Cambridge Assessment International Education

Cambridge Pre-U Certificate

ART HISTORY (PRINCIPAL) 9799/02

Paper 2 Historical Topics May/June 2018
MARK SCHEME
Maximum Mark: 60

Published

This mark scheme is published as an aid to teachers and candidates, to indicate the requirements of the
examination. It shows the basis on which Examiners were instructed to award marks. It does not indicate the
details of the discussions that took place at an Examiners’ meeting before marking began, which would have
considered the acceptability of alternative answers.

Mark schemes should be read in conjunction with the question paper and the Principal Examiner Report for
Teachers.

Cambridge International will not enter into discussions about these mark schemes.

Cambridge International is publishing the mark schemes for the May/June 2018 series for most
Cambridge IGCSE®, Cambridge International A and AS Level and Cambridge Pre-U components, and some
Cambridge O Level components.

® IGCSE is a registered trademark.

This syllabus is approved for use in England, Wales and Northern Ireland as a Cambridge International Level 3 Pre-U Certificate.

This document consists of 43 printed pages.

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Generic Marking Principles

These general marking principles must be applied by all examiners when marking candidate answers.
They should be applied alongside the specific content of the mark scheme or generic level descriptors
for a question. Each question paper and mark scheme will also comply with these marking principles.

GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 1:

Marks must be awarded in line with:

• the specific content of the mark scheme or the generic level descriptors for the question
• the specific skills defined in the mark scheme or in the generic level descriptors for the question
• the standard of response required by a candidate as exemplified by the standardisation scripts.

GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 2:

Marks awarded are always whole marks (not half marks, or other fractions).

GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 3:

Marks must be awarded positively:

• marks are awarded for correct/valid answers, as defined in the mark scheme. However, credit
is given for valid answers which go beyond the scope of the syllabus and mark scheme,
referring to your Team Leader as appropriate
• marks are awarded when candidates clearly demonstrate what they know and can do
• marks are not deducted for errors
• marks are not deducted for omissions
• answers should only be judged on the quality of spelling, punctuation and grammar when these
features are specifically assessed by the question as indicated by the mark scheme. The
meaning, however, should be unambiguous.

GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 4:

Rules must be applied consistently e.g. in situations where candidates have not followed
instructions or in the application of generic level descriptors.

GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 5:

Marks should be awarded using the full range of marks defined in the mark scheme for the question
(however; the use of the full mark range may be limited according to the quality of the candidate
responses seen).

GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 6:

Marks awarded are based solely on the requirements as defined in the mark scheme. Marks should
not be awarded with grade thresholds or grade descriptors in mind.

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Assessment Objectives

Make a close visual and/or other form of detailed analysis of a work of art,
architecture or design, paying attention to composition, structure or lay-out, use of
AO1
colour/tone, texture, the handling of space and the manipulation of light effects as
appropriate.

Place works of art in their historical and cultural context; both in relation to other
works and in relation to factors such as artistic theory, patronage, religion and
AO2
technical limitations, showing understanding of ‘function’ and ‘purpose’ where
possible.

Demonstrate the ability to distinguish between accepted historical fact, art historical
AO3
theory and their own personal judgements.

Present a relevant, coherent and informed independent response, organising

AO4
information, ideas, descriptions and arguments and using appropriate terminology.

AO5 Demonstrate evidence of sustained personal research.

All questions carry 20 marks each.

Marking should be done holistically taking into consideration the weighting of marks for each AO as
they are reflected in the descriptor.

The question specific notes describe the area covered by the question and define its key elements.
Candidates may answer the question from a wide variety of different angles using different emphases,
and arguing different points of view. There is no one required answer and the notes are not
exhaustive. However candidates must answer the question set and not their own question and the
question specific notes provide the parameters within which markers may expect the discussion to
dwell.

Use the generic marking scheme Levels of Response to find the mark. First find the level which best
describes the qualities of the essay, then at a point within the level using a mark out of 20. Add the 3
marks out of 20 together to give a total mark out of 60 for the script as a whole.

Examiners will look for the best fit, not a perfect fit when applying the bands. Where there are
conflicting strengths then note should be taken of the relative weightings of the different assessment
objectives to determine which band is best suitable. Examiners will provisionally award the middle
mark in the band and then moderate up/down according to individual qualities within the answer.

Rubric infringement

If a candidate has answered four questions instead of three, mark all questions and add the marks for
the three highest questions together to give the total marks. If the candidate has answered fewer
questions than required or not finished an essay, mark what is there and write “rubric error” clearly on
the front page of the script.

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Generic marking grid (20 marks)

• Comprehensive, detailed development and complex visual analysis

in response to specific examples or in certain circumstances a
single example. Imaginative and sensitive understanding of
materials and techniques.
• Extensive and questioning contextual evidence of historical
18–20 Excellent sources and concepts other than visual or other forms of analysis.
• Excellent ability to distinguish between fact, theory and personal
judgement.
• Excellent, sustained organisation and development of argument in
response to the question with outstanding use of subject
terminology.

• Detailed and extensively developed analysis in response to specific

examples or in certain circumstances a single example. Thorough
understanding of materials and techniques.
• Confident and detailed contextual evidence of historical sources
15–17 Very good and concepts other than visual or other forms of analysis.
• Assured ability to distinguish between fact, theory and personal
judgement.
• A thoughtful and well-argued response to the question with very
confident use of subject terminology.

• Relevant analysis with some detail and development in response to

specific examples or in certain circumstances a single example.
Solid but descriptive rather than analytical understanding of
materials and techniques.
• Well-understood, solid contextual evidence of historical sources
12–14 Good
and concepts other than visual or other forms of analysis.
• Good ability to distinguish between fact, theory and personal
judgement.
• A well-argued but not as extensively developed response to the
question. Competent use of subject terminology.

• Mostly relevant analysis in response to specific examples or in

certain circumstances a single example, but lacking detail and
development. Limited understanding of materials and techniques.
• Some examples of contextual evidence of historical sources and
9–11 Satisfactory concepts other than visual or other forms of analysis, but with some
inaccuracies and limited range.
• Distinguishes between fact, theory and personal judgement.
• A mainly relevant response to the question and use of subject
terminology but lacking in structure and development.

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• Analysis lacks detail and has limited development. Materials and

techniques barely acknowledged.
• Limited and inaccurate examples of contextual evidence of
historical sources and concepts other than the specific case study
analysis, but with some inaccuracies and limited range.
5–8 Weak
• Barely distinguishes between fact, theory and personal judgement.
• An uneven, basic, largely narrative response to the question.
Includes some relevant points but development is very limited or
contains padding and/or has very obvious omissions. Little use of
subject terminology.

• Little analysis of poorly chosen examples that lack relevance or no

examples singled out for analysis at all. No acknowledgement of
materials and techniques.
• Insubstantial contextual evidence of historical sources and
concepts other than the specific case study analysis.
1–4 Poor
• Little evidence of the ability to distinguish between fact, theory and
personal judgement.
• Poor knowledge and understanding of the material. Insubstantial,
irrelevant with little attempt to answer the question. Almost no use
of subject terminology.

0 • No rewardable content.

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Topic 1: The art and architecture of antiquity, c.600 BC to c.570 AD

Question Answer Marks

Art and architecture in the archaic period, c.600 BC to c.450 BC

1 Describe the ways in which the sculptural representation of the male 20

figure developed between the archaic and classical periods of Greek
art.

Responses are likely to highlight the formal contrasts between the rigid,
symmetrical posture of the archaic kouroi and the more mobile, realistically
proportioned nude sculptures of the early classical period.

More detailed analyses may also focus on key differences with respect to
the depiction of anatomy and of facial expression and hairstyle. Archaic
kouroi tend to have disproportionately large eyes and low foreheads,
whereas classical figures have more proportionate facial features. The
elaborate plaited coiffures of the archaic period give way to the close-
cropped hairstyles of the classical.

Differences in posture may be highlighted. Whereas archaic kouroi stand in

a rigidly frontal manner, with one foot placed before the other, classical
postures become more sinuous and gently asymmetrical. Attention may be
drawn to the development of the ‘contrapposto’ pose whereby the body
contorts slightly around the axial line, such that a subtle ‘S’ shaped sway is
created. This is then further developed by the slight twist of the neck away
from the frontal plane.

Responses may recite these factors, amongst others, and are likely to cite
well-chosen specific examples of sculpture from the respective periods in
order to illustrate their argument. Detail and relevance of description will be
crucial. Responses might also mention technical factors regarding media
(marble as against hollow-cast bronze). Mention might also be made of the
possible influence of ancient Egyptian sculpture upon the Greek figure of the
archaic period.

Possible archaic kouroi:

Grave marker of Kroisos (540–515 BC)
Grave marker of Aristodikos (c.500 BC)

Classical kouroi:
Kritian Boy (c.480 BC)
Bronze warrior from Riace (460–450 BC)
Apollo Belvedere (Roman copy c.120–140 AD; Greek original 350–325 BC)

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Question Answer Marks

Greek architecture and sculpture of the classical and Hellenistic periods, c.450 BC to c.100
BC

2 In what ways does the Parthenon differ from earlier Greek temples? 20

Candidates may assemble a range of possible examples of Greek temples

for comparison with the Parthenon. Descriptions will pay close attention to
differences including:

Entasis and other refinements

Materials
The architectural orders
The columniation
The extent and location of any sculptural decoration
Plans

Possible examples from before the Parthenon include:

Temple of Apollo at Corinth (c.450 BC)
Temple of Hera at Paestum (550–525 BC)

Examples which date from after the Parthenon such as the Temple of
Athena Nike and the Erechtheion should be disallowed.

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Question Answer Marks

Roman Imperial architecture, c.50 AD to c.330 AD

3 How did the design of the provincial house change during this period? 20

Candidates are likely to note the fundamental layout of a typical Roman

domestic dwelling. This consisted in essence of sequences of rooms
grouped around a central atrium, with an impluvium open to the sky, which
would have supplied rainwater to a pool at the epicentre of the central
quadrangle. Candidates may also acknowledge the gradual process of
development and elaboration in terms of layout which becomes evident as
the period progresses. Gradually the central atrium becomes displaced,
forming just one of a series of interior quadrangles and colonnades. Layouts
of grander houses also begin to incorporate exterior gardens, peristyle
courtyards, and belvederes – so diminishing the stark interiority of focus
which typified domestic housing earlier in the period.

Possible examples from Pompeii:

House of the Surgeon
House of the Faun (site of the Alexander Mosaic: so indicating the growing
decorative and material opulence of high end dwelling houses)
House of the Vetii (atrium becomes vestibule)
House of the Stags

Possible examples from Herculaneum:

House of the mosaic atrium
House of the Stags

Possible examples from Ostia:

Insulae (functionally appointed commercial/residential units arranged around
colonnaded quadrangles)

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Question Answer Marks

Painting and sculpture in the Roman Republic and Imperial periods, c.100 BC to c.330 AD

4 Assess the importance of Greek art to Roman artists and patrons. 20

Given the scarcity of archaeological evidence as to ancient Greek painting,

most responses are likely to focus on sculpture. As such, the central
importance of Greek sculpture to the subsequent development of Roman
sculpture will likely be acknowledged. Numerous examples of (mainly 1st
century BC – 1st century AD) Roman copies of original Greek sculptures
could be cited such as:

Apollo Belvedere (Roman copy c.120–140 AD; Greek original 350–325 BC)

Belvedere Torso (1st century BC; possibly a copy of an original from the 2nd
century BC)

Laocoon group (c.200 BC–c.70 AD)

Discobalus of Myron (460–450 BC)

Mention might be made of the respective media used – i.e. that Roman
copies are in marble, whereas the Greek originals may well have been
hollow-cast bronze. The so-called Neo-Attic school of sculptors (2nd–1st
century BC, Pasiteles most notably) might be mentioned as specialising in
the mass production of such copies. Pasiteles’ ‘Orestes and Electra’ group
might be cited. The influence of the Parthenon sculptures upon the
sculptural reliefs of the Ara Pacis of Augustus might also be relevant.

Candidates might acknowledge that this apparent ‘Grecophilia’ on the part

of Roman collectors and patrons was very much an elite preoccupation.
Some mention might also be made of the earlier Roman ‘Etruscan’ school of
sculpture although, even here, the impact of archaic and classical Greek
sculpture can be distantly perceived.

All other valid points will be taken into consideration.

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Question Answer Marks

The art and architecture of late antiquity, c.330 AD to c.570 AD

5 Discuss the style of sculpture on triumphal arches of the period. 20

Candidates are likely to note the evident differences in style which are
visible between the contemporary, Constantinian sculptural friezes and the
older, re-used, 2nd and early 3rd century sculptural elements. An at least
notional distinction may be drawn between the various elements of the
overall sculptural scheme. Candidates may be able to go into greater detail
in this regard – i.e. which particular parts of the sculptural scheme (roundels,
friezes, free-standing sculptures, etc.) date from which periods.

Candidates may describe the stylistic differences concerned in analytical

detail. Attention will be drawn to the deterioration which is visible in terms of
anatomical proportion, posture, handling of shallow relief, and depiction of
spatial recession, between the older, re-used portions of the sculptural
scheme and the contemporary, Constantinian elements. Candidates may
suggest at least some notional factors which might explain this deterioration.
At the very least mention is likely to be made of an evident decay in the
hitherto dominance of classical sculptural styles and an apparent transition
towards a much more stylised set of sculptural conventions – which may
themselves derive from provincial imperial sources.

All other valid points will be taken into consideration.

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Topic 2: Art, religion and society in Romanesque Europe, c.1000–1200

Question Answer Marks

Building the ‘militant’ Church

6 What effects of space and light are created by Romanesque 20

architecture?

Candidates are likely to show a solid knowledge of a few selected buildings,

and describe how specific architectural features articulate space and
manage illumination. Answers may be grounded in precise architectural
terms.

Areas for discussion include:

• The characteristic modular nature of much Romanesque design, with
clearly delineated areas of both plan and elevation, demarcated by
bays, string courses, and perceptible repetition of forms. Speyer
Cathedral (late 11th and early 12th century), for example, accentuates
vertical thrust through the sequence of arches and windows, engaged
columns reaching groin vaults; alternation of solid and empty spaces
creates a rhythm.
• According to the building, the accent on lateral or vertical thrust.
• The arrangement of elevation into arcade, gallery and clerestory, and
the relative proportion of these; the continuity of wall and vault.
• Disposition of piers and columns in nave to create particular formal
structures and rhythms. The effect of barrel, groin and ribbed vaults in
articulating space in the vault.
• Complexity of spatial configurations in the Westwork, e.g. Maria Laach
Abbey west end with paradisium (early 12th century).
• Development of East End, with ambulatories, radiating apses, stepped
effect from outside.
• The illumination achieved through clerestories and towers. The different
types of window: rose, single and double light.
• Importance of governing principles including symmetry, monumentality.

All other valid points will be taken into consideration.

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Question Answer Marks

Heaven and hell: sculpture in the service of the Church

7 How are religious concepts communicated through the medium of 20

sculpture in the Romanesque period?

Candidates are likely to engage with the key term ‘religious concepts’.
These may include Last Judgement, God/Christ, the Apocalypse, sin, virtue,
salvation, prayer, martyrdom, penitence, intercession, the role of the Virgin
Mary and many others.

Examples could be given of sculptures that clearly deal with the concept: for
example, the Suicide of Judas (Autun) conveys through grotesque figurative
forms the consequences of betrayal; while the appearance of the demons
expresses the frightening, nightmarish world of sin and damnation through
monstrous forms.

Concepts are often communicated through narrative, for example, in Last

Judgement tympana.

Ideas of importance may be conveyed through scale. Colours, texts,

gestures and posture may all convey ideas, as may pattern and the
disposition of figures (for example, the place of the saved and the damned
in relation to Christ).

As well as identifying some examples of sculptures which communicate

ideas to the viewer, candidates could also answer the term ‘How’, and
suggest ways in which the sculptural medium has been used to express,
dramatise and make concrete and memorable the dogmas of the Church.

All other valid points will be taken into consideration.

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Question Answer Marks

Illuminating the word

8 How were manuscript books produced in this period? Discuss with 20

reference to at least one example.

Candidates show an awareness of the stages by which a medieval

manuscript book was made, usually in a monastic scriptorium:

Leaves made from vellum (parchment), the skin of sheep or other animals,
soaked in lime, stretched on a frame and scraped with a lunellum.
Leaves then cut and gathered in signatures.
Guide lines ruled, typically scored with a stylus and then pricked.
Writing in ink, using quill or reed pen.
Surface prepared for decoration with gesso. Gold or silver leaf added and
burnished before painting. Design, probably prepared on a wax tablet, then
added and painted.
Relevant terms for types of manuscript illumination include initial letter,
border decoration, miniature, illumination, historiated initial.
Leaves gathered into signatures and sewn onto boards of wood or
sometimes leather.

Candidates may answer with reference to a single manuscript book or

several. Examples include: Winchester Psalter (c.1050–1099); Bede, The
life and miracles of St Cuthbert, British Library (1100–1200); St Alban's
Psalter (c.1100–1200); Bury Bible (c.1135).

All other valid points will be taken into consideration.

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Question Answer Marks

Bibles for the illiterate

9 Discuss the visual effects achieved by mosaics in the Romanesque 20

period.

Candidates are likely to show a knowledge of mosaic construction from

tesserae, and its rediscovery in the West under the influence of Byzantine
craftsmen. Reference to the Roman and Early Christian periods may be
helpful.
Specific examples should be discussed, with details of date and location,
and an accurate description of the subject matter. Reference to patronage
(e.g. the Norman dukes of Sicily) may help to explain the iconography
employed.

Some attempt could be made to discuss artistic effects – the shimmering of

gold, ethereal sight of ‘floating’ figures, abstracted forms, etc.

Examples: Sicily – Royal Palace in Palermo, Palatine Chapel (1132),

Cathedral of Monreale (from 1174), Cathedral of Cefalù (mosaics, 1148);
Rome – S. Clemente (1128), S. Maria in Trastevere (1140); Venice – St
Mark’s (from c.1063), Torcello (mosaic, 12th century), Church of Santa
Maria and Saint Donato, Murano (c.1140).

All other valid points will be taken into consideration

Question Answer Marks

Priests, warriors, peasants

10 Discuss the representation of the Virgin Mary in Romanesque art. 20

The importance of the Virgin as a cult figure may be noted; her importance
as Mother of God (theotokos), Queen of Heaven and intercessor; ubiquitous
images of Virgin and Christ Child in all media.

One important source of images is the ‘Throne of Wisdom’ type, e.g. Virgin
from Ger (later 12th century). Mobile, painted wooden sculptures, held to be
a manifestation of the Virgin’s presence and used on ceremonial occasions.
Mary representing Sedes Sapientiae, the Throne of Wisdom, derived from a
description of the throne of Solomon. Virgin in Throne of Wisdom type
typically hieratic, frontal, expressionless, symmetrical linear patterning.

Other examples: Virgin as Queen of Heaven next to Christ enthroned in

mosaic, apse vault, S. Maria, Trastevere, Rome (c.1140–43), relief
sculpture (Autun, Tympanum (c.1120), where Virgin acts as intercessor),
ivory plaque, e.g. ivory of ‘The Annunciation and the Nativity’ (Victoria and
Albert Museum), also images from illuminations and stained glass.

All other valid points will be taken into consideration.

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Topic 3: A new heaven and new earth: Gothic art and architecture, c.1140–1540

Question Answer Marks

Gothic architecture, the setting for prayer

11 Discuss the ways in which the master builders of Wells and Ely 20
cathedrals experimented with space and pattern.

Candidates may explain that this interest in space came about because of
the practical need to increase capacity and thus extend existing buildings.
An interest in spatial juxtaposition led to much experimenting with the
handling of interior space.

Examples:
Lady Chapel, Wells cathedral (begun c.1310)
The Octagon at Ely cathedral (1322–34)
The Lady Chapel (begun 1310) at Wells was conceived as a completely
different spatial unit to the choir. It is taller and shaped like a distorted,
stretched octagon with a swollen centralised section. It displays elasticity in
its shape which contrasts with the geometric lines of the rectangular choir to
which it is attached.

The complex ground plan is given clarity by the vault pattern which has
been inspired by the vault designs of central plan Chapter Houses such as
that at York. The significance of these contrasting spatial units lies in the
clarity and fluidity of space within the building. It points to a highly inventive
master builder wanting to break away from the rigorous geometry which had
previously characterised English Gothic architecture.

Inventiveness is seen in pattern designs of this period where vault patterns

are echoed in the window tracery, e.g. choir of Wells cathedral and east end
window. The choir elevation also shows pattern with a screen of canopied
niches and mullions extending across the spandrels – influence from St
Stephen’s Chapel, Westminster.

The wooden structure of the Octagon at Ely was deliberately designed to

create an illusion by using materials which would destroy visual rationality.
The curved and polygonal volumes created by the octagon and placed into
the rigidly horizontal line of the nave and choir offers candidates an
opportunity to compare and contrast the handling of space here with the
Lady Chapel at Wells.

The interior elevation of the octagon lantern and its vault above offer a good
example for a further discussion on pattern as does the design of the
exterior of the lantern.

All other valid points will be taken into consideration.

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Question Answer Marks

Prayer and the role of images

12 In what ways did stained glass of the period aid prayer and 20
meditation? Answer with reference to specific examples.

Stained glass was a significant part of the interior decoration of Gothic

churches, helping to create the setting for prayer. Most churches had
calculated schemes of stained glass, meticulously planned and executed as
an integral part of the overall decorative scheme.

Candidates may refer to one scheme in detail or to a number of scenes from

different locations.

Stained glass reinforces the notion of Heavenly Jerusalem, as described in

Revelations Chapter 21. Stained glass provides the coloured stone, jewelled
effect described in the Bible. The impact of light shining through stained
glass was significant in mentally transporting Christians to a higher level,
away from their sinful lives on earth and closer to God.

Stained glass offered a medium for displaying narrative scenes with a

didactic role. Candidates are likely to refer to specific narrative cycles
commenting on their relevance to the chosen church, their position within
the church, composition, subject matter, figural poses, gestures and
expressions, stylistic features and colour and to discuss how they would be
interpreted by a contemporary viewer, thus aiding prayer and meditation.

Examples:
Trinity Chapel, Canterbury Cathedral 1179–84
Chartres Cathedral, begun 1194
Sainte Chapelle, Paris 1243–48
York Minster, c.1414

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Question Answer Marks

Death

13 How do tombs of the period express social status? 20

There are a large variety of tombs from which candidates may choose.
Points for analysis of tombs may include: the chosen church, the location of
the tomb within that church, the design and decoration including scale and
materials, sculpted details including weeper figures, heraldry, inscriptions,
architectural canopy, effigy, imagery concerned with the afterlife and how
these may all be interpreted within the context of medieval social hierarchy.

Examples:
Royal tombs:
Henry III, Westminster Abbey, d.1272
Eleanor of Castile, Westminster Abbey, d.1290
Edward II, Gloucester, d.1327
Robert of Anjou, King of Naples, Santa Chiara, Naples, d.1343

Court Circle tombs:

Edmund Crouchback, Westminster Abbey, d.1296
Philip the Bold, Dijon 1384–1410
Philip Pot of Burgundy (now in Louvre), d.1493

Other examples include:

Late medieval brasses
Cardinal Bray
Francesco Sassetti
Alice de la Pole

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Question Answer Marks

Courtly life

14 Analyse one building commissioned by a Capetian monarch. 20

The Capetian Dynasty ruled France between 987–1328 through a system of

heredity and primogeniture.

There are two possible buildings candidates may choose: Louis VI’s
patronage of St Denis’ east end extension and west facade followed by
Louis IX’s rebuilding of the nave OR Louis IX’s building of the Sainte
Chapelle in Paris.

St Denis, Louis VI
Candidates could give a detailed analysis of the design of the west facade
c.1135 and the extension of the east end 1140–44, commenting on their
immense influence on Gothic architecture, their acceptance enhanced by
their royal connection. Relevant to the debate is the particularly close
relationship Louis VI had with Abbot Suger and the custom he began of
storing the crown and other coronation regalia near the relics of St Denis
(patron saint of France) for safekeeping.

The work at St Denis is continued by Louis IX who rebuilt the nave. It is at

this point that the church was conceived as the royal burial church for the
French kings. Candidates could give a detailed analysis of the nave
elevation for which they may wish to consider: the increased dissolving of
the wall and increase in the glass to stone ratio, skeletal stonework,
verticality and bar tracery extending into the triforium as well as the
clerestory.

Sainte Chapelle, 1243–48

In their analysis of the Sainte Chapelle, candidates may wish to include
mention of the ground plan, interior elevation, vaulting, undercroft and
interior decorative scheme.

Candidates may engage in a discussion about Louis IX’s image of kingship

and his designing of the Sainte Chapelle as a reliquary to house the grande
chasse including a fragment of the True Cross and Crown of Thorns.

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Question Answer Marks

Civic life and patronage

15 What was new about Early Netherlandish painting? Answer with 20

reference to specific examples.

Early Netherlandish painting describes the work produced in the flourishing

cities of Northern Europe such as Bruges, Ghent, Flanders and Brussels.

Candidates may wish to consider the following characteristics: closely

observed realism with meticulous attention to detail, deep colour, use of oil
paint and its visual effects, careful representation of rich fabrics and
textures, elaborate religious symbolism, religious subject matter without a
narrative focus moving towards secular portraits. Also relevant are: the
medieval heritage found in these works, the extent of influence from Italy
and an analysis of stylistic features from the International Gothic style to
which Netherlandish artists adhered.

The patron of their chosen examples needs to be identified to ensure they

select examples from three different patrons.

Examples:
Robert Campin, The Mérode Altarpiece, 1428 (Cloisters, Metropolitan
Museum of New York)
Jan van Eyck, Arnolfini Marriage Portrait, 1434 (National Gallery)
Rogier van der Weyden, Descent from the Cross, 1435 (Prado)
Jan van Eyck, Madonna of Chancellor Rolin, 1435 (Louvre)

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Topic 4: Man, the measure of all things: the Italian Renaissance, c.1400 to c.1600

Question Answer Marks

Sculpture in Florence in the 15th century

16 With reference to named examples, compare the use of bronze and 20

marble as materials for sculpture.

The first stage in each case: the carving process for marble sculpture and
the lost-wax method of bronze casting.

The finishing processes: the use of fine chisels, drills and polishing for
marble sculpture. For bronze, the chasing and polishing of the rough cast. In
some cases, the fire-gilding of the bronze surfaces.

A comparison of compositions. The high tensile strength of bronze allows

more complicated and open compositions with extended limbs. The
malleability of bronze allows extensive chasing which makes it possible to
produce naturalistic detail such as locks of hair, veins, etc. Surfaces can be
highly polished to represent smooth skin. Marble can also be polished to
give a reflective surface, and drills can be used for the treatment of hair.
More detail is possible in bronze sculpture compared to marble (see
Donatello’s reliefs, for example, in the Santo at Padua).

Factors which affected the choice of material including patronage and social
and political factors.

Possible examples for bronze:

Ghiberti: St John the Baptist, 1412; Donatello: Herod Relief, 1423–1427,
Siena Cathedral Baptistery; Antonio Pollaiuolo: Hercules and Antaeus,
1470s; Verrocchio, Colleoni Monument, 1480s.

Possible examples for marble:

Donatello: St George, 1416; The Ascension and Giving of the Keys (Victoria
and Albert Museum), 1428–1430; Bernardo Rossellino: Tomb of Leonardo
Bruni, 1444.

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Question Answer Marks

The new naturalism; Florentine painting in the 15th century

17 Discuss the treatment of pictorial space in paintings of the period. 20

The use of perspective to merge the pictorial space with that of the viewer
so that the frame acts as an opening into the scene. This results in
increased empathy by the viewer and makes religious images more
effective. Candidates may refer to the advice given to artists in Alberti’s
della Pittura, published in 1436 (Masaccio was one of the five dedicatees).

Masaccio: The Trinity, Santa Maria Novella, Florence, 1425–38. The

carefully constructed perspective (lines incised in the plaster) and the way in
which it projects the figure of the crucified Christ towards the viewer. The
possible influence of Brunelleschi. The Tribute Money and St Peter Healing
with his Shadow, the Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence,
1426–1427. In the former, most of the heads are on the same level
(isocephaly) and diminution is used to place the figured in space. In the
latter, the vanishing point is to the right-hand side, out of the painting, a
device which helps to project St Peter towards the viewer.

Fra Angelico: The San Marco Altarpiece, 1438–1440. An example of a

Sacra Conversazione in which the saints occupy the same space as one
another and the Virgin and Child (in fourteenth century examples, the saints
were isolated, in niches): The San Marco Annunciation, 1442–1443. The
use of architecture to generate clear pictorial space in which the sacred
event takes place.

Paolo Uccello: The Flood, Green Cloister, Santa Maria Novella, Florence,
1447–1448. Deep space and a vanishing point. Reminiscent of Alberti’s
writings on perspective. The Battle of San Romano, 1450s. The Monument
to Sir John Hawkwood, Florence Cathedral, 1436, for the way in which the
perspective changes half way up the painting.

Piero della Francesca: The Flagellation, c.1455. Carefully constructed

perspective scheme.

Candidates may compare these developments with the treatment of pictorial

space by artists such as Lorenzo Monaco and Gentile da Fabriano whose
work shows the influence of the International Gothic style. However, the
emphasis is likely to be on the new attitude to pictorial space as shown in
the work of the artists named in the syllabus.

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Question Answer Marks

Early Italian Renaissance architecture and the influence of antiquity

18 With reference to named examples, discuss the factors that affected 20

the appearance of Venetian buildings in the fifteenth century.

Economic factors: Venice’s great wealth resulting from its activities as a

centre for international trade. This allowed lavish patronage by individuals
(on palaces), by institutions (especially the major scuole) and by the
government (additions to the Palazzo Ducale, for example). Display was
important and buildings were often faced with expensive marble veneers
and their facades were richly decorated with sculpture and architectural
details.

Geographic factors: the lack of space and its effect on design. For example,
palaces overlooking the Grand Canal had their narrow sides facing the
water because of the high cost of the frontage. In turn, this led to windows
being grouped together to illuminate the long rooms on the principal floors.

Historical factors: Venice’s Gothic and Byzantine past and its effect on
decoration. Gothic architectural forms and coloured marbles in the
Byzantine tradition.

The influence of Florentine early Renaissance architecture. Employment of

the classical orders of architecture, modified by local Venetian traditions.

Examples:
Churches: Pietro Lombardo, Santa Maria Miracoli, 1480s; Mauro Codussi,
San Michele in Isola, 1480s.
Scuole: Scuola Grande di San Marco, 1480s; Scuola Grande di San
Giovanni Evangelista, Pietro Lombardo and Mauro Codussi, 1480s.
Palaces: Ca Foscari, Bartolomeo Bon, 1450s; Ca Dario, Pietro Lombardi,
1480s; Palazzo Vendramin-Calergi, Mauro Codussi, 1490s.

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Question Answer Marks

Painting in Renaissance Venice, c.1450 to c.1600

19 In what ways was Giovanni Bellini’s work innovative? 20

During his very long career he assimilated a wide variety of influences

including the work of north Italian artists such as his father, Jacopo Bellini,
and his brother-in-law, Andrea Mantegna; from artists outside Venice,
including Netherlandish art and the work of Antonello da Messina; and from
Venice’s Byzantine and Gothic traditions. His innovations included his highly
sensitive treatment of light and colour, often to evoke a particular mood.
Example: The Agony in the Garden, 1465.

He was arguably the first Venetian artist to adopt a version of the

Netherlandish oil technique in place of traditional tempera painting (the
change in his work occurred in about the late 1470s). Example: The Pesaro
Madonna, 1471–1474.

The development of a new type of large altarpiece with the painted

architecture integrating with the actual frame in an illusionistic manner.
Example: The San Giobbe Altarpiece, 1488.

The development of a new type of devotional image containing half-length

figures of the Virgin and Child flanked by two saints, set in front of either a
dark background or a landscape. Example: Virgin and Child with John the
Baptist and a Saint (Accademia, Venice), c.1500–1504.

Portraits in which the sitter is seen in three-quarter view rather than in strict
profile. Example: Portrait of Doge Leonardo Loredan, 1501.

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Question Answer Marks

The High Renaissance in Rome, Florence and Milan

20 Compare the architecture of Michelangelo and Bramante. 20

Bramante’s knowledge of antique architecture was much wider than that of

Michelangelo. According to Vasari, on moving to Rome, Bramante spent
considerable time studying and measuring antique buildings in Rome and
as far afield as Naples. Although Michelangelo was familiar with Roman
buildings, his knowledge was in part derived from a compilation of drawings
of antique buildings known as the Codex Corner.

Bramante’s Tempietto of San Pietro in Montorio exemplifies the influence of

Roman antiquity and of the writings of Vitruvius. It was the first Renaissance
building to adhere to the Vitruvian canon. Candidates may point out the
choice of the Doric order (with its masculine connotations) according to
Vitruvian decorum, the dimensional rigour (the use of the column diameter
as a module determining many of the building’s dimensions), and the
correct use of the order with triglyphs and metopes.

In contrast, the architecture of Michelangelo’s New Sacristy at San Lorenzo,

Florence, 1519–1533, and his Biblioteca Laurenziana, begun in 1524, show
a deliberate departure from the rules of classical architecture established by
Vitruvius. For the interior of the New Sacristy, candidates may refer to the
highly unusual design of the niches which form a decorative band running
around the walls. (The pilasters belong to no known order and enclose
unusual sunken panels surmounted by abbreviated segmental pediments.)

Candidates may also describe the vestibule to the Biblioteca Laurenziana

with its unusual staircase which seems to flow down from the entrance and
the very unusual articulation of the walls with massive double columns in
niches under which are huge but non-load bearing volutes.

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Topic 5: Faith triumphant: 17th-century art and architecture

Question Answer Marks

Baroque Rome

21 ‘No less than an artistic revolution.’ (Howard Hibbard). 20

Discuss Bernini’s sculpture in the light of this statement.

Candidates could discuss one or more of Bernini’s early sculptures created

for Cardinal Scipione Borghese including Neptune and Triton (1620), Pluto
and Proserpine (1621–22), Apollo and Daphne (1622–25) and, to a lesser
extent, the earlier Flight from Troy (1619).

Hibbard considered Bernini’s ‘artistic revolution’ to be the result of the

sculptures’ innovative relationship to their physical environment and
Bernini’s radical manipulation of marble to make it appear to be a pliable
and fully load-bearing substance.

Candidates may indicate that the sculptures’ emotional and dramatic appeal
to the spectator is innovative. It is possible that Bernini had gained
inspiration from Caravaggio’s depictions of instantaneous bodily reactions to
shock, pain and confusion (for example, in Boy Bitten by a Lizard), and the
energetic treatment of classical scenes by Annibale Carracci, in his
paintings in the Palazzo Farnese, and that he sought to emulate them in
sculptural form.

Bernini’s depiction of arrested movement and forms that extend

unsupported into space are also aspects that candidates could indicate are
ground breaking. By paying visual homage to the static postures of the
figures in earlier sculptures – such as Michelangelo’s Risen Christ (recalled
in the figure of Aeneas in Bernini’s Flight From Troy), Belvedere Torso
(Pluto and Proserpine), and Apollo Belvedere (Apollo and Daphne) – Bernini
also underscores his originality and ‘Novità’.

On the other hand, Bernini’s use of youthful and idealised figures, carved in
marble and depicting scenes from mythological sources, and his awareness
of well-known examples of antique and more recent art allows candidates to
counter-argue Hibbard’s contention if they wish.

Other examples may include: The Ecstasy of St. Teresa, 1645–1652;

Fountain of the Four Rivers, 1648–1651.

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Question Answer Marks

French classicism

22 To what extent did French Caravaggism imitate the style of 20

Caravaggio?

Candidates are likely to be aware that Caravaggio (1592–1610) had a

distinctive and original artistic style distinguished by such characteristics as
high levels of verisimilitude, unidirectional lighting, tenebrism, the capturing
of transitional events, the use of ‘low’ models to depict religious figures, and
an interest in the psychological effects of surprise, pain and disbelief.
Valentin de Boulogne’s The Martyrdom of Sts. Processus and Martinian
(1628–29) demonstrates many of the characteristics stated above. The
angel delivering a palm leaf borrows directly from Caravaggio’s Martyrdom
of St Matthew (1600).
Aspects of Caravaggio’s style have clearly inspired Georges de la Tour’s St
Joseph (1642), such as the use of non-idealised models to depict religious
figures and a sparse, simplified composition. However, candidates could
argue that whereas Caravaggio preferred to depict the drama of a
martyrdom or conversion, de la Tour has represented a thoroughly
mundane scene with symbolism taking precedence over narrative
excitement.
Simon Vouet’s The Fortune Teller (c.1620) more explicitly reprises not only
a particular narrative scene, but also the representation of low-life figures
depicted in half-length that are to be found in Caravaggio’s earlier work.
However, candidates could suggest that from 1630 onwards, Vouet’s work
is much less dependent on Caravaggio – The Presentation of Christ in the
Temple (1641), for example, is clearly more indebted to Veronese.

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Question Answer Marks

Flemish ambassadors

23 Discuss Rubens’ late landscapes with reference to one or more 20

example(s).

Candidates may be aware that Rubens’ late landscapes were most probably
not painted for sale, but as a personal exercise for the artist. They were
painted on panel rather than canvas and depict a personal landscape – that
is, the territory in and around his country estate, Het Steen. It is likely that
Rubens’ Autumn Landscape with a View of Het Steen in the Early Morning
(c.1636) and Rainbow Landscape (c.1636) were both painted to decorate
the walls of Het Steen.

Candidates may explore the notion that the views are not topographical, but
idealised panoramas, detailing the foreground, mid-ground and background
in a way that the human eye could never countenance.

Candidates may also be aware that, as the owner of the land that he
depicts, Rubens is representing it in a way that celebrates and justifies his
role as proprietor.

Virgil’s Georgics are a likely source for the artist’s vision of the cultivation of
land in Autumn Landscape with a View of Het Steen in the Early Morning.
The rainbow in Rainbow Landscape refers to the covenant between Man
and God established after the flood, from the Old Testament Book of
Genesis.

Question Answer Marks

The Dutch golden age

24 Discuss the style and subject matter of Vermeer’s paintings. 20

Candidates could define Vermeer’s style as characterised by use of light

and symbolism, fine brushstrokes, careful modulation of tone, and ability to
replicate the fall of light on a variety of textures – possibly aided by his use
of a camera obscura.

In terms of subject matter, Vermeer often painted domestic genre scenes

depicting isolated and introspective figures; however, examples such as The
Procuress and View of Delft are exceptions.

Candidates could refer to the artistically competitive environment of Delft

and the contemporary vogue for genre scenes to account for Vermeer’s
choice of subjects and his desire to stand out by incorporating abstruse
symbolism.

View of Deft (c.1658), The Art of Painting (c.1670), and A Young Woman at
a Virginal (c.1670–72) are apt examples for candidates to be able to
illustrate the artist’s restrained, highly naturalistic and carefully orchestrated
scenes.

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Question Answer Marks

The Spanish court and Church

25 Discuss Zurbarán’s art in the context of the Counter-Reformation. 20

Candidates may be aware of the Counter-Reformation as the Catholic

response to the Protestant Reformation. The role of the arts in this period
was to affirm the Catholic faith by being easily understandable, biblically
accurate and a stimulus to piety. Zurbarán’s style can be defined by his use
of tenebrism and austere compositions to create an atmosphere of religious
solemnity and sincerity.

The Crucifixion (1627) was painted for the oratory of the sacristy in the
monastery of San Pueblo Real, Seville. Priests prayed to the painting before
entering the church, and the starkness and immediacy of the image was
designed to heighten their spiritual experience.

Zurbarán’s use of tenebrism and solemn, restrained compositions is also

evident in St Peter Nolasco’s Vision of the Crucified St. Peter (1625) and St
Serapion (1628) which were both commissioned by the Mercedarian order
for the convent of la Merced Calzada in Seville. St Peter Nolasco’s Vision of
the Crucified St. Peter was painted to celebrate the canonisation of Nolasco.
St Serapion was commissioned to adorn the Sala de Profundis, where
deceased monks would be laid out before burial.

Virgin and Christ in the Holy House of Nazareth (c.1631–40) depicts a

youthful Christ in a scene full of symbols that prefigure the crucifixion,
designed to incite the piety of the (unknown but presumably private) patron
and invite reflection on Christ’s sacrifice.

In his various paintings of St Francis, Zurbarán depicts the saint in a state of

meditation to inspire viewers to share the religious seriousness of the
moment.

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Topic 6: Defining the nation: art and architecture in Britain, c.1700–1860s

Question Answer Marks

High art and high life

26 Discuss the depiction of subjects taken from English literature in 20

history paintings and/or prints of the period.

From the mid-eighteenth century onwards, British painters extended the

canon of classical literary works regarded as suitable for history painting by
depicting subjects taken from English drama and poetry. Candidates may
make reference to the expansion of middle-class wealth and literacy, and
the related revival of interest in Shakespeare as the ‘English national poet’.

Explanation of strategies for the visual representation of narrative

significance (an important aspect of all history painting) could be
emphasised. Comparisons between works may draw contrasts between
visual style – Rococo, Neo-classicism, Romanticism/gothic, Pre-
Raphaelitism – and/or subject matter. This might be reflected in the taste for
particular works of literature – for instance, the Romantic taste for the
melodrama of Macbeth or Hamlet – or in contrasting depictions of a theme
such as ‘fairies’ in the works of Henry Fuseli and John Everett Millais.

Examples might include depictions of scenes from Shakespearian drama

executed by, amongst many others, Hogarth, Scene from Shakespeare’s
‘The Tempest’ (c.1735); Fuseli, Titania and Bottom (1790); Maclise, ‘The
Play Scene in Hamlet’ (1842); Millais, Ferdinand Lured by Ariel (1850).

The representation of John Milton’s ‘sublime’ epic poetry: works from

Fuseli’s Milton Gallery (1791–99); John Martin’s mezzotint illustrations for
Paradise Lost (1825–27).

Depictions of modern poetry such as Keats, (Millais, Isabella and the Pot of
Basil, 1849), Erasmus Darwin; (Danby, The Upas Tree, 1820) Tennyson,
(Holman Hunt, The Lady of Shalott (illustration), 1857), or Rossetti’s own
early Double Works, (e.g. The Girlhood of Mary Virgin,1849).

All relevant examples to be accepted.

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Question Answer Marks

Portraiture and society

27 Explain the characteristics of the conversation piece with reference to 20

works by at least two painters.

Hogarth and his peers developed the form in the early 18th century. It was
an innovative mode of portraiture that depicted groups posed in landscape
or domestic settings. Unlike ‘Grand Manner’ portraiture, conversation pieces
presented contemporary manners and informal social customs, frequently
depicting multi-generational family networks and bonds of affection. The
genre was subsequently adapted by Zoffany and Gainsborough, but
declined in popularity after around 1780.

The works of Hogarth and his generation: Hogarth, The Fontaine Family,
1730; The Children’s Theatre at John Conudit’s House, 1732; Captain Lord
George Graham in his Cabin, 1745; Hayman, Family Group, 1745; Devis,
The James Family, 1751.

Subsequent developments of the genre as claims for the subject’s

involvement with contemporary intellectual currents: Gainsborough: Mr. and
Mrs. Andrews, 1750. The Byam Family, 1762. Zoffany: The Lavie Children,
c.1770. The Gore Family, 1775, Charles Townley in the Park St. Gallery,
1782. Romney: The Beaumont Family, 1779. The conversation piece after
1780. Lawrence: Lady Acland, with Her Two Sons, 1815. The Masters
Pattison, 1811–17. Millais: James Wyatt and His Granddaughter Mary,
1849.

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Question Answer Marks

Modern life

28 What was new about the works of either George Stubbs or William 20
Powell Frith?

Both artists developed specialised formulae to suit the tastes of emerging

audiences. Stubbs’s work appealed to the expertise of the land-owning
aristocracy of the late eighteenth century, while Frith’s painting responded to
the commercial tastes of the urban middle class in the mid-nineteenth
century.

Candidates writing on Stubbs may emphasise the significance of his

anatomical research and ‘The Anatomy of the Horse’ as examples of an
‘enlightened’ approach to nature, while those writing about Frith might locate
his representations of social types within the popular literary conventions of
physiognomies and physiologies (cf. Dickens, Thackeray), or as high art
versions of popular visual forms such as panoramas and composite
photographs.

Stubbs’s practice included both idealised representations of horses and

depictions of individual specimens such as Whistlejacket, 1762. His
rejection of conventional background in this painting and certain other
examples could be considered in relation to Neoclassical style. Although
working in the specialised genre of animal painting, the frequent motif of
horses attacked by lions (e.g. Horse Devoured by a Lion, 1763) might be
discussed as an expression of the ‘sublime’, connecting his work with wider
cultural trends. The idealisation of rural labour in the Haymakers and
Reapers series from the 1780s might also be investigated.

Any account of Frith is likely to concentrate on his three most important

works: Ramsgate Sands, Life at the Seaside, 1854, The Derby Day, 1858,
and The Railway Station, 1862. The Crossing Sweeper, 1858, might also
provide a focus for discussion. The social consequences of new
technologies and social forms were a key concern for Frith and were
addressed through his depictions of public interaction between classes and
genders. Candidates could discuss the role of figure groups in building
multiple anecdotal narratives within a single pictorial space. Contrasts of
wealth and poverty, innocence and experience, naiveté and worldliness help
the audience to ‘read’ the picture.

The influence of both artists on French painting might also be mentioned in

support of the assertion that they were innovators. (Stubbs/Géricault, Frith/
Manet, Degas)

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Question Answer Marks

Landscape

29 By what means did British landscape artists represent ‘the sublime’? 20

Candidates may refer to Burke’s ‘Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of

Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful’ and to the wider context of the
Romantic expression of sensibility when viewing nature, in which the
sublime might be defined as ‘pleasurable terror’ or similar.

The question does not demand extensive historical contextualisation but

mention of elite tourism to the periphery of Great Britain as a substitute for
the continental Grand Tour and the concurrent emergence of both
‘historical-mindedness’ and the science of geology is valid if offered. More
emphasis could be given to both choice of subject and formal means of
representation.

Turner’s extensive exploration of the sublime might be included within the

groupings below or discussed as a subject in its own right.

British artists abroad and the depiction of natural phenomena: Wilson: View
of Snowdon from LLyn Nantlle, 1766, and Llyn-y-Cau, Cader Idris, 1774;
Wright of Derby: Vesuvius in Eruption, 1776; De Loutherbourg: An
Avalanche in the Alps, 1803; Ward: Gordale Scar, 1812–14; Turner:
Buttermere Lake and a Part of Crummockwater, 1798, The Fall of an
Avalanche in the Grisons, 1810.

The ‘historical’ and ‘industrial sublime’: Girtin: Bamburgh Castle,

Northumberland, 1797; Constable: Salisbury Cathedral from the Meadows,
1831; De Loutherbourg: Coalbrookdale by Night, 1801; Turner: Dolbarden
Castle, 1799, Ships Bearing Up for Anchorage (The Egremont Sea Piece),
1802, Kenilworth Castle, 1830, Staffa, Fingal’s Cave, 1832, Rain, Steam
and Speed, 1844.

After Turner, the nineteenth-century sublime: Dyce, Pegwell Bay, Kent – a

Recollection of October 5th 1858, 1858–60; Brett, Glacier of Rosenlaui,
1856.

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Architecture

30 Assess A.W.N. Pugin’s contribution to the architecture and decoration 20

of the period.

Candidates may make reference to the context of the revived Gothic style
before Pugin, e.g. Walpole, Strawberry Hill House, 1749, Adam, Seton
Castle, 1791, Wyatt, Fonthill Abbey, 1796–1813, Wyattville, Windsor Castle,
remodelled 1824–40. The ‘battle of the styles’ and the competition for the
New Palace of Westminster.

Candidates may make reference to Pugin’s polemical writings, especially

Contrasts, 1836, and The True Principles of Pointed, or Christian
Architecture, 1841. The two ‘principles of design’ may be discussed in
relation Pugin’s own built architecture and that of his followers in the Gothic
Revival.

Pugin’s adaptation of gothic forms to nineteenth-century functions and

materials: St Chad’s Cathedral, Birmingham, 1837, New Palace of
Westminster, 1840–70, St. Augustine’s Grange, Ramsgate, 1843. The
emergence of the ‘free plan’ and ‘picturesque massing’ approaches to the
design of buildings in both secular and church contexts.

Pugin’s impact on public taste, especially polychromy and ornament: St

Giles, Cheadle, 1840–46, wallpapers and furniture for the New Palace of
Westminster, especially The Chamber of the House of Lords, 1840–50, the
Medieval Court at the Great Exhibition, 1851.

His influence traced in the work of other architects: Butterfield: All Saints,
Margaret St., 1850. Dean and Woodward, Oxford Museum of Natural
History, 1855. Scott, The Albert Memorial, 1863–66. Street, St James the
Less, Pimlico, 1861. Webb & Morris, The Red House, Bexleyheath, 1860–
62.

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Topic 7: Art, society and politics in Europe, c.1784–1900

Question Answer Marks

Neoclassicism

31 What is distinctive about Canova’s style? 20

In general, his style is a modernising version of antique statuary. Although

several works are based on antique prototypes such as the Apollo
Belvedere, he never made copies or casts. His interpretation of the antique
style owed a great deal to Winckelmann’s writings on antique art.

Aspects of his style include:

Simplicity and a high degree of idealisation. A feeling of tranquillity and a

complete rejection of late Baroque drama and movement. (According to
Winckelmann, simplicity was the supreme aim of antique art.) There is a
sense of great restraint in his figures.

In his tomb designs, figures are isolated from one another and the spaces
which separate them are carefully contrived. The individual figures do not
communicate with one another but show great concentration.

There is a sensuous quality to his work. Flesh tones are highly polished
(according to contemporary accounts, after the polishing was complete,
Canova painted the surface with a thin transparent glaze, applied under
candlelight, to give greater luminosity).

A range of other factors which affected style include patronage, the intended
audience, etc.

Examples:
Theseus and the Minotaur, 1782; the Tomb of Pope Clement XIV, 1783–
1787; Cupid and Psyche, 1786–1793; Tomb of Duchess Maria Christina of
Saxony-Teschen,1798–1805; The Three Graces, 1814–17 (Victoria and
Albert Museum, London).

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Question Answer Marks

Romantic heroes

32 Compare and contrast the depiction of dramatic subjects by Géricault 20

and Delacroix.

Suitable comparisons include:

Géricault: Raft of the Medusa, 1818–1819, and Delacroix, The Death of

Sardanapalus, 1827.

Géricault: An Officer of the Chasseurs commanding a Charge, 1812, and

Delacroix, Combat of the Gaiour and the Pasha, 1835.

Comparison of the Raft of the Medusa and the Death of Sardanapalus.

Candidates may point out that both paintings are very large (7 metres by
about 5 metres for the former and about 5 metres by 4 metres for the latter).
They may also outline the stories that are being told.

Similarities:
Individual figures are powerfully modelled and suggest the influence of High
Renaissance artists such as Michelangelo and Raphael. Both artists made
many preparatory drawings of individual figures and figure groups to
enhance the dramatic effect. Both artists employ a range of expressions and
gestures to communicate the drama and both use foreshortening.

Differences:
Compositions: in the Raft of the Medusa, the figures are arranged in a
pyramid, the apex of which coincides with the dramatic focal point of the
man waving to attract attention. The composition in the other work is
arranged around two diagonals, one from top left to bottom right formed by
the bed and the form of the King, and the other at right angles formed by the
horse’s head and the slave’s forearm. The other figures swirl around these
lines in chaotic movement (one critic referred to ‘this maelstrom of light and
colour’).

Colour: the overall sickly greenish-yellow in the Raft of the Medusa as the
storm is about to break. Delacroix, on the other hand, uses patches of bright
colour (especially reds and whites) to attract the viewer’s attention.

Light and shade: apart from the brighter sky and the flesh tones, the overall
tone of the Raft of the Medusa is dark. In the Death of Sardanapalus,
Delacroix uses very strong contrasts of light and shade to enhance the
dramatic impact.

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Question Answer Marks

1848 and its aftermath

33 To what extent did art during the Second Empire in France have a 20
political intent?

Although the Second Empire began in 1852, examples which date from
1848 to 1871 are acceptable.

Millet’s peasant background. His paintings including:

The Gleaners, 1857, and The Man with a Hoe, 1862. The overwhelmingly
negative critical response to these two paintings when they were exhibited
in the salon. The accusation by conservative writers that Millet was
criticising the government for the condition of the rural poor at a time when it
was officially claimed that such poverty had been eradicated. Millet’s denial
that this was his intention and that instead he was attempting to depict the
timelessness of the peasants’ lot.

Courbet. His political views. His publication of anti-clerical pamphlets, his

involvement in the Paris Commune. His paintings including:
The Stonebreakers, 1849; A Burial at Ornans, 1849–1850; The Bathers,
1853; The Painter’s Studio, 1854–1855; Portrait of the Jules Vallès, 1861
(anarchist writer and later member of the Communard); Charity of a Beggar
at Ornans,1868. Interpretation of his work as politically motivated.

Other examples include:

Manet – Execution of the Emperor Maximillian, 1867.
View of the exposition universelle, 1867.
Daumier – sculpture Ratapoil
Meissonier – The Barricade, 1848.

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Question Answer Marks

The Impressionist Eye

34 How did Impressionist painters depict the urban environment of Paris? 20

Candidates may approach this either thematically (different aspects of the

city) or by artist. Themes might include the Grand Boulevards, parks and
other settings for leisure, the exteriors of buildings including museums and
apartment blocks, railway stations, street scenes including celebrations of
events, etc.

In most cases, artists emphasised the modernity of the city and the rapid
changes that were taking place. It also served as the setting for the
depiction of leisure activities. Possible examples include the following:

Monet: Boulevard des Capucines, 1873; Quai du Louvre, 1867, The Gare St
Lazare (National Gallery, London) 1876–1877; Rue Montorgueil decked out
with Flags, 1878.
Caillebotte: The Pont de l’Europe, 1876; Paris Street, Rainy Day, 1877;
Boulevard Haussman, Snow, c.1880.
Manet: Music in the Tuileries Gardens, 1862; Rue Mosnier with Pavers,
1878.
Renoir: The Pont des Arts, Paris, 1867; Skaters in the Bois de Boulogne,
1868; Dance in the Moulin de la Galette, 1876.
Degas: Place de la Concorde, 1876; Women at the Terrace of a Café, 1877.

Other examples include: Pissarro – Effet de nuit.

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Question Answer Marks

Beyond Impressionism

35 What was new about the paintings which Gauguin produced in 20

Brittany in the late 1880s?

Candidates may preface their answer with context about the isolation of
Brittany, its backward-looking nature and the deeply-held religious beliefs of
the inhabitants.

Gauguin first visited Pont-Aven in the summer of 1886. His style was then a
version of Impressionism, influenced by Pissarro with whom he had recently
worked.

Following a visit to Martinique, he returned to Pont-Aven in February 1888

and stayed for several months. During this period, his work underwent a
decisive break from Impressionism. The seminal work was his Vision after
the Sermon in which he displays his new Synthetist style using colour, forms
and pictorial space in a non-naturalistic way to express the feelings of the
simply and deeply religious peasant women after hearing the sermon.
Candidates may give a detailed analysis of the painting and may point out
the formal similarities with the work of Émile Bernard, some of whose work
Gauguin may have seen in Paris following his return from Martinique.
(Bernard’s style was referred to as Cloisonnism, due to its similarities to
mediaeval enamels.)

Reference may also be made to Albert Aurier’s influential essay of 1891,

Symbolism in Painting, in which he discusses at length the Vision after the
Sermon and introduces the term ‘pictorial symbolism’.

Examples of Gauguin’s work:

Washerwomen at Pont-Aven, 1886; Vision after the Sermon, 1888; The
Yellow Christ, 1888; The Calvary, 1889.

For comparison: Bernard: Breton Women in a Meadow, 1888.

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Topic 8: The shock of the new: art and architecture in Europe and the United States in the 20th
and 21st centuries

Question Answer Marks

Brave new world, 1890–1914

36 Discuss the evolution of Picasso’s early work, up to and including 20

1907.

Areas for discussion may include:

• Blue Period and the death of Casagemas leading to possible
depression. Angularity of figures; sharp contours; abandonment of
traditional perspectives.
• Morose subjects of poverty, hunger and alcoholism. Example: The Old
Guitarist, 1903. Many other examples.
• 1905 so-called Rose Period heralds a change in pallet to softer colours
including pinks and terracotta. Subjects become more personal and
mystical in nature. Fascination with the circus, clowns, Harlequins,
Spanish cultural figures and the Carnival.

Examples could be The Family of Saltimbanques, 1905; Acrobat and Young

Harlequin, 1905.

In 1907, Picasso paints Les Demoiselles D’Avignon. Large canvas with five
naked women. They have flattened geometric bodies and represent
prostitutes in Barcelona. Three have faces inspired by Iberian sculpture –
large almond-shaped eyes – while two have mask-like faces, clearly derived
from African figures or masks. Lack of traditional femininity, distorted,
massive and angular. Reaction from his friends was negative and he did not
exhibit the canvas until 1916, but clearly it paved the way towards cubism.
Comparisons could be made with The Turkish Bath, Ingres, 1862; The
Great Bathers, Cézanne, 1906.

All other valid points will be taken into consideration.

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Question Answer Marks

Visions of Utopia – architecture

37 In an industrialised society, Le Corbusier felt architecture’s purpose 20

was to restore man to nature. In what ways can this aim be seen in his
buildings?

Candidates can choose from several of Le Corbusier’s buildings/projects to

discuss different aspects of a growing concern over urbanisation, and his
desire to place ‘man’ at the centre of his buildings.

For example:

The collective architecture of the Unité d’Habitation (1947–53) – a variety of

dwelling spaces to accommodate different family units; double height
windows which opened the space, allowing nature in – light, space and
greenery; the interior street for shops; the use of the roof terrace for running
track and creche; the liberation of space at ground level which dissolved
boundaries between city and country.

Domestic buildings such as Villa Savoye (1928–31) or Maison La Roche

(1923–25) which can be analysed in terms of the Five Points of
Architecture, and how these affect the lives of the occupants.

Notre Dame du Haut, (1950–54) set in the landscape at Ronchamp, and the
interplay between interior and exterior forms, volume and light, as both
sculpture and spiritual experience for the pilgrims who came to worship.

Candidates could mention Corbusier’s proposal for a universal system of

proportional measurement based on man and the Golden section, Le
Modulor, which was intended to put the human form at the centre of all
aspects of design in his buildings.

Candidates may wish to discuss the results of adapting Corbusier’s

designs/thinking for mass produced public housing in the later part of the
20th century.

All other valid points will be taken into consideration.

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Question Answer Marks

Rebellion and the unconscious

38 To what extent did Modernist art influence the styles and techniques 20
of early avant-garde cinema?

This question requires candidates to critically analyse the films of their

choice with a particular focus upon the degree to which prevailing Modernist
art movements may have acted as a formal influence upon the cinematic
techniques which are used in those films. Hence weaker responses may
tend in the direction of an uncritical narrative of the films in question.

Candidates may frame their analyses very much with a view to identifying
and demonstrating the particular stylistic or cinematic features of the films in
question which most clearly indicate the influence of particular early
Modernist art movements.

Areas for discussion may include:

• Buñuel’s Un Chien Andalou. The presence of Dalì on the production

team gives a very clear indication that Surrealism will have played a key
role in the conception and construction of this film. This is amply borne
out by the calculatedly bizarre and non-rationalistic imagery which
suffuses the film, and by its deliberately non-linear, irrational narrative
structure. The film overtly aspires to echo the content and texture of
dreams, and in so doing fulfils a central aspect of the Surrealist
aesthetic mission.
• Vertov’s Man With a Movie Camera. The genesis of the film within the
early Soviet Union will guide responses in the direction of a particular
set of contemporary artistic movements: those which were encouraged
(or at least tolerated) by the Leninist regime.
• Léger’s Ballet Mécanique. Léger’s own artistic identity provides a ready
clue as to the likely source of artistic influence: that of post-Cubism,
with its smooth, almost mechanically reduced contours and boldly
defined areas of primary colour. As such, the film does meditate upon
the supposed affinities between humans and machines: very much in
line with Léger’s own publicly expressed admiration of all things
mechanical.
• Fritz Lang’s Metropolis is perhaps the best known of the films listed,
and so may feature in a disproportionate number of responses. As to its
possible artistic sources, clearly contemporary avant-garde cinematic
techniques are visible in terms of its narrative structure, while its visual
textures and set designs clearly owe much to the slick, clean-lined
Modernism of late Cubism and the Bauhaus. The film’s design aesthetic
also suggests a momentum toward the more glamorous hedonism of
the burgeoning Art Deco movement.

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Question Answer Marks

The figure and the object

39 In what ways did popular culture influence British pop art? 20

Candidates will need to establish what they consider the particular British
qualities of this period.

Richard Hamilton’s definition of the term ‘Pop’ in 1957 and his collaged
poster for the Whitechapel Gallery exhibition could make good starting
points. Just what is it that makes today’s homes so different, so appealing?
(1956)

Visual images from American advertising and new consumerism were used
to create art works – comic books, advertising images, labels and boxes
from packaging.

Britain was still experiencing rationing and luxury goods were unavailable.
Early works, such as Eduardo Paolozzi’s collage I was a rich Man’s
Plaything (1947) used covers and images from American magazines, but as
the movement in Britain developed, artists such as Hockney and Blake
began to create their own iconography which displayed local images and
celebrities, drawing on a genuinely popular culture as opposed to high art.
Humour and satire are both in evidence in British Pop art of this period. See
Hockney’s We Two Boys together Clinging (1961); A Bigger Splash (1967);
Blake’s On the Balcony (1956).

Images were produced from the rise of British pop music at the same time –
bands such as the Beatles, with record album covers and animated songs,
to the rather more subversive screen prints of members of the Rolling
Stones. See Blake’s Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band Album Cover
(1967); Hamilton’s Swingeing London (1967).

Commercial processes, borrowed from the newly developing advertising

industry were used to create ‘art’ works, as distinctions between high and
low were dismissed. See Hamilton’s My Marilyn (1965).

As economic and political stability returned to Britain, music and fashion

design came to prominence – record covers, posters and advertisements
replaced academic conventions of landscape, portraiture and still life.

All other valid points will be taken into consideration.

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Question Answer Marks

‘Art is about life’: art after Modernism – 1970 to the present day

40 How successfully have artworks made since 1970 dealt with the 20
traumas of history?

This question requires the candidate to reflect upon the degree to which
contemporary artists have reflected or evoked historical experiences in their
work. Candidates are likely to concentrate upon particular commissions
which have been specifically intended to perform an historically
commemorative function.

Likely examples include:

• Rachel Whiteread: Holocaust Monument (Vienna, 2000) – a vast

concrete sarcophagus, or bunker, which is formed so as to suggest a
cast of the interior space within a late 19th century bourgeois library.
This immediately alludes to the identity of Jews themselves as ‘People
of the Book’. The intense site specificity of the work – which is common,
and vital, to virtually all of Whiteread’s works – enhances its
commemorative quality.
• Joseph Beuys: The End of the Twentieth Century – arguably a less
successful meditation on the millennial passage of time (one perhaps
marred by the insistent theatricality of the artist’s own persona). The
tumbled basalt monoliths, which comprise the work, are apparently
intended to evoke the passage of time on a geological scale, basalt
being a primeval volcanic rock.
• Anthony Gormley: Sculpture For Derry Walls (1987) – here, as with
Whiteread’s Vienna memorial, site specificity seems to be key to the
success of the artwork. Gormley’s back-to-back conjoined cruciform
figures evoke the agony of sectarian tension within the city itself. The
cruciform posture of the figures acknowledges that both the loyalist and
republican communities within Derry – both of whom were passionate
parties to the Northern Irish Troubles – are products of essentially the
same Christian religion and culture.
• Anselm Kiefer’s work perennially meditates upon the pained
remembrance of German history: particularly the collective trauma of
Nazism. Kiefer seems fascinated with the tactile evocation of that past,
often employing unconventional materials in the construction of visually
febrile ‘Neo-expressionist’ paintings. His work creates images which
disquietingly evoke the tenebrous chaos of totalitarian violence and
total war.

All other valid points will be taken into consideration.

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