Information Sheet 1 Introduction to Computer Network

1. Introduction
What is a computer network?
A computer network is a system in which a number of independent computers are linked
together to share data and peripherals, such as files and printers. In the modern world, computer
networks have become almost indispensable (necessary). All major businesses and governmental
and educational institutions make use of computer networks to such an extent that it is now
difficult to imagine a world without them.

Advantages and disadvantages of computer networks

Advantages
 For sharing of resources
 For sharing of data
 For sharing of software’s
Disadvantage
 Virus transmission
 Security problem

2. Types of Network
Types of Network Based on Geographical coverage
LANs &WANs
Computer networks can be classified into one of two groups, depending on their size and
function. A local area network (LAN) is the basic building block of any computer network. A
LAN can range from simple (two computers connected by a cable) to complex (hundreds of
connected computers). The distinguishing feature of a LAN is that it is confined to a limited
geographic area.

Figure 1 – A Local Area Network (LAN)

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A wide area network (WAN), on the other hand, has no geographical limit. It can connect
computers and other devices on opposite sides of the world. A WAN is made up of a number of
interconnected LANs. The ultimate WAN is the Internet.

Figure 2 – A Wide Area Network (WAN)

LANs typically have much higher transmission rates than WANS. Most LANs are able to
transmit data at around 100Mbps (million bits per second), whereas WANs generally transmit at
less than 10Mbps. Another difference is the error rates in transmission: the likely number of
errors in data transmission is higher for a WAN than for a LAN.
This distinction between LANs and WANs is made because of the locality principle. Computers
are much more likely to want to communicate with other computers that are geographically
close, than with those that are distant.
A CAN is a Campus Area Network: this is a collection of LANs linked together with high
performance hardware within a university or college campus. Similarly a MAN, or Metropolitan
Area Network, is a collection of LANs linked together within a town or city.

3. Network configuration
All networks have certain components, functions and features in common.
These include:
 Servers - computers that provide shared resources for network users
 Clients - computers that access shared resources provided by servers
 Media - the wires that make the physical connections
 Shared data - files provided to clients by servers across the network
 Shared peripherals - additional hardware resources provided by servers

Figure 3 – A typical network configuration

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Networks are divided into two broad categories based on configuration:
 Peer-to-peer networks
 Server-based networks
Peer-to-peer networks
In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no hierarchy among the
computers. All the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers. Each computer
functions as both a client and a server, and there is no administrator responsible for the entire
network. The user at each computer determines what data on that computer is shared on the
network. Peer-to-peer networks are also sometimes called workgroups.

Figure 4 – peer-to-peer network

In typical networking environments, a peer-to-peer implementation offers the following
advantages:
 Users act as their own administrators and plan their own security
 They are cheap and easy to set up and administer for small groups of users
Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments where:
 There are 10 users or fewer
 Security is not an issue
 The organization and the network will experience only limited growth within the
foreseeable future

Server-based networks
In an environment with more than 10 users, a peer-to-peer network - with computers acting as
both servers and clients - will probably not be adequate. Therefore, most networks have
dedicated servers. A dedicated server is one that functions only as a server and is not used as a
client or workstation. Server-based networks have become the standard models for networking.
As networks increase in size (as the number of connected computers, and the physical distance

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and traffic between them, grows) more than one server is usually needed. Spreading the
networking tasks among several servers ensures that each task will be performed as efficiently as
possible. Servers must perform varied and complex tasks. Servers for large networks have
become specialized to accommodate the expanding needs of users. For example, a network may
have separate servers for file storage, printing, email and for storing and running application
software.

Figure 5 – Server Based network

Although it is more complex to install, configure, and manage, a server-based network has many
advantages over a simple peer-to-peer network.
 Data sharing can be centrally administered and controlled. Because these shared
resources are centrally located, they are easier to find and support than resources on
individual computers.
 A server-based network can support thousands of users.

4. Network Topologies
The term network topology refers to the arrangement or physical layout of computers, cables,
and other components on the network. "Topology" is the standard term that most network
professionals use when they refer to the network's basic design. Before computers can share
resources or perform other communication tasks they must be connected. Most networks use
cable to connect one computer to another. However, it is not as simple as just plugging a
computer into a cable connecting to other computers. It also requires different types of
arrangements. To work well, a network topology takes planning. For example, a particular
topology can determine not only the type of cable used but also how the cabling runs through

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floors, ceilings, and walls. Topology can also determine how computers communicate on the
network.
There are four basic types of computer topology: bus, star, ring and mesh.

Bus Topology
The bus topology is often referred to as a "linear bus" because the computers are connected in a
straight line. This is the simplest and most common method of networking computers. It consists
of a single cable called a trunk (also called a backbone or segment) that connects all of the
computers in the network in a single line.

Figure 6 – The bus topology

Computers on a bus topology network communicate by addressing data to a particular computer
and sending out that data on the cable as electronic signals.
Advantages and Disadvantage
Advantages
 Media is cheap and easy to work
 System is simple and easy to extend
 If one computer fails, it does not affect the rest of the network.

Disadvantages
 The more computers connected, the slower the network. (woks well 2-5 computers)
 Break in the segment will affect the entire network.
 Difficult to troubleshoot

Star topology
In the star topology, cable segments from each computer are connected to a centralised
component called a hub. Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to
all computers on the network. Each computer will check the address. And also the topology
requires a great deal of cable in a large network installation.

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 Figure 7 – The star topology
Advantages and Disadvantage
Advantages
 Modifying and adding new device is easier
 Failure of one pc doesn’t affect other
Disadvantage
 If the central hub fail the entire network will go down

Ring topology
The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of cable. Unlike the bus topology, there
are no terminated ends. The signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass through each
computer. The data passes by each computer until it finds the one with an address that matches
the address on the data. The receiving computer returns a message to the sending computer
indicating that the data has been received.

Figure 8 – The ring topology

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 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
 Equal access for all computers
Disadvantages
 Failure of one computer can affect others
 Problems are hard to isolate

Mesh topology
In a mesh topology, each computer is connected to every other computer by separate cabling. If
one cable fails, another will take over the traffic. Often, a mesh topology will be used
in conjunction with other topologies to form a hybrid topology.

Figure 9 – The mesh topology

It is possible to calculate the number of cable links. It require to connect N number of computers
using the formula N (N-1) N- number of computers we have
2
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
 Reliable connection
 Failure tolerant (easy to troubleshoot)
Disadvantages
 Complex & expensive maintain, to troubleshoot & to do with it.
Hybrid topologies
Two or more standard topologies are combined to form a complete network. Two of the more
common are described below.
Star bus topology
It is a combination of the bus and star topologies. In a star-bus topology, several star topology
networks are linked together with linear bus trunks.

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 Figure 10 – The star bus hybrid topology
Star ring topology
The star ring (sometimes called a star-wired ring). The computers are connected to a central
component as in a star network. These components however, are wired to form a ring network.

Figure 11 – The star ring hybrid topology

5. Transmission Technologies
Guided media (wired media) and unguided media (wireless media)
Guided
Physical media for data transmission
 Twisted pair
 Coaxial cable
 Optical fibre
Unguided
The free air space is used for handling the communication.
Micro wave links  using radio waves
electromagnetic waves
Ex- Satelite link, TV broad cast

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Two types of unguided media
1. Terrestrial microwave links
 Both source & destination are on land.
2. Satellite microwave links
 Uses geostationary orbit
For short range of communication we use Infrared. It doesn’t pass through solid walls.
Ex- Remote controls TVs.

6. Open System Interconnect (OSI) Model

It provides a description of how network hardware and software work together in a layered
fashion to make communication possible. OSI model helps us understood the fundamentals of
network data transmission by offering a guideline to sending data from one computer to another.

Figure 12 – The 7 layers of the OSI reference model

Application Layer
This layer relates to the services that directly support user applications, such as software for file
transfers, database access, & E-mail. In the other words, it serves as a window through which
application processes can access network services.
Presentation Layer
It defines the format used to exchange data among networked computers. It also called network’s
translator. This layer is responsible to code & decode data sent to the workstation.
Session Layer
It allows two applications on different computers to open, use, and close a connection called a
session. It performs name recognition and other functions, such as security that are needed to
allow two applications to communicate over the network. It is also known as Check point.
Transport Layer
It ensures that packets are delivered error free, in sequence, & without losses or duplication.
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Network Layer
It determines which path the data should take based on the network conditions, priority of
services, and other factors.
Data-link Layer
It sends data frames from the network layer to the physical layer. It controls the data flow from
sender to receiver. In most situations, after a data frame is sent, the data link layer then waits for
a positive response. If one is not received or if the frame is damaged, another frame is sent.
Physical Layer
It carries the signals that transmit data gathered by each of the higher layers. It is responsible for
transmitting (zeros & ones) from one computer to another.

7. Network protocols
Protocols are set of rules or standards for data communication. Computers should follow the
same rules in order to have common understand-ability.
Include issues - What to communicate
When to communicate
How to communicate
It also defines how computers identify one another in a network.
Ex- TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol)
TCP/IP protocol determines a set of rules used to send data from one node on a network to
another node.

8. IP Addresses
IP Addressing
For any two systems to locate each other, their must be a unique identifier. For data
communication this identifier is an IP Address. An IP address consists of 4 numbers between 0
and 255 separated by dots. For example, 146.23.0.194 is a valid IP address. When you surf the
Internet and type a URL into your browser (e.g. www.yahoo.com) you are actually using IP
addresses. Every Internet domain such as Yahoo or Google has at least one IP address on the
Internet.
Computers should have unique physical address to which is called MAC Address.
MAC Address
 Physical address
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  48 bit
 Represent in hexadecimal
IP Address
 Logical address
 32 bits
 Usually represents in decimal
The Level of addressing
The Network portion
 This will enable to identify the network the computer belongs to.
 All computers in a certain network have the same network identifier.
Host portion/ID
 It will identify the specific mode in a network.

Class of IP Address
 In order to accommodate different size of networks and to have flexibility of giving
addresses, IP addresses are divided into groups called, Classes.
 The boundary b/n the Network ID and Host ID is different for each class.
 Each class has its own bit or sequence of bits at the beginning to be identified.

Class A
 It is used for very large organization.
 The 1st 8 bits are for Network ID & the rest 24 bit are Host portion.
 It can accommodate more than 16,000,000 hosts 2 24 = 16,277,000. All have already been
assigned to large companies. For example, IBM have the class A network 9.*.*.* and
Apple have 17.*.*.*.
 It will begin with 0 always.

Class B
 It is used for medium size network.
 The 1st 16 bits are for Network ID & the rest 16 bit are Host portion.
 It can accommodate up to 65,000 hosts. All class B networks have also already been
assigned. Microsoft is an example of a company with a class B network.
 It will begin with 10.

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Class C
 It is used for small sized networks.
 The 1st 24 bits are for Network ID & the rest 8 bit are Host portion.
 It can accommodate up to 255 (28) hosts. This is the only type of subnet that it is still possible
to buy.
 It will begin with 110.
Class D
 Reserved for multicasting technology.
Class E
 Reserved for research purpose.
To tell what class of network an IP address is on, we do not need to always rewrite the address in
binary form. Any address beginning with a number between 0 and 127 is on a class A network,
between 128 and 191 is on a class B network, and between 192 and 223 is on a class C network.
Any IP address starting with any number greater than 223 is reserved for special uses.

Reserved IP addresses
You cannot use every IP address. There are some addresses, or sets of addresses, that are
reserved for special uses. The table below summarises these.
We can see that any IP address that has a valid network ID, but all binary 0’s for the computer
ID, is the network number. The network number is a way of referring to an entire subnet.
Therefore this address cannot be assigned to a computer. Similarly if the computer ID is all
binary 1’s it is a broadcast address. The broadcast address is used if you want to send a packet to
every computer on a subnet. Therefore this address can also not be assigned to a computer on the
network. For example, a class C network provides 256 different values for the computer ID, but
only 254 of these can be assigned to computers.

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 Computer ID Description Use
Network ID
All 0’s All 0’s This computer Used during system boot
All 0’s Computer ID A computer on this
subnet
Network ID All 0’s Network number Used to refer to an entire
subnet
All 1’s All 1’s Limited broadcast Broadcasts message to all
computers on this subnet
Network ID All 1’s Directed broadcast Broadcasts message to all
computers on specified
network
127 Any Loopback address Used for testing
Any number Any Multicast &
greater than experimental
223 address

Non-routable IP addresses
In addition to these there are a number of ranges of IP addresses that are specified as ‘non-
routable’ addresses. This means that routers on the Internet will never forward them. This is
because they are reserved for local network use. If every computer in the world that was on a
network connected to the Internet had to have a unique IP address we would have run out of IP
addresses many years ago. But many of these computers are on networks that only connect to the
Internet through a single router, gateway computer or dial-up connection. Therefore, on networks
like this we only need a single routable IP address; the rest of the computers can be given non-
routable addresses. A number of computers on networks in different parts of the world can share
the same non-routable IP address provided they are not directly connected on the same network.
Internet routers are programmed to ignore these addresses so there can be no address conflict.
The ranges of non-routable IP addresses are specified by RFC 1918. (RFC stands for Request for
Comments. RFCs are electronic documents that are used for publishing Internet standards.
Anybody can submit or comment on an RFC.) The addresses are:
10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255

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