mm, digital) - wired anemometer by testo. For monitoring indoor quality
parameters, we used the Testo 400 IAQ-Kit (with 400 Universal IAQ Instrument,
Bluetooth CO Probe, and Bluetooth CO2 Probe). During the experiment, Testo was
placed on a table at the height of 65 cm, with seven occupants seated around it, for a
total of 24 = 16 different cases (shown in figure 2). All 7 seven occupants are sat at
60cm, 145cm, 71cm, 71cm, 99cm, 65cm, and 65cm (mean distance of 82.285 cm) from
the table. Because CO2 is heavier than air, it often exhibits a stratified flow
characteristic. Therefore, whatever occupants exhale, CO2 gas will settle at the bottom
of the room. So, one can find accurate settling concentrations at the bottom of the room.
As a result, all seven room occupants are seated closer to the sensors' table. This is
because the table's surface is closer to the source, allowing sensors to provide accurate
settling readings. Because of this, the seating arrangement was designed to bring
everyone closer to the table. Only 6 minutes of data is considered for evaluation, and
all the data collected by the data logger in Testo was imported into computers for further
assessment analysis.

(a) (b)
Figure:1 Field study layout diagram, faculty office-3 (a) Inside the office cabin
(b) outside the office cabin layout
4

Figure:2 Design matrix of all 16 experiments, where “1” refers to “Open/yes/on”

and “0” refers to “Close/no/off”

2.2. Calculating ventilation rates (Q):

We analytically calculated the ventilation rates using equation 1, which is called the
tracer gas equation. The tracer gas equation can be utilized by making a few
assumptions, such as that the ventilation rates and ambient CO2 concentrations remain
constant throughout the period [24,25].
1.8 𝐺
Q= x 106 (1)
𝐶𝑎 − 𝐶0
Where, Q = Ventilation rate into the space, L/s; G = Carbon dioxide generation rate into
the space, L/s; Ca = average CO2 recorded throughout the timeframe, mg/m 3 and C0 =
Ambient CO2 concentration, mg/m3. Based on equation (1a) in the reference - [25], the
G value corresponding to an average-sized adult engaged in office work (1.4 met) is
about 0.0052 L/s is considered. The ambient CO2 concentration is considered as 738
mg/m3 (410 PPM) [26].

2.3. Evaluation of the infection risk: Wells-Riley equation

The Wells-Riley model is a quick and easy way to assess airborne infection risk based
on Poisson's distribution. The probability of airborne virus transmission (P) in a space
that has reached a steady-state concentration is usually calculated with this approach.
The wells-Riley equation is given as –
𝐶 𝑁𝑅𝑞𝑡
−( )
P= = 1− 𝑒 𝑄 (2)
𝑆
Where, P = Probability of infection transmission, C = Number of cases that develops
infection, S = Number of susceptible people, N = number of infectors, R = Pulmonary
5

ventilation rate (m3/s), q = quantum (1/s), t = exposure time (s), Q = ventilation rates
(m3/s). In our case experiment, N =1 is considered, which means we assumed that there
is one infected person out of 7 occupants and R = 0.016 m3/min [27]. The ranges for
quantum generation rates for different diseases are extracted from previous studies [28].
In our case, the maximum "q" value in the specified range was considered. For
tuberculosis, the "q" range is 1-50 h-1 [29] and we considered the value of 50 h-1 in our
study. For MERS, it is 6-140 h-1; for SARS and influenza, it is 10-300 h-1 and 15-300
h-1respectively; and for measles, it is 570-5600 h-1 [30,33]. In some instances, occupants
wear face masks, which decreases the "q" value and increases in "Q" value. The factor
at which this will increase or decrease depends on the effectiveness of the face mask.
The effectiveness of masks varies depending on the type of mask it is. In our case, all
occupants wear N95 face masks, which have a 90% effectiveness level [34]. So, in our
case, we used a conservative estimate of an 85% reduction in viral transmission from
N95 usage by an infected individual and quantified this reduction as an 85% decrease
in "q". We also selected a conservative estimate of 85% to account for the reduction in
transmission when a susceptible person wears a face mask, which we characterized as
an 85% increase in "Q." Face masks are worn by all occupants in instances
1,2,3,4,9,10,11, and 12. In these instances, adjusted "Q" and "q" are considered for
calculating probability. These adjusted values for "q" and "Q" are obtained by
multiplying the actual/calculated values with the factors 0.15 (85% decrease) and 1.85
(85% increase), respectively. These changes were made only in the instances when
occupants wear masks, in all remaining instances, the original values are considered as
it is.

3. Results:
The link containing supplementary materials of this study is attached at the back
of this manuscript, which provides the results of mean CO2, Temperature, and relative
humidity recorded in all 16 cases (figure 2b). From the results obtained, the maximum
mean CO2 value recorded was 1508 PPM in experiment-13 (refer to figure 2b), while
the smallest mean CO2 value was 442 PPM in experiment-5. The highest mean CO2
values measured were 1508 PPM (experiment-13), 1226 PPM (experiment-14), and
1096 PPM (experiment-15), with both the exhaust fan and mask turned off in each case.
Therefore, it is apparent that the exhaust fan and mask have a considerable impact on
CO2 fluctuations inside the room. However, even without using an exhaust fan and
keeping windows and doors open while wearing a mask, the average CO2 level
observed was comparatively nearer to the safe threshold value, at 605 PPM.
In terms of temperature, the maximum mean recorded temperature was
23.8711◦C in experiment-13, while the lowest mean temperature was 21.135◦C in
experiment-1. Thermal comfort-wise, experiment-13 has positive findings, with a 2ºC
difference measured when all doors and windows are closed. For relative humidity, the
highest mean value was 56% in experiment-1, while the lowest mean value was 52%
in experiment-15. Low temperature and high humidity were recorded inside the space
experiment-1 because, in this case, all the doors and windows are opened, allowing
outside air to get in. Also in addition, we estimated the thermal discomfort index
proposed by Thom 1957, Epstein, and Moran 2006 [35] for all 16 experiments. The
results of these are provided in the supplementary section.
6

These results clearly showed that throughout all 16 experiments, there were no
significant differences in temperature and relative humidity values inside space as
compared with CO2 values. In our study, when exhaust fans are turned off, CO2 levels
rise to over 1000 ppm, exceeding the WHO's (1000 ppm), USA's (700 ppm), India's
(1000 ppm), and other nations' [23] threshold limits.
Using these mean CO2 values in each instance, the ventilation rates are
determined using equation 1 and adjusted based on face mask filtration efficiency.
Figure 3 illustrates the ventilation airflow rates of the faculty cabin (both calculated and
adjusted). The average ventilation rate in all the experiments was 1332.707 m3/h,
ranging from 119.34 to 4095 m3/h. The airflow rate was highest in experiment 5,
allowing for more natural ventilation, yet the airflow rate was lowest in experiment 13.
The building ventilation system performs more air purification when the ventilation
rates inside the space are high [36]. The ventilation rate is relatively low when the
exhaust fan is switched off, no mask is used, and doors and windows are closed,
indicating a considerable risk of disease transmission. Furthermore, using these
calculated ventilation rates, the probabilities of getting an infection for airborne diseases
were estimated (TB, MERS, SARS, Influenza, and measles) in all 16 cases. Just how
"Q" is adjusted based on the face mask, similarly, the "q" values are also adjusted in
experiments 1,2,3,4,9,10,11, and 12. The values of adjusted “q” considered in these
cases was q = 7 h-1 for tuberculosis, q = 21 h-1 for MERS, q = 840 h-1 for measles, and
q = 45 h-1 for SARS and influenza. With N=1, adjusted "q" and "Q", and R values, the
probability of getting infected is estimated in each case. Figure 3 shows the results of
these.

Figure:3 Infection risk probabilities using wells-riley model in all 16 experiments

It is clearly observed that measles disease has higher transmission potentiality.
However, this is because of the higher "q" value for measles. The probability of getting
TB in all cases is <10%. Even for MERS, SARS, and influenza also, the maximal
infection probability is determined to be <25%. From observations, however, these
7

strategies (experiment 1 or 4) for reducing the risk of TB infection are showing

promising outcomes. In experiment 4, it was clearly demonstrated that the chance of
contracting tuberculosis is only 0.017%. Even in the case of measles (one with a greater
"q") have a likelihood of only 2.07%. Yet, it is evident that tuberculosis is one of the
infections that affect healthcare workers [37]. Implementing experiment-4 technique
can reduce the incidence of TB in Indian hospitals because the design of most office
cabins, nurse chambers, doctor cabins, and other spaces in government TB facilities are
similar to our faculty cabins.
The maximum ventilation rate for this office cabin is estimated at experiment-5
(4095 m3/hr), as well as the minimum ventilation rate at experiment-13 (119.344 m3/hr).
As a result, it is observed that this faculty cabin can attain ventilation of between
119.344 and 4095 m3/hr. Moreover, this ventilation range is based on a 6-minute
exposure and estimated using an approximation tracer gas method and assumed a
constant ventilation rate to calculate the probability in each scenario. But we can't rely
exactly on these values because, usually, ventilation rates in a certain space are affected
by various parameters such as meteorological conditions, occupant behavior, wind
velocity, room volume, and other uncertainties and are not constant over time [38]. And
ventilation rates are usually not constant. Therefore, we defined the new range by
adding and subtracting the safety factor of 50 m3/hr from the upper and lower limits of
estimated minimum and maximum ventilation rates. The revised ventilation rates range
from 69.344 (~70) to 4145 m3/hr, indicating that the faculty office can achieve a
ventilation value within this range. For visualization purposes, the probability Vs.
ventilation rates plot was illustrated and shown below -

Figure 4: Wells-Riley probability vs. Ventilation rates at N-1 for 60min exposure time
With a 20 m3/hr interval from (70-4145) m3/hr range, the probabilities were estimated
and fitted as shown in figure 4. While plotting the curve, we only calculated the
probability for tuberculosis, MERS, SARS, and influenza. Because the "q" for SARS
8

and influenza is the same and gives similar probability, therefore, wherever the SARS
term appears, it will also apply to influenza. We skipped over measles since it is riskier
and more frequent in children than in adults [39]. The fitted equation for different
airborne diseases for 60min exposure times are as follows –

𝑃𝑇𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑠 = 3520.1𝑄−0.961 … (𝑟 2 = 0.994) (3)

𝑃𝑀𝐸𝑅𝑆 = 5907.5𝑄 −0.898 … (𝑟 2 = 0.964) (4)
−0.802 (𝑟 2
𝑃𝑆𝐴𝑅𝑆 = 5815𝑄 … = 0.903) (5)

From these fitted equations, it was observed that there is a strong correlation between
ventilation rates and infection probability. The highest correlation was found for
tuberculosis disease (0.994), followed by MERS and SARS (0.964 and 0.903,
respectively).

4. Discussions:
The ventilation of an indoor area is influenced by the inlets and outlets of the room,
as well as the direction of the wind. Our faculty cabin has doors and windows as inlets
and an exhaust fan as an outlet. If both inlets (doors and windows) are exposed to the
outside environment, more fresh air will enter the space. However, in our case, the
faculty cabin door is exposed to an indoor corridor and windows are exposed to outdoor
corridor (figure 1). This resulting in an inflow of accumulated CO2 from the indoor
corridor into the space through doors. As a result, maximum ventilation rates in
experiment 3 rather than experiment 1 are recorded. Typically, the maximum
ventilation rates are supposed to be recorded in experiment 1, which has both windows
and doors open, yet the maximum value is not recorded in that case. But, for readers,
it's ideal to adopt the experiment-1 strategy when your space's doors and windows are
exposed to the outdoor corridors. Experiment-5 typically generates good results in
terms of mean CO2 and natural ventilation rates, but experiment-4 gave favorable
results in terms of infection probability. This is because the "q" values have been
adjusted. Experiment 4 is differentiated from Experiment 5, only using a face mask. In
experiment 4, face masks are used, resulting in a lower likelihood in all circumstances.
The exhaust fan is present in all the above experiments; however, if an exhaust fan is
not available in your room, it is recommended that you install one or use the
experiment-9 strategy (which also provides favorable results). If there is no scope for
natural ventilation, adaptive thermal comfort is best recommended. But further study in
adaptive thermal comfort is required under Indian meteorological circumstances to
provide an efficient approach. By compiling all these points, we designed a paradigm
(figure 5) that provides details on the environmental ergonomics strategies proposed in
this study based on the results obtained. To comprehend this diagram, readers must be
familiar with the following terms:
• Exhaust-only ventilation system: A room with only exhaust that helps to suck
the indoor air that has accumulated.
• Supply-only ventilation system: A room with supply vents can help to
pressurise the area, and the accumulated air can escape through gaps.
• Balanced ventilation system: A room with both supply and exhaust vents.
9

Figure 5: Proposed environmental ergonomics strategies

For calculation purposes, the assumption we made for CO2 generation rates (G)
was based on [25] 's equation 1(a); but this model only works for steady-state fluxes,
which are practically difficult to obtain. The value of "G" is, however, dependent on
the age, height, sex, weight, and metabolic activity of the occupants. So, the considered
value from existing literature may be closer to the actual value, resulting in a negligible
error only. In addition to removal by natural ventilation forces, airborne droplets can be
eliminated by viral inactivation (l) and gravitational settling (k) also [40]. Viral
inactivation is the loss of infectivity caused by chemical and physical changes in
aerosolized viruses. In our research, we overlooked these two values while calculating
natural ventilation rates.
In a nutshell, this study found that adequate ventilation, as well as the effects
of doors, windows, face masks, and exhaust, can help to reduce the probability of
airborne diseases in a faculty office. As the number of faculty meetings increases in the
future, the natural ventilation measures outlined in this study may be useful in reducing
airborne infection transmission. But these measures outlined in this study are only
limited to winter seasons. Temperature changes, wind velocity, and humidity levels
may affect the results in various seasons. As a result, additional monitoring studies in
different Indian locations will be required to acquire a deeper grasp of this problem
statement. India has a wide range of climates, including cold, composite, moderate, hot,
and dry, and warm and humid climates. As a result, understanding variations in CO2
levels in the context of airborne diseases, air pollution, and thermal comfort in various
climatic conditions and seasons under various indoor spaces such as transportation
vehicles, schools, offices, malls, movie theatres, and so on may assist Indian designers
in developing new guidelines for indoor air quality monitoring in India. Some
residential houses, on the other hand, are congested with other buildings on all four
sides, limiting natural ventilation, especially for those living on the first three floors.
When these strategies (Experiment 1 or 5) are used in these types of structures, natural
ventilation can only be achieved to a limited extent [41,42]. Separate ways for acquiring
a better understanding of these buildings can be developed in the future.
On the other hand, monitoring CO2 is critical, as previously mentioned, and
indoor air quality measures should be monitored on a regular basis. Furthermore,
10

because setting up many indoor monitoring stations for experiments is costly, designers
should concentrate on designing efficient and low-cost indoor air quality evaluation
equipment. In the future, there should be more commercial CO2 exposure monitoring
equipment available in Indian markets. It would also be a good idea to develop low-
cost personal CO2 exposure wearables. To produce low-cost personal IAQ monitor-
based wearables, product designers must also research Indian markets and customers.
Furthermore, focusing on the philosophy of green buildings in different ways is also an
efficient way to optimize CO2 levels [43]. Indian green buildings are coded by the
government of India. Using CO2 absorbent materials over various surfaces and items
dependent on climatic conditions in Indian structures might be a viable strategy to lower
levels.

5. Conclusions:
The following points are the summary of our study based on the results we obtained
and discussions - (1) In this study, an experimental design was planned using 24
factorial design method and implemented in rooms with smaller sizes, such as faculty
cabins, inside a university building, to enhance the space's ergonomics from the
perspective of reducing the transmission of airborne diseases using CO2 sensor
monitoring; (2) The maximum mean CO2 value recorded when all doors and windows
are closed, and exhaust is on; (3) It was found that there is a 2ºC of more temperature
inside the space when all doors and windows are closed. Low temperature and high
humidity were recorded inside the cabin when all doors and windows are open; (4)
According to our estimations, the faculty office can accomplish ventilation between 70
and 4145 m3/h during the winter; (5) When all doors, windows, and exhaust fans are
closed, and no mask is used, the probability of developing TB is 3.95%, MERS is
10.65%, SARS and Influenza are 21.45%, and measles is 99.9%; (6) When the door is
closed, the window is open, and the exhaust fan is on, the risk of developing TB is
0.01%, 0.05% for MERS, 0.12% for SARS and Influenza, and 2.07% for measles; (7)
This work illustrates and presents a design paradigm that provides information on which
strategy to use under which conditions as shown in figure 5; (8) A correlation between
the likelihood of infection transmission risk and ventilation rates are calculated. The
strongest correlation (0.994) was discovered for TB illness, followed by MERS and
SARS (0.964 and 0.903, respectively); (9) In the discussions section, recommendations
for future product development and environmental ergonomics are presented related to
low-cost sensors, green buildings, sensor wearables, IAQ studies and Adaptive thermal
comfort; (10) This study’s experimental design was inspired from DOE ideas, in future
other researchers can also plan experiments in assessing environmental ergonomics
using this DOE approach.
The following link provides the supplementary materials for this study –
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1qe0nr0lcGnLC_hTQ9-
GeeUKghN5OwhBL?usp=sharing

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