Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

Flower- reproductive unit meant for sexual reproduction.

Prefertilisation : structure & events

Hormonal, structural changes occur lead to differentiation & development
of floral primordium, inflorescence are formed bearing floral buds.

(I) stamen, microsporangium, pollen grain

v v v v
Stamen = anther + filament STRUCTURE OF MICROSPORANGIA MICROSPOROGENESIS POLLEN GRAIN
The former/proximal end Appears circular in outline Sporogenous cell They represent the male
of filament is attached to surrounded by 4 wall layers- perform meiosis to form gametophyte & are of 25-50 um in
thalamus or petal of epidermis, endothecium, middle microspore tetrads. diameter. Have 2 layered wall- 1st
flower. layers & tapetum. The first 3 protects Formation of exine -> made of sporopollenin
Angiospermic anther is & helps in dehiscence of anther to microspore from pollen (resistant organic material upto high
bilobed & each lobe release pollen & tapetum on being mother cell (PMC) is temp., acid, alkali & no enzymes can
having 2 theca (dithecous) dense cytoplasm & binucleated microsporogenesis. The degrade it). It has prominent
often a longitudinal groove nourishes pollen. In young anther microspores arrange in apertures (germpore where
runs lengthwise sporogenous tissue (homogenous clustre of 4 cells & sporopollenin is absent) & cause of
separating theca. The cells) occupies centre of each afterwards microspore sporopollenin they are preserved as
anther is a foursided microsporangium. dissociate to develop fossils. 2nd Intine -> thin, continuous,
(tetragonal) structure pollen grain. made of cellulose & pectin.
consisting 4 Cytoplasm of pollen is surrounded
microsporangia which by plasma membrane. Mature pollen
further develop into pollen 60% angiosperms shed at 2 celled stage & 40% at 3 celled contains 2 cells vegetative &
sac, packed with pollen stage i.e. generative cell divide to form 2 male gamates before generative cell.
grain & extend shedding. Vegetative is bigger, abundant food
longitudinally all thr’ the Pollen grain may cause allergy & bronchial afflictions leading reserve, large irregular nucleus.
length. to asthama, bronchitis, etc. eg- parthenium (by imorted Generative is small,floats in
wheat) causes pollen allergy. Pollen are rich in nutrient & cytoplasm of vegetative cell, spindle
taken as food supplements as tablet/syrup. Which increase shaped, dense cytoplasm nucleus.
performance of athletes/race horse. Pollen of rice, wheat
have viability of 30 min. But pollen of rosaceae,
leguminoseae, solanaceae are viable for months. Pollen can
be stored for years in liq. N2 (-196°C) and can be used as
pollen bank in crop breeding programs.

(II) pistil, megasporangium (ovule) & embryo sac

v v v v v
Gynoecium may be FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE
MEGASPORANGIUM/ MEGASPOROGENESIS Micropylar end (egg
monocarpellary One of the megaspores
OVULE Formation of apparatus)- 2 synergids
(single pistil), is only functional & rest
Attached to placenta by a megaspores from + 1 egg cell. Synergids
multicarpellary which 3 degenerates. The one
stalk (funicle) & its body megaspore mother cell have cellular.
can be fused develops female
fuses with funicle in region (MMC). Ovules Thickenings at
(syncarpous) or free gametophyte
called hilum (junction b/w differentiate a single micropylar tip called
(apocarpous). Inside (embryosac). This is
ovules & funicle) ovule MMC in micropylar filiform apparatus which
the ovary there is called as monosporic
have 1 or 2 protective region of nucellus. guide pollen tube into
ovarian cavity (locule) development.
envelope (integuments) MMC is a large cell with synergid.
in which placenta is Formation of embryo
which enclose nucellus dense cytoplasm, Chalazal end- 3
located. sac- nucleus of
except at tip (small prominent nucleus & it antipodal cells
Megasporangium/ functional megaspore
opening called micropyle). undergoes meiosis & Hence mature
ovule arise from divide mitotically & the 2
Opposite of micropyle is forms 4 megaspores. angiospermic embryo
placenta. nuclei shift to poles &
the chalaza end (basal sac is 8 nucleated & 7
Uniovular- wheat, again divide to form 8
part of ovule). celled
padddy, mango nuclei stage of embryo
Integuments enclose mass
Multiovular- papaya, sac. (These nuclear
of cells, the nucellas
watermelon, orchids. division are not followed
which have abundant
reserve food material. immediately by cell wall
Embryo sac/female formation). The six of 8
gametophyte is present in nuclei are surrounded by
nucellus. & each ovule cell wall & the polar
have 1 embryo sac formed nuclei is situated below
from megaspore. egg apparatus in large
central cell.
 (III) Pollination
KINDS OF POLLINATION ON BASIS OF SOURCE OF POLLEN

✓ u J
AUTOGAMY GEITNOGAMY XENOGAMY
(Pollination within same flower). In a normal flower it is rare cause it Pollination b/w 2 flowers of Pollination b/w
requires synchrony b/w pollen release & stigma receptivity, stigma & same plant. Which is cross 2 different
anther should lie close. Plants like viola (common pansy), oxalis, pollination cause it requires plants which
commelina produce 2 types of flowers cleistogamous (closed) & agent & genetically similar brings genetic
chasmogamous (exposed anther & stigma). Cleistogamous flowers to autogamy. variation.
produce assured seed set even in the absence of pollinators.

Agents of pollination-

:
Abiotic Biotic
Pollination by wind is more common among abiotic Birds(sunbirds & humming birds), primates
agents in which pollen grains should be light, non (lemurs), arboreal(free dwelling) rodents, reptiles
sticky. Stamen should be well exposed, large often (gecko lizard & garden lizard). Bees are
feathery stigma. Wind pollinated flowers often have dominating biotic pollinating agent. Flowers are
single ovule in each ovary. Eg- corn cob- the tassels adapted to particular species of animal for
(they actually are stigma & style). It is common in pollination.
grasses.

Conditions & necessities-

Pollination by water is limited upto 30 genera, mostly
Flowers should be large, colourful, fragrant, full of
monocots. Eg- vallisneria & hydrilla (freshwater),
nectar. (If flowers are small they are clustered into an
zostera (marine grass). In water hyacinth & water lily,
inflorescence making them conspicuous) flowers
flower emerge out & perform pollination by wind or
pollinated by flies, beetles secrete foul odours. special
abiotic (insects). In vallisneria, female flower reaches
rewards should be prepared like nectar, pollen (floral
surface by the long stalk & pollen are released on the
rewards). Special rewards may also include providing
surface of water. In seagrass, female flower remains
safe place to lay eggs. Eg- amorphallus (tallest flower-
submerged & pollen are of shape- long, ribbon like &
6ft) & relation b/w moth & yucca plant where moth
released in water carried passively. Pollen are
deposit its eggs in locule & larvae come out of eggs
protected by mucilaginous covering from wetting.
when seed starts developing. They both can’t
complete their life cycle without each other.
Flower pollinated by wind or air are neither
attractive nor produce nectar.

Outbreeding devices

Developed mechanisms itself by plant to prevent autogamy cause If both male & female flower present in same plant
many flowers are hermaphrodite & continuous self pollination leads (monoecious) like castor, maize —> it prevents
to inbreeding depression: autogamy but not geitnogamy but if male & female
1) pollen release & stigma reciptivity are not synchronised. flowers are present on different plants like in papaya
2) anther & stigma are placed at different position. then it prevents both autogamy & geitnogamy.
3) self incompatibility- rejection of pollen of same genes in
response of no formation of pollen tube i.e. no pollen germination.
4) production of unisexual flowers.

Pollen-Pistil interaction

v v v v

If pollen is of light The plants in which pollen shed off at 2 Pollen germination In artificial hybridisation the germination
type, pistil accepts celled stage- the generative cell divides can be studied of desired pollen & prevention of stigma
it & promotes post in pollen tube growth. The male gamete (seen) on sprinkling contamination is very necessary hence
pollination events & enter ovule through micropyle & enters 10% sugar solution emasculation (removal of stamen if flower
this recognition is one of the synergids through filiform on pollen & is bisexual using forceps) & bagging
result of dialogue apparatus. This interaction is a observing it after (covering by a bag of butter paper on
b/w pollen & pistil dynamic process. Knowledge gained 15-30 min under low emasculated flower for prevention) is
mediated by here would help plant breeder in power lens of performed. The female flower buds are
chemicals. manipulating pollen pist interaction microscope. bagged before the flowers open.
even in incompatible pollination to get
desired hybrids.
 DOUBLE FERTILISATION
Male gametes enter into cytoplasm of synergid & then perform double fertilisation. 2nd one form PEN (primary
endosperm nucleus) & since it involves fusion of 3 haploid nuclei is called triple fusion after which it becomes PEC.

Post fertilisation : structure & events

Events of endosperm & embryo development,
maturation of ovule into seed & ovary into fruit.

v v v

(I) Endosperm (II) Embryo (III) Seed

PEC divides repeatedly to form It is fertilised ovule & final product of
It develops at micropylar end of embryo sac
triploid endospermous tissue sexual reproduction.
by division of zygote after little amount of
filled with reserve food Mature seeds may be Non
endosperm is formed. The early stages of
material. The PEN undergoes albuminous/non-endospermous (eg-
embryo development (embryogeny) are
various nuclear divisions to pea, groundnut). Or albuminous(eg-
similar in monocot & dicot.
give rise free nuclei (free wheat, maize, barley, castor)
Zygote -> proembryo -> globular -> heart
nuclear endosperm) & when In some seed like black pepper &
shaped -> mature embryo
cell wall gets formed it beet, remnants of nucellus are also
becomes cellular endosperm. DICOT EMBRYO- 2 cots., embryonal axis , persistent which is called perisperm.
Eg- coconut water —> free epicotyl (portion of embryonal axis above level Integuments of ovules harden as
nuclear, white kernel —> of cotyledons), plumule + hypocotyl + radicle/ tough protective seed coat.
cellular endosperm. root tip + root cap. Micropyle facilitates entry of O2 &
Endosperm may either be H2O. As seed matures, H2O content
completely consumed (eg- pea, MONOCOT EMBRYO- 1 cotyledons. In grass decreases & it becomes dry (10-15%
groundnut, beans) before seed family cotyledons is called scutellum. Situated by mass) due to which it can go
maturation or may be one side (lateral) of embryonic axis whose lower under dormancy. The wall of ovary
consumed during seed & has radical & root cap enclosed in an forms wall of fruit (pericarp).
germination & persist in mature undifferentiated sheath called coleorrhiza. The Fruits may be fleshy (guava, orange,
seed (eg- castor, coconut). portion of the embryonal axis above the lower mango) or dry (groundnut, mustard).
attachment of scutellum is the epicotyl which In few species such as apple,
have shoot apex & a few leaf primordia enclosed strawberry, cashew, thalamus also
in a hollow foliar structure the coleoptile. contribute to fruit formation i.e. false
fruit. Parthenocarpy (as in banana)
can be induced by application of
growth hormones.
ADVANTAGES OF SEEDS-

L v s >
v

They are They have adaptive Generate new genetic They are basis of agriculture
They cause having food
dependable on features for combinations leading & their dormancy helps in
reserve, serve plant
water dispersal to new to variation. storage of seed.
until it is capable of
habitats & colonise
photosynthesis.
in other areas.

A lupine lupinus arcticus excavated from arctic tundras germinated & flowered after 10,000 years of dormancy
(oldest). Recently a 20p0 yr old viable seed is of date palm phoenix dactylifera discovered during archeological
excavation at king herod’s palace near dead sea.

Apomixis & polyembryony Apomixis in agriculture

Form of asexual reproduction that mimics sexual One of problems of hybrids is that they need to be produced
reproduction & i.e. production of seeds without every year cause plants in progeny segregates & do not
fertilisation (takes place in astersceas & grasses). It can mantain hybrid characters which will be costly to farmers. If
take place if diploid egg cell is formed without reduction these hybrids are made into apomicts (no segregation) &
division & develops into embryo or as in citrus, mango farmers can use the hybrid seeds to raise new crop every
some of nucellar cells surrounding embryosac start year and does not have to buy hybrid seeds every year. Cause
dividing, protrude into embryosac & develop into embryo of importance of apomixis in hybrid seed industry active
where each ovule contain many embryos (polyembryony) research is going to transfer apomictic genes into hybrid
varieties.
NCERT Diagrams for reference
 Human reproduction
Transfer of sperms in female genital tract- insemination.
After zygote formation, blastocyst forms & develops
which attaches to uterine wall.
Embryonic development— gestation
Delivery of baby — parturation

The male reproductive system

V V V

Located in pelvis & consists of pair of testis + accessory duct + Accessory ducts -> the sperms The enlarged end of penis is
glands + external genitalia. from seminiferous tubules goes called glans penis & is
Testis are located outside abdomen to lower temp. By 2- 2.5°C for into rete testis then to vasa covered by foreskin.
spermatogenesis. efferentia then to epididymis Accessory gland -> paired
Adult testis is oval , 4-5 cm in length, 2-3 cm in width & each testis (posterior to testis) then vas seminal vesicle, a prostate,
have 250 compartments (testicular lobules) each lobule have 1-3 deferens which loops over paired bulbourethral glands.
highly coiled seminiferous tubules which contain 2 type of cells—> bladder & receives duct from Secretion of bulbourethral
male germ cell/spermatogonia (males sperms) & sertoli seminal vesicle & then open gland help in lubrication of
cells(provide nutrition to former). External to seminiferous tubules into urethra & then external penis.
is interstitial space having blood vessels & interstitial/leydig cells opening (urethral meatus).
which secrete hormones (androgens) & immunological competent Penis is male external genitalia
cells. made up of special tissue help
in erection.

The female reproductive system

V v v

Located in pelvis & consist of Accessory ducts -> oviduct/ fallopian Three layers of uterus-> external membranous
pair ovaries + oviduct + uterus + tube, uterus, vagina & oviduct = 10-12 perimetrium, myometrium (smooth muscles),
cervix + vagina + ext. genitalia cm. endometrium (goes under changes during
These all things along with The closer part of oviduct to ovary is menstruation) myometrium exhibits strong
mammary gland support funnel shaped infundibulum & its edges contractions during delivery of baby.
ovulation, fertilisation, possess fimbrae (help in collection of External genitalia-> mons pubis (cushion of fatty
pregnancy, birth, child care. ovum). Infundibulum leads to wider part tissue covered by skin, pubis hair + labia majora
Each ovary (primary sex organ) is of oviduct, ampulla & last part, isthmus (fleshy folds which extend down from mons pubis
about 2-4 cm in length & attached (with narrow lumen) & then joins uterus & surround vaginal opening + labia minora (paired
to pelvic wall & uterus by which is also called womb. (Like folds under majora) + hymen (membrane partially
ligaments & is covered by inverted pear) & supported by ligaments covers vaginal opening & breaks in first coitus but
epithelium (thin) & its cavity is attached to pelvic wall & it opens into not absolute proof of virginity) + clitoris (finger like
ovarian stroma divided into vagina through cervix (narrow). (Cavity which lies at the upper junction of two labia
peripheral cortex & inner of cervix / cervical canal + vagina = birth minora & above the urethral opening. Hymen can
medulla. canal) also break due to insertion of vaginal tampon.

MAMMARY GLANDS
Paired structure (breasts) contain glandular tissue + fat. Glandular tissue of each breast is divided into 15-20 mammary lobes.
Containing alveoli cells which secrete milk & get stored in cavity (lumen of alveoli). It open into mammary tubules & tubule of
each lobe join to form mammary duct & several mammary duct join to form ampulla connected to lactiferous duct through
which milk is sucked out.

GAMETOGENESIS

Spermatogenesis
v v V
Immature male germ cells (spermatogonia / It starts at puberty due to high Structure of sperm- head + neck + middle
spermatogonium) produce sperms by secretion of gonadotropin releasing piece + tail, plasma memb covering whole
spermatogenesis which divide mitotically in hormone (GnRH) —> hypothalamic body. It contains elongated haploid nucleus
which each cell contain 46 chr (diploid). hormone. GnRH acts on anterior whose anterior portion is covered by
Some spermatogonia called primary pituitary & stimulates secretion of caplike acrosome (enzyme help in
spermatocytes undergo meiosis periodically LH (leutinising hormone) & FSH fertilisation) & middle piece contains
forms 2 haploid secondary spermatocytes (follicle stimulating hormone). LH mitochondria. 200- 30l M sperms are
which undergo 2nd meiosis & form 4 haploid act on leydig cell & stimulate released during single coitus & atleast 60%
spermatids transformed into spermatozoa secretion of androgens & FSH acts have normal shape & size at least 40% of
(sperms) by process called spermiogenesis on sertoli cells which help in them must show vigorous motility. Male
after which sperm heads become embedded in spermiogenesis. Androgens accessory ducts & glands maintain by
sertoli cells & they are released from stimulate the process of testicular hormones (androgens). Seminal
seminiferous tubule by spermiation process. spermatogenesis. plasma + sperms = semen
 Oogenesis

v v
Initiate during embryonic stage when a couple of million The theca develops into theca externa & interna & at this
gamete mother cells (oogonium) are formed within each stage primary oocyte within tertiary follicle grows in size &
ovary. No oogonium are added after birth. These cell start completes meiosis I —> then unequal division resulting in
prophase I of division & get arrested temporarily called haploid secondary oocytes & a tine first polar body .
primary oocyte which are then surrounded by granulosa cells Secondary oocyte retains bulk of nutrient rich cytoplasm of
& called primary follicle. Many of which degenerate uptil primary oocyte. The tertiary follicle changes into mature
puberty hence only 60,000 - 80,000 primary follicle is left in follicle/ graffian follicle. Secondary oocyte forms a new
each ovary. They are further surrounded by more granulosa membrane called zona pellucida surroundingit. The Graafian
cells & a new theca & are calles secondary follicles. Which follicle then ruptures to release the secondary oocyte i.e. the
are further developed to tertiary follicle characterised by fluid ovum from the ovary by the process of ovulation.
filled cavity antrum.

Menstrual cycle

v v v

Reproductive cycle of female The menstrual phase is followed by LH & FSH attain peak in 14 days (middle of
primates the follicular phase during which cycle) which causes LH surge i.e. rupture
MENARCH- first menstruation. primary follicles grow in ovary to of Graafian follicle & thus ovum releases.
In humans menstruation is repeated fully mature graafian follicle & at Ovulation is followed by luteal phase in
after 28/29 days & one ovum is same time endometrium of uterus which graafian follicle transform as
released (ovulation) during middle regenerates through proliferation corpus luteum secreting high amount of
of each menstrual cycle. Menstrual which are caused by pituitary/ progesterone essential for maintenance
flow lasts for 3-5 days which occurs ovarian hormones. LH & FSH of endometrium. In absence of
due to breakdown of endometrium release increase during follicular fertilisation corpus luteum degenerates
& its blood vessels. Lack of phase & stimulates follicular causing disintegration of endometrium.
menstruation indicates pregnancy development & secretion of It ceases at the age of 50 (MENOPAUSE)
or stress, poor health. estrogen from growing follicles.

Fertilisation & implantation

v v v
Fertilisation takes place in
The secretion of The mitotic division starts as zygote moves through isthmus
ampullary region of oviduct & it can
acrosome helps sperm to of oviduct called cleavage towards uterus & forms 2,4,8,16
only occur if ovum & sperm are
reach cytoplasm of ovum daughter cells (blastomeres). Embryo with 8-16 blastomeres
transported simultaneously to the
which induces the is called morula which further transforms into blastocyst.
ampullary region hence all
completion of the Blastomeres in blastocyst are arranged as outer layer
copulation does not lead to
meiosis of secondary (trophoblast) & inner group of cell (inner cell mass) out of
pregnancy/fertilisation.
oocyte & its division is which trophoblast gets attached to endometrium & inner cell
During fertilisation sperm comes in
also unequal resulting in mass get differentiated as embryo. The uterine cells divide
contact with zona pellucida layer of
2nd polar body & haploid rapidly & covers blastocyst hence it becomes embedded in
ovum & induces changes in
ovum (ootid) which fuses endometrium.
membrane that blocks entry of
with sperm.
additional sperms.

Pregnancy & embryonic development

v v v v
After implantation chorionic villi hCG, hPL & relaxin Immediately after In the first month heart is formed &
appear on trophoblast, are produced in implantation inner starts beating (first sign of growing
surrounded by uterine tissue & women only during cell mass foetus). & in 2nd month limbs & digits
maternal blood. Chorionic villi pregnancy & during differentiate into are formed. By the end of 12 weeks
gets interdigitated with uterine pregnancy & during endoderm, (first trimester) major organ system are
tissue to form placenta. Which it other endocrine ectoderm & formed limbs & external genitalia are
is connected to embryo through hormones also mesoderm & they well developed. The first movement &
umbilical cord (helps in increase in blood have some special appearance of hair on head is found in
transport). Placenta also acts supporting fetal cells called stem 5th month. By end of 24 weeks (end of
as endocrine tissue producing growth, metabolic cells having 2nd trimester) body is covered with fine
human chorionic gonadotropin changes & potency to give rise hair, eyelid separate, eyelashes formed
(hCG), human placental maintaining to all tissues and & by the end of 9th month foetus is fully
lactogen (hPL), estrogens, pregnancy. organs. developed.
progesterone.
 Parturation & lactation
v
v

Duration of human pregnancy/gestation period is 9 months. Mammary glands of mother undergo

Parturation means contraction of uterus & release of foetus differentiation during pregnancy & starts
(delivery) which is induced by a complex neuroendocrine produce milk by end of pregnancy by
mechanism. When foetus is fully developed it induce mild process called lactation & milk produced in
contraction in uterus called foetal ejection reflex which initial few days of lactation is called
triggers release of oxytocin which acts on uterine muscle colostrum containing antibodies necessary
causes stronger contraction & stimulates further secretion. for resistance of new borns & it is
This leads to expulsion of baby out of uterus through birth recommended for bringing up healthy baby.
canal & placenta is also expelled out of uterus.
NCERT Diagrams for reference
 Reproductive health
According to WHO, Reproductive health means a total well being in all
aspect of reproduction i.e. physical, emotional, behavioural, social.

Reproductive health- problems & strategies

Programmes called family planning were initiated in 1951 for attaining
proper & total reproductive health & also programmes like reproductive
and child health care (RCH) programmes. It’s major tasks are following:-

v v
v
Awareness is Educating people for These require infrastructure facilities,
being created by contraceptive, care of expertise, material support. It is
agencies using pregnant mothers, post natal essential to provide medical assistance
audiovisual & care of mother & child, for problems like pregnancy, delivery,
print media importance of child breast STD, abortion, contraception, infertility,
feeding, sexual racism. menstrual problem.
v
v v
Introduction of sex
Awareness of Implementation of better
education in schools &
problems due techniques & new strategies.
proper information about
to population, Eg- Ban on amniocentesis for
reproductive organs,
sex abuse, sex determination, massive
adolescence, safe
sex-related child immunisation
hygienic sex, STS, AIDS,
crime.
etc.

In amniocentesis, amniotic fluid of developing foetus is taken to analyse & it can be used to detect presence of genetic
disorders like Down syndrome, haemophilia, sickle cell anaemia, etc. & determine the survivability of the foetus.
Saheli - an oral contraceptives for females was developed by scientists at central drug research institute (CDRI) in Lucknow.

Population stabilisation & birth control

Increase in population explosively impact on World population- 2 billion Through reproductive child health (RCH)
increased health facilities along with better (2000M) in 1900, 6b in 2000, Programme we can reduce population growth but
living conditions & reasons may be decline 7.2b in 2011. its marginal.acc. To 2011 census, population
in death rate, maternal mortality rate (MMR) Indian population- 250M in growth rate was < 2% i.e. 20/100p/year & increase
& infant mortality rate (IMR) & increase in 1950, nearly 1b in 2000, 1.2 b in this rate will cause scarcity of necessity
no. Of people in reproducible age. in may 2011. amenities.

Some initiatives -> hum do hamare do slogan on posters, many urban couples have adopted
an ‘one child norm’ & statuary raising of marriageable age so that couple get concerned.

Contraceptives

: :
IDEAL CONTRACEPTIVES They are not regular CATEGORIES OF CONTRACEPTIVES
requirement for
User friendly, easily available, Natural/traditional barrier, IUD’s , oral
maintenance of
reversible, effective, no side contraceptives injectables, implants &
reproductive health.
effects, does not interfere with surgical methods.
sexual drive/desire.

Natural methods

PERIODIC ABSTINENCE LACTATIONAL AMENORRHEA

Avoiding coitus from day 10 . Performing coitus during period

to 17 of menstrual cycle of intense lactation following
WITHDRAWAL/ COITUS INTERRUPTUS parturation cause at that time
when ovulation is expected
i.e. avoiding coitus in fertile Removal of penis before ejaculation. cycle do not continue. Its side
period. effects is nill & chances of
failure is high.
 Barrier methods

✓
✓
CONDOMS DIAPHRAGMS, CERVICAL CAPS, VAULTS

Latex/rubber sheath used to cover penis or Made of rubber & cover the cervix & blocks
vagina & cervix & can be self inserted (privacy) entry of sperms. They are reusable & for
& disposable & also prevent from STI, AIDS. effective contraceptive results, spermicidal
Nirodh is a popular brand of condoms for male. creams, jellies & foams are also used with it.

Intra uterine devices Oral contraceptive pills

Inserted by doctors/ expert nurses in vagina & available as non Doses of progesterone or progesterone & estrogen
medicated IUD’s (eg- lippes loop), cu releasing IUD (Cu7, CuT, combination.
multiload 375) & hormone releasing IUD (Progestasert, Taken daily for 21 days starting within first 5 days of cycle.
LNG-20) which makes uterus unsuitable for implantation & After a gap of 7 days (during which menstruation occur) it
cervix hostile to the sperms. The Cu ions supress sperm has to be repeated till female desires to prevent conception.
motility & IUD increase phagocytosis of sperms within uterus. They inhibit ovulation, implantation & after quality of cervical
These are ideal contraceptive for female to delay pregnancy of mucus to prevent / retard entry of sperms. Well accepted by
space b/w children & one of the most used in india. females & have less side effects.
Saheli is a non steroidal & once a week pill.

Surgical methods/ sterilisation

Injectibles
It blocks the gamete transport. Its vasectomy in male in which
Progesterone or its combination with estrogen are injected or vas deferens is tied up thr’ small incision on scrotum & in
implanted under the skin. Their effect last long upto 72 hours tubectomy oviduct is tied up thr’ small incision in the
of coitus & found very effective as emergency contraceptive & abdomen or through vagina.
used to avoid possible pregnancy due to rape or unprotected Its a permanent solution for preventing pregnancy & its
sex. irreversible.

Infertility in male- It is due to inability to inseminate or low sperm count which are fixed by artificial insemination (AI)
where sperm from donor/ husband is introduced in vagina or uterus (intrauterine insemination).
Emotional religious & social factors are also deterrents in adoption of these methods & out law
permit legal adoption as best method to have children.
NCERT Diagrams for reference
Principles of inheritance and variation
Sahiwal cows of punjab were obtained from wild varieties of cows

Mendels laws of inheritance

Mendel studied 7 pair of contrasting characters on pisum sativum (garden pea) for 7 years (1856- 1863).
For his hybridisation experiment he obtained true breeding line. (He crossed tall plants for several generation &
eliminated short. For which he performed continuous self pollination & stable trait inheritance & expression for
several generation was observed. He selected total 14 true breeding pea plant varieties.

Inheritance of one gene (monohybrid cross)

Only one character/gene is studied. The conclusion is that something being stably passed down
e unchanged from parents through offsprings through gametes
By this cross he concluded that the trait which is
expressed in F1 generation is dominant & the one which he called factors. Factors were later identified as genes

:
expressed in F2 is recessive. i.e. units of inheritance.
On selfing 2 short plants he obtained all short plants Punette square - graphical representation to calculate
hence he concluded that it is a homozygous condition probability of all possible genotype. It was given by british
but there were 2 cases in 75% tall plants. geniticist RC Punette.

TEST CROSS LAW OF DOMINANCE

It was conducted by the mendel to detect the zygosity

:
i.e. homozygous or heterozygous of any plant in Characters controlled by discrete units called factors
which the expressed traits of F2 gen. (75%) is which occur in pair. In dissimilar pair of factors one
crossed with the homozygous recessive parent. member of the pair dominates over the other
Eg- in pea plant violet colour is dominant. If the (recessive).
heterozygous dominant is crossed with recessive Monohybrid cross explains expression of only one
parent then 50% white & 50% violet are obtained. If character in F1 & both in F2 & also explains proportion
homozygous violet is crossed with recessive parent 3:1 in F2.
the 100% violet are obtained.

LAW OF SEGREGATION INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

Alleles do not show blending in F1 & both It is exception to mendels law. In it the offspring obtained
recovered at F2 (segregation of allele is a in F1 generation does not resemble with either of the

÷
random process). Hence by gamete formation parent ie.e. It may be of medium heighted (blending takes
alleles separate & single gamete contains only place). Eg- inheritance of flower colour in dog flower /
1 trait or allele in which if all gametes are snapdragon/ antirrhinum. & in it the phenotypic &
similar in any organism then it is homozygous & genotypic ration both come as 1:2:1. Another Eg- for
if 2 kinds of gametes are formed then organism starch synthesis in pea plant. (Controlled by 1 gene)
is heterozygous. In F1 generation intermediate starch grain is formed.

CO- DOMINANCE
It’s also an exception to mendels law for monohybrid cross. Eg- blood group because it is an example of multiple allelism
i.e. more than 2 alleles of single character. Types of alleles —> IA, IB, i
IA, IB —> IA,IB (AB Blood group) (F1 generation resembles both parents).
Plasma membrane of the red blood cell has sugar polymers. i gene do not produce any sugar & IA & IN produce different
types of sugar. If IA & IB are present together they both express their own type of sugar (co dominance).
Dominance is not an autonomous feature of a gene or the product that it has info for.
Multiple allelism can be studied on population.

Inheritance of 2 genes (dihybrid cross)

Phenotypic ratio :- 9:3:3:1 & based on observations
made from dihybrid cross he gave following law.

Why mendels work was unrecognised till 1900 after being

LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT published in 1865?
When two pair of traits are combined in a Communication was not easy, genes/factor controlled expression
hybrid, segregation of one pair of characters is of trait & no blending was not accepted for continuous expression
independnt of the other pair of characters. seen in nature, use of mathematics, no physical proof was
Simply two different genes are not linked with present. De veries, correns & vom tschermark discovered
each other. It holds good when genes are mendels work individually after discovery of chromosome
present on non homologous chromosome. movement in 1902 walter sutton & theodre boverinused
chromosome movement to explain mendels law.
 Chromosomal theory of inheritance
Given by sutton & boveri which tells that behaviour of chromosome is parallel to behaviour of gene. It was given after discovery
of chromosome. It states that chromosome movement describes the gene movement cause chromosome contain gene.

VERIFICATION OF CHROMOSOMAL THEORY OF INHERITANCE WHICH CONTRADICTS THE 3RD LAW OF MENDEL BY TH
MORGAN:-
It led to discovery of basis of variation that sex produced.
Performed on fruit fly (drosophila melanogaster), he discovered the basis of variation which several reproduction produce.
He studied sex linked genes, he found that the F2 generation phenotypic ratio obtained was highly deviated significantly
9:3:3:1 & for its explanation he gave following concept.

Linkage & recombination

v v
He performed dihybrid cross on fruit fly. Morgan hybridised yellow bodies, white eyed females & brown
LINKAGE- physical association of 2 genes. In it bodied, red eyed makes & intercrossed their F1 progeny. He
the parental combination is higher i.e. baby will found that the genes white & yellow were tightly linked & showed
express more of parental characteristics. only 1.3% recombination while white & miniature wing showed
RECOMBINATION- non parental combination is 37.2% recombination.
higher i.e. baby will express new traits. If genes His student Alfred sturtevant used the frequency of
are present nearer they will inherit together recombination b/w gene pairs on the same chromosome as a
hence linkage takes place & if present away measure of distance b/w genes & mapped their position on
from each other recombination takes place. chromosome. Today many genetic maps are used as a starting
Genes on same chromosome- high possibility point in sequencing of whole genomes as was done in the case of
of parental combination. the human genome sequencing project.

Why fruitfly is used for experiments?

Could be grown on simple synthetic medium in lab, they complete life cycle in 2 weeks, single mating produce large no. Of
flies, well marked sexual dimorphism, it has many types of hereditary variation that can be seen with low power microscope.

Polygenic inheritance Pleiotropy

Eg- height, skin colour in humans which are Single gene (pleiotropic gene) exhibit multiple
controlled by more than 2,3 genes hence phenotypic expression. It is caused due to effect of a
are called polygenic traits. They may also be gene on metabolic pathways which contribute
influenced by environment. For eg- A,B,C towards different phenotypes. Eg- phenylketonuria
genes control skin colour them (AABBCC — caused by single gene mutation in gene that codes
> darkest colour & aabbcc —> lightest for enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase & causes
colour & heterozygosity- > intermediate mental retardation & reduction in hair, skin
pigmentation.

Sex determination

ymaeeheteromgosif-femaeheteoZYM.tt
For humans- Male - XY Female - XX
For fruit fly- Male - XY Female - XX
For hen/birds- Male- ZZ Female - ZW
For grass hopper- Male - 23 pair (XO) Female 24 pair (XX)

Explain haplodiploid sex determination system in honey

Explain XO system of sex determination found in bees.
birds. It is characteristic feature such as male produce sperms
All eggs bear an additional X chromosome besides by mitosis, they do not have father & cannot have sons
the autosome on the other hand some of the sperm but have grandfather & can have grandsons. Here in
bear X chromosome while skme do not (O). Eggs honeybees female is 2n = 32 & male is n = 16 chr.
fertilised by sperm having X gives female & if fertilise This diagram is taken
from vedantu

with not having X become male.

Mutation
v
It leads to alteration of DNA sequences—> changes in genotype & phenotype. v
Types of mutation:-
Mutagens:- chemical
Frameshift mutation- loss Chromosomal aberration Point mutation means & physical factors that
(deletion) or gain(insertion/ (abnormality) can cause change in base pair. Eg- induce mutation. Eg-
duplication) of gene or bp, cancer in cells. sickle cell anemia. UV radiation.
 GENETIC DISORDERS
N

:
PEDIGREE ANALYSIS:- analysis of traits in a several
of generations of a family is called the pedigree Genetic disorder can be either mendelian or
analysis & in it the inheritance of a particular trait is chromosomal which are described below in detail.
represented in family tree over generation.

Colourblindness Haemophilia
Sex linked recessive disorder & shows
Sex linked recessive disorder due to defect in either
transmission from unaffected carrier female
red or green cone of eye & is due to mutation of gene
to male progeny. A single protein which is a
on X chromosome. Occurs in 8% of males & 0.4% of
part of cascade of protein involved in blood
females cause they have 2X. The son of carrier
clotting is affected. A female can be
woman has 50% chance of being colour blind where
haemophilic very rarely if her father is
mother itself is not colour blind (recessive). A
haemophilic (very rare at that age) & mother
daughter will only be colour blind if mother is carrier
is atleast a carrier. It is found in pedigree of
& father is colour blind. Colourblindness is difficulty in
queen victoria.
distinguishing red & green colour.
^

MENDELIAN DISORDERS
Determined by alteration / mutation of single
gene & these are transmitted to offspring on
same lines as studied in principles of
inheritance which can be studied by pedigree
analysis. They may be dominant or recessive
& may also be sex linked.
Autosomal dominant- mupyotonic dystrophy;;
v Autosomal recessive- sickel cell anaemia.
V
Sickel cell anaemia Phenylketonuria
Autosomal linked recessive trait and
transmitted when both parents are Inborn error of metabolism & also
carrier (heterozygous). Controlled by inherited as autosomal recessive trait.
single pair of allele, HbA & HbS. The affected individual lacks an
HbSHbS —> affected & HbSHbA —> enzyme (phenylalanine hydroxylase)
carrier & unaffected. that converts the amino acid
It occurs due to point mutation at 6th phenylalanine into tyrosine.
position of amino acid in Beta globulin Accumulation of phenyl alanine
chain of haemoglobin (single base results in its conversion to phenyl
substitution (A by U) hence from GAG to pyruvic acid & other derivatives that
GUG). Due to which earlier it was coding causes mental retardation in brain &
for glutamic acid now codes for valine excreted through urine cause of poor
and the shape of RBS becomes sickel absorption of kidney.
chaped. V

Thalassemia
Autosome linked recessive blood disease &
transmitted to offspring when both partners are
unaffected carriers. It occurs due to mutation/
deletion resulting jn reduced rate of synthesis of
one of the globin chains (alpha & beta chains) that
make up haemoglobin due to which abnormal Hb is
formed & person is anaemic. It can be divided in
alpha thalassemia (alpha chain is affected) & beta
thalassemia. Alpha thalassemia is controlled by 2
closely linked genes HBA1 & HBA2 on
chromosome 16 of each parent & is observed due
to mutation or deletion of one or more of 4 genes.
The more gene affected lesser alpha globin
molecules produced. Beta thalassemia is
controlled by HBB (single gene) on chr 11 of each
parent & occurs due to mutation of 1 or both the
genes. It differs from sickle cell anaemia because
former is a quantitative problem (thalassemia) of
synthesising too few globin molecule while latter is
a qualitative problem of synthesising an
incorrectly functioning globin.
 CHROMOSOMAL DISORDERS
Caused due to absence /excess /abnormal
arrangement of 1 or more chromosome.

ANEUPLOIDY- Rarely, either an additional copy of a POLYPLOIDY-

Gain of/loss of a chromosome due to chromosome may ne included in an Increase in whole set of
failure of segregation of chromatids individual or an individual may lack one chromosome due to failure of
during cell division. Eg- Down’s of any one pair of chromosome these cytokinesis after telophase
syndrome (extra copy of 21 are called trisomy & monosomy of of cell division which is seen
chromosome) & turners syndrome (loss chromosome respectively. in plants.
of X chromosome in female).

COMMON EXAMPLES OF CHROMOSOMAL DISORDER:-

u
J
L

Down’s syndrome- Klinefelter’s syndrome Turner’s syndrome

Due to presence of an additional Due to presence of of additional Due to absence of one of X
copy of the chromosome no. 21 copy of X - chromosome resulting chr i.e. 45 with XO. such
(trisomy of 21). Discovered by into a karyotype 47, XXY. Such females are sterile as
langdon Down in 1866 individual have overall masculine ovaries are rudimentary
Symptoms- short statured with development however feminine besides other features
small round head, furrowed development (development of including lack of other sec.
tongue, partially open mouth, breast i.e. gynaecomastia) is also sexual characters.
palm is broad, characteristic palm expressed. Such individuals are
crease, physical, psychomotor & sterile.
mental development is retarded.
NCERT Diagrams for reference
 Molecular basis of inheritance
After 100 years of mendelian genetics, the nature of putative genetic material was investigated culminating in the
realisation that DNA is the genetic material for majority of organisms. RNA acts as genetic material in some viruses
but mostly functions as messenger. It also function as adapter, structural & in some cases catalytic molecule.
Formation of RNA from DNA is called transcription and formation of proteins from RNA is called translation.

THE DNA (polymer of deoxyribonucleotides)

Length of DNA = No. of nucleotides present in it (or pair of nucleotides ~ base pair) it is
characteristic of organism.
A bacteriophage known as φx174 has 5386 nucleotides, bacteriophage lambda has 48502 base pair
(bp), E Coli has 4.6 x 10^6 bp & haploid content of human DNA is 3.3 x 10^9 bp.

Structure of polynucleotide chain

Nucleotide
L
y
Nitrogenous bases s
Pentose sugar Phosphate group
[purine(A,G) & pyrimidine(C,U,T)]
Uracil is present in RNA &
Thymine present in DNA.

LINKAGES:-

v v
v
N2 base & OH of 1’C of pentose sugar Phosphate group and OH of 5’C of nucleoside forms In RNA every nucleotide residue
forms N-glycosidic linkage (to form a phosphoester linkage & thus forms nucleotide or has an additional -OH group
nucleoside for eg- adenosine, deoxynucleotide. Its polymer has one end free present at 2’ position in ribose.
deoxyadenosine, uridine, phosphate moiety at 5’ end of sugar & at other end Thymine is also called 5-methyl
deoxythymidine) sugar has a free OH Of 3’C. (Sugar phosphate uracil.
backbone). Nitrogenous bases linked to sugar moiety
project from the backbone.

HISTORY OF DNA
N
v
In 1953 James Watson & Francis Crick, based on X-ray diffraction data
DNA as acidic
produced by Maurice Wilkins & Rosalind Franklin proposed double
substance present in
helical structure of DNA. & their hallmark of proposition was base
nucleus was forst
pairing b/w polypeptide chains & was also based upon Erwin Chargaff
identified by
rule.
Friedrich miescher A+T
——— = constant ~ 1
in 1869 named it as G+C
nuclein. The both strands are complementary to each other hence daughter
DNA strands are identical to parental DNA.

Salient features of double helix structure:-

1) Made of 2 polynucleotide chains, backbone of sugar phosphate & bases project inside.
2) 2 chains have antiparallel polarity.
3) A pairs with T via 2 hydrogen bond, G pairs with C via 3 hydrogen bonds hence purine always pair with pyrimidine which
generates uniform distance b/w strands of helix.
4) 2 chains are coiled in right handed fashion. Pitch of helix is 3.4nm & 10 base pair are in each turn. Distance b/w a base pair is 0.34
nm
5) CENTRAL DOGMA:-
 Packaging of DNA Helix

v v
Histones organised to form Histone octamer (eight units= 2
Length of mammalian DNA = Total bP x dist b/w consecutive bP
H2A, 2 H2B, 2 H3, 2 H4)
= 6.6 x 10^9 x 0.34 x 10^-9
-ve DNA and +ve histone octamer is collectively called as
= 2.2 m (greater than dimension of
nucleosome (200bp).
Nucleus i.e. 10^-6 m)
Nucleosome constitute repeating unit of structure in nucleus
Length of E. Coli DNA = 1.36 mm
called chromatin.
In prokaryotes DNA (-ve) + protein (+ve) in a region called
Nucleosome in chromatin appears Beads on string under
nucleoid. The DNA in nucleoid is organised in large loops held
electron microscope. It further gets condensed into
by proteins. In eukaryotes histones (+ve & basic) protein are
chromosomes in metaphase.
found. A protein acquires charge depending upon the
Packaging of chromatin at higher level requires NHC (Non
abundance of amino acid residues with charged side chains.
histone chromosomal proteins).
Histones —> lysine + arginine (basic amino acids & both carry
Chromatin is of 2 types
+ve charge in their side chains).
EUCHROMATIN:- loosely packed chromatin, light stained,
transcriptionally active.
HETEROCHROMATIN:-tightly packed, dark stained, inactive.

THE SEARCH FOR GENETIC MATERIAL

Nuclein discovery by meischer & mendel work was at same time. By 1926, molecular
basis was reached to quest before it the research was going on chromosome level.
N
v

Transforming principal Biochemical The genetic material is DNA

characterisation (Hershey & Chase experiment/
By friedrich griffith in 1928 on
of Transforming Blenders exp.)
streptococcus pneumoniae
(pneumococcus). It was grown on principle This unequivocal proof was given by
culture plate & some produced Alfred Hershey & Martha Chase in 1952
By Oswald Avery, colin
smooth/shiny colonies (S) strain based on lysogenic life cycle of E. Coli
macleod, maclyn
due to mucous polysaccharide bacteria (i.e. bacteria does not dies on
Mccarty (in 1933-44)
coat and were VIRULENT. Some infection with bacteriophage/ virus but
before it was believed
produced rough colonies (R) strain produces more viruses). Some viruses
that genetic material
which were NON-VIRULENT. grown in radioactive P hence DNA gets
was protein. They
When S strain is given to mice it coated with radioactive P32 Cause
purified protein, DNA,
dies. protein does not have P. It was then
RNA—> digestion with
When R strain is given to mice it infected to bacteria. Viral coats were
DNA’ase inhibit
lives. removed by agitating in blender. Virus
transformation hence
When heat killed S strain given to particles were removed / separated from
DNA alone is
mice it lives bacteria by spinning them in centrifuge.
transformed as
When heat killed S strain + R strain Thus Radioactive Cell (DNA)& non
hereditary material but
(live) is given to mice then mice radioactive supernatant is obtained.
not all biologists were
dies. & he recovered live S When some viruses grown in radioactive
convinced. They
bacteria from Dead mice. Hence R sulphur S35 then protein gets coated and
discovered that protein
strain bacteria have been thus non radioactive cell & radioactive
digesting enzyme
transformed by heat killed S strain supernatant is obtained.
(protease) & RNA’ase
(some transforming principle Thus it was confirmed that Genetic
did not affect
transformed From S to R). It must material was DNA & not protein.
transformation.
be due to transfer of genetic
material.

Properties of genetic material (DNA vs RNA)

In some viruses RNA is genetic material eg- TMV, QB bacteriophage.
RNA Performs Dynamic functions of messenger and adapter.

r v

Genetic material should fulfil following criteria:- RNA, DNA both replicate but protein does not. Stability is ensured in
1) Should be able to generate its replica griffith experiment as heating does not affect the stability of DNA.
(replication) 2 strands of DNA On heating separates and in appropriate condition
2) should be chemically & structurally stable come together. 2’-OH group present at every nucleotide in RNA is a
(throughout all life cycle). reactive group & makes RNA liable and easily degradable. RNA is
3) should provide scope for slow changes also catalytic hence reactive.
(mutation) required for evolution. (i.e. why virus Presence of thymine gives extra stability to DNA (repair in DNA)
show high mutation & evolve faster). RNA Mutates faster than DNA i.e. why viruses having RNA genome
4) should be able to express itself in form of having shorter life span mutate & evolve faster.
Mendelian characters. For transmission of genetic info, RNA is better cause it directly
synthesises proteins & for that DNA is dependent on RNA.
 RNA WORLD!
RNA was first genetic material cause essential life processes (metabolism, translation, splicing) evolved
around RNA. It used to act as genetic material as well as catalyst (reactive & unstable). DNA has
evolved from RNA & due to double stranded structure of DNA it has got evolved with process of repair.

REPLICATION
By watson & crick as semiconservative DNA replication scheme (one parental, one newly
synthesised). “It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately
suggests a possible copying mechanism for genetic material.”- by watson & crick in 1953.
v v
The experimental proof The machinery & the enzymes
E.cMatthew meselson & franklin stahl in Main enzyme is DNA dependent DNA Polymerase which uses a
1958 on E. coli. DNA template to catalyst polymerisation of deoxynucleotides
1) they grew E. coli on NH4Cl as only N2 (large no. Of nucleotides in very short time). E. Coli has 4.6 x
source for many generation hence N15 10^6 bp & completes the process within 18 minutes i.e. 2000 bp/
incorporated in newly synthesised DNA as sec which is fast & high degree of accuracy cause any mistake
well as nitrogen containing compounds will lead to mutation. Replication requires high energy
which can be distinguished from normal (energetically expensive).
DNA by centrifugation in CsCl (caesium Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates- has dual function i.e. act as
chloride) density gradient because N15 is substrate & provide energy by breaking 2 terminal phosphate
not radioactive hence only concept of bonds.
gravity is applicable. Replication occur within small opening of DNA helix (replication
2) then they put cells in NH4Cl (normal) & fork) cause opening of entire DNA length require lot of energy.
took samples at definite intervals & DNA polymerase catalyse polymerisation only in one direction
extracted DNA that remained as ds Helix. i.e. 5’ —> 3’ (additional complications).
Various samples separated on CsCl On one strand (template with polarity 3’ —> 5’) the replication
gradients to measure the densities of DNA. occurs continuous, while on the other (the template with polarity
3) after 20 min —> hybrid of intermediate 5’ —> 3’), it is discontinuous. The discontinuously synthesised
density & after 40 min it is composed of ones are joined by DNA ligase.
equal amount of this hybrid DNA & light DNA Polymerase cannot initiate process on their own. It initiates
DNA. Similar experiment involving at definite regions called origin of replication (cause of which
radioactive thymidine was performed on vector is used in rDNA).
vicia faba (faba beans) by Taylor & In eukaryotes, the replication of DNA takes place at S-phase of
Colleagues in 1958 which proved fhat DNA in cell cycle. A failure in cell division after DNA replication results
chromosome also replicate into polyploidy (a chromosomal anomaly). Hence both should be
semiconservatively. highly be highly coordinated.

TRANSCRIPTION
Copying genetic information from one strand of the DNA into RNA. Principal of complementarity governs the process (uracil
instead of thymine). In transcription only a segment of DNA and only one of the strands is copied into RNA (unlike replication).

Both the strands are not copied because:- TRANSCRIPTION UNIT (promoter + structural gene + terminator)
1) if both act as template, they would code There is a convention in defining the two strands of the DNA in the
for RNA molecule with different structural gene of a transcription unit. Since 2 strands are
sequences (complementarity does not complementary, DNA dependent RNA polymerase also catalyse
mean identical) & as they code for polymerisation in 5’ —> 3’ (single) direction only. Strand with 3’ —> 5’
proteins, the sequence of amino acids in polarity act as template (strand). 5’ —> 3’ strand have same RNA
the protein would be different hence sequence (except thymine & uracil) is displaced during transcription.
would complicate the genetic info transfer It does not code for anything but called coding strand. All the
machinery. reference point while defining a transcription unit is made with coding
2) it would form a dsRNA which prevent strand. The promoter is located at 5’ end (upstream) of structural gene
RNA from being translated & exercise of (with respect to coding strand) which binds with RNA polymerase. Its
transcription would become a futile one. presence defines coding & template strand, if it is reversed with
terminator then the coding & template strand are also reversed. The
TRANSCRIPTION UNIT & GENE:- terminator is at 3’ end (downstream) of coding strand. Some additional
Gene is functional unit of inheritance. The DNA sequence found upstream & downstream.
sequence coding for tRNA of rRNA also define
a gene. By defining a cistron as a segment of
TYPES OF RNA & THE PROCESS OF TRANSCRIPTION
DNA coding for a polypeptide, the structural
gene in a transcription unit could be said as In bacteria mRNA provides template, tRNA brings amino acid & reads
monocistronic (in eukaryotes) & polycistronic genetic code, rRNA play structural & catalytic role in translation. All the
(in bacteria or prokaryotes). In eukaryotes three types of RNA are required for transcription.
genes are split, coding sequence or expressed All RNA’s are catalysed by RNA polymerase enzyme. It uses nucleoside
sequences (exons) appear in mature or triphosphate as substrate and polymerises in a template dependent
processed RNA are being interrupted by fashion & it also facilitates opening of helix & continues elongation. Only
introns/intervening sequences —> do not a short stretch of RNA remains bound to the enzyme. As it reaches
appear in mature. The split gene further terminator, nascent RNA & RNA polymerase falls off. The RNA
complicates definition of gene in terms DNA polymerase is only capable of catalysing the process of elongation. It
segment. Inheritance of a character is also associates transiently with initiation factor (σ) & termination factor (ρ) to
affected by promoter & regulatory sequences initiate & terminate. In bacteria no processing & also since translation &
of structural gene. Hence, sometimes the transcription takes place in the same compartment (no separation of
regulatory sequences are loosely defined as cystol & nucleus), many times the translation can begin much before the
regulatory genes. Even though these sequence mRNA is fully transcribed. Thus transcription & translation can be
do not code for any RNA or protein. coupled in bacteria.
 IN EUKARYOTES (2 COMPLEXITIES):-
L S

1) there are 3 RNA polymerases. The RNA 2) primary transcript contain both exon & intron hence splicing
polymerase I transcribes rRNA (28s, 18s, 5.8s), (removal of introns) is needed. HnRNA undergo capping (of unusual
RNA polymerase III transcribes tRNA, 9srRNAs & nucleotide methyl guanosine triphosphate, at 5’ end & tailing
snRNA (small nuclear RNAs). RNA polymerase II (adenylate residues (200-300) at 3’ end in template independent
transcribes precursor of mRNA the hnRNA manner). Fully processed hnRNA called mRNA & moves out of nucleus
(heterogeneous nuclear RNA). There are atleast 3 for translation. The split gene arrangements represent probably an
RNA polymerase in nucleus (in addition to the RNA ancient feature of the genome. The presence of introns is reminiscent
polymerase found in organelles). of antiquity, and the process of splicing represents the dominance of
RNA world.

GENETIC CODE

Replication & transcription (1 nucleic acid PROOF:- chemical method by Har SALIENT FEATURES:-
from another nucleic acid) were based on Gobind Khorana was 1) codon is triplet, out of 64, 61 code for
complementarity but translation requires instrumental in synthesisng RNA amino acid & 3 act as stop codons.
transfer of genetic info from a polymer of molecules with defined 2) some amino acids are coded by more than
nucleotides to synthesise a polymer of combinations of bases 1 codon i.e. they are degenerate. Eg-
amino acid & neither complementarity (homopolymer and copolymers). phenylalanine is coded by both UUU & UUC.
exists b/w nucleotide & amino acid nor Marshall Nirenberg’s cell free 3) codon is read in mRNA in a continuous
theoretics. There were evidences to system for protein synthesis fashion. There are no punctuation.
support that change in nucleic acid (genetic finally helped the code to be 4) code is nearly universal (from bacteria to
material) were responsible for change in deciphered. Severo Ochoa us UUU code for Phe).
amino acid in proteins. George Gamow enzyme (polynucleotide But some exceptions found in mitochondrial
argued, there are 4 bases—> have to code phosphorylase) was also helpful codons & protozoans.
20 amino acid, code should constitute in polymerising RNA with defined 5) AUG (dual function) - act as initiator
combination of bases. Hence code should sequences in a template codon & also codes for methionine (only
be made of 3 nucleotides (bold independent manner (enzymatic coded by AUG).
proposition). There are 64 possible codons. synthesis of RNA). 6) UAA, UAG, UGA are stop/terminator
codons.

MUTATIONS & GENETIC CODE:- tRNA - THE ADAPTER MOLECULE

Eg- sickel cell anaemia -> change of single base pair Francis Crick postulated the presence of an adapter molecule that would on
jn the gene for beta-globulin chain that results in the one hand read the code & on other hand would bind to specific amino acid
change of amino acid residue glutamate to valine. cause amino acid can’t read the code uniquely. tRNA (earlier called sRNA /
The insertion or deletion of one or two bases soluble RNA) was known before genetic code but as an adapter recognised
changes the reading frame from the point of later.
insertion or deletion referred to as frameshift tRNA has an anticodon loop that has bases complementary to the code, and
insertion or deletion mutation. it also has an amino acid acceptor end to which it binds to amino acid. tRNA
Insertion or deletion of 3 or its multiple bases insert are specific for each amino acid. For initiation, there is another specific tRNA
or delete in one or multiple codon hence one or that is referred to as initiator tRNA. There are no tRNA for stop codons. The
multiple amino acid and reading frame remains secondary structure of tRNA has been depicted that looks like s clover leaf.
unaltered from that point onwards. In actual structure, tRNA is a compact molecule which looks like inverted L.

TRANSLATION

v v v
Process of polymerisation of When smaller subunit encounters * for initiation, ribosome binds to
amino acid to polypeptide is known mRNA —> translation starts. mRNA at AUG (start) tyat is recognised
as translation. Amino acid are There are 2 sites in larger subunit by only initiator tRNA.
joined by peptide bonds which fir subsequent amino acid to bind * Ribosome proceeds the elongation
require energy for bond formation. (close enough for peptide bond to phase during which complexes
In the first phase amino acid are form). composed of an amino acid linked to
activated in presence of ATP & The ribosome also act as a tRNA, sequentially bind to the
linked to cognate tRNA (called catalyst (23s rRNA in bacteria is appropriate codon in mRNA By
charging of tRNA or the ribozyme enzyme) for the forming complementary base pairs
aminoacylation of tRNA). If 2 such formation of the peptide bond. with the tRNA anticodon.
uncharged tRNA are brought The translation unit in mRNA is * ribosome moves from codon to
together, the formation of peptide flanked by start codon (AUG) & codon. Amino acid translated into
bond b/w them would be favoured stop codon & codes for polypeptide sequences dictated by
energetically. Catalyst would polypeptide. mRNA also has DNA & represented by mRNA. At the
enhance bond formation. untranslated regions (UTS’s) end, a release factor binds to the stop
Ribosome consist of structural present at both 5’ end before codon, terminating translation &
RNAs & 80 different proteins. In start codon & at 3’ end after stop releasing the complete polypeptide
inactive state it contains 2 codon & are required for efficient frim the ribosome.
subunits. translation process.
 REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION
C v s
Gene expression Genes are expressed to perform function. Eg- In transcription unit, activity of RNA
results in formation of a beta-galactosidase in E. coli catalyes the polymerase regulated by interaction with
polypeptide can be hydrolysis of lactose (disaccharide) to accessory proteins which affect its ability to
regulated at several galactose & glucose which bacteria use as recognise start sites. Regulatory proteins act
levels. In eukaryotes:- source of energy. No lactose means no energy both positively (activators) & negatively
1) transcriptional level source hence no longer synthesis of beta- (repressor). Accessibility of promoter regions
(formation of primary galactosidase. Hence metabolic, physiological of prokaryotes are regulated by interaction of
transcript) or environmental conditions that regulate proteins with sequences termed operators. The
2) processing level expression of gene. The development of embryo operator region is adjacent to promoter and in
(regulation of splicing) is also example of expression of several sets of most cases the sequences of the operator bind
3) transport of mRNA genes. a repressor protein. Each operon has its
from nucleus to the In prokaryotes, control of rate of transcriptional specific operator & specific repressor. Eg- Lac
cytoplasm. initiation is the predominant site for control of operator is present only in the lac operon & it
4) translational level. gene expression. interacts specifically with lac repressor only.

The lac operon

N n v

Given by Geneticist, Francois Lac operon consists of one (A very low level of expression of lac operon bas
jacob & Jacque Monod regulatory i gene & 3 structural to be present in the cell all the time otherwise
(biochemist) in which lactose gene (z,y,a) where i stands for lactose cannot enter the cell).repressor is
is used as substrate & glucose inhibitor not inducer. i gene codes synthesised from i gene (all the time
or galactose cannot act as for repressor. Z codes for beta constitutively) which binds to operator region &
induced. It is transcriptionally galactosidase, y codes for prevents RNA polymerase from transcribing
regulated system & in it permease (increases permeability operon. In presence of inducer (lactose/
polycistronic structural gene is of cell to beta-galactosidase), a allolactose) repressor is inactivated which allows
regulated by common encodes for transacetylase. RNA polymerase access to promoter &
promoter & regulatory genes. Lactose is substrate (regulates transcription proceeds. Regulation of lac operon
(Such arrangement is common switch on & off operon). Lactose can also be visualised as regulation of enzyme by
in bacteria & referred as is termed as inducer & its substrate. Regulation by repressor —>
operon). Eg- lac operon, trp transported into cells through negative regulation. Lac operon is under control
operon, ara operon, his permease. of positive regulation as well.
operon, val operon

HUMAN GENOME PROJECT/ Mega project

It was done to find out complete DNA GOALS OF HGP:-

sequence of human genome. Genetic 1) identify all 20,000-25,000 genes in human DNA.
make up & info lies in DNA sequence 2) Determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up
(sequence of bases). If two human DNA.
individuals differ, then their DNA 3) Store this information in databases.
sequences should also be different. 4) improve tools for data analysis.
With genetic engineering it is possible 5) transfer related technologies to other sectors, such as industries.
to isolate & clone DNA & determining 6) address the ethical, legal & social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the
DNA sequence ; ambitious project of project.
sequencing human genome was 13 year project :- coordinated by US department of energy & national institute
launched in 1990. Human genome of health. In early years wellcome trust (UK) became major partner.
have 3 x 10^9 bp & cost sequencing Contribution came from japan, france, germany, china. Project completed in
—> US$ 3 per bp. Hence total cost 2003.
would be around 9 billion US$. It is important to diagnose, treat and someday prevent the thousands of
Further sequences to be stored in disorders, DNA sequences that can lead to understanding of their natural
typed form in books. capabilities solving health care challenge, agriculture, energy production,
Thus there was need of high speed environmental remediation.
computation device for data storage & Many non-human model like bacteria, yeast, caenorhabditis elegans ( a free
retreive. (Associated with living non pathogenic nematode), drosophila (fruitfly), plants (rice &
bioinformatics). arabidopsis) have been sequenced.

METHODOLOGIES (2 major approaches)-

1) Expressed sequence tags (ESTs)- identifying all the genes that are expressed as RNA.
2) sequence annotation- blind approach of simply sequencing the whole set of genome that contained all the coding and non
coding sequence & later assigning different regions in sequence.
For sequencing:- DNA is isolated, converted into fragments cause of technical limitations in sequencing long pieces, cloned
in suitable host (using vectors), resulted in amplification so that it subsequently could be sequenced with ease. Commonly
used hosts- bacteria & yeast. The vectors were called BAC (bacterial artificial chromosome) & YAC (yeast artificial
chromosome). The fragments were sequenced using automated DNA sequences (worked on the principle of method
developed by fredrick sanger. (Also credited for method of determination of amino acid sequence in protein). Sequences
were then arranged based on some overlapping regions present in them, which required generation of overlapping fragments
for sequencing. (Humanly not possible) so specialised computer program developed. Sequence were annotated & were
assigned to each chromosome. The sequence of chromosome 1 was completed only in May 2006 (last of 24 human
chromosome 22 autosome & X-Y to be sequenced). Genetic and physical maps on the genome was generated using info on
polymorphism of restriction endonuclease recognition sites and some repetitive DNA sequences known as micro satellites.
 SALIENT FEATURES OF HUMAN GENOME:-
APPLICATIONS & FUTURE
1) the human genome contains 3164.7 million bp.
CHALLENGES:-
2) average gene consists 3000 bases, but sizes vary, largest known human gene —
Understanding the biological
> dystrophin (2.4 M bases).
systems & enabling a radially new
3) total genes —> 30,000 (lower than estimated 80,000 to 1,40,000) 99.9%
approach to biology research.
nucleotide bases are exact same in people.
In past, one or few gene at a time
4) functions for 50% discovered genes are unknown.
we studied but now —> whole
5) less than 2% of the genome codes for proteins.
genome sequence (broader scale).
6) repeated sequences make very large portion of human genome.
We can study all the genes in a
7) repetitive sequences are repeated 100-1000 times & have no direct coding
genome. Eg- all transcripts in a
functions, but shed light on chromosome structure, dynamics & evolution.
particular tissue or organ or tumor,
8) chromosome 1 have most genes (2968) & Y has the fewest (231).
or how tens of thousand of genes
9) scientists have identified about 1.4 M locations where single base DNA
and proteins work together in
differences (SNPs - single nucleotide polymorphism/snips) occur in human which
interconnected networks to
promises to revolutionise the process of finding chromosomal locations for
orchestrate the chemistry of life.
disease associated sequences and tracing human history.

DNA- FINGERPRINTING

Very quick way to compare the DNA MERITS OF DNA UNDERSTANDING POLYMORPHISM:-
sequence of 2 individual (otherwise FINGERPRINTING- It is basis of genetic mapping of human genome as
would be daunting & expensive). It 1) DNA from every well as DNA fingerprinting. Polymorphism (variation
involves identifying difference in some tissue show same at genetic level) arises due to mutation. Germ cell
specific regions called repetitive DNA degree of mutation does not seriously impair individuals ability
(small stretch of DNA repeats many polymorphism to have offspring who can transmit the mutation, it
times). hence useful can spread to other people (by sexual reproduction),
0.1% of differences in sequence of DNA identification tool allelic sequence variation was traditionally called
make every individual unique in forensic DNA polymorphism if more than one variant (allele)
(phenotypically). applications. at a locus occurs in human population with a
The repetitive DNA is separated from bulk 2) polymorphism frequency greater than 0.01. (i.e. inheritable mutation
genomic DNA during density gradient are inheritable is observed in a population at high frequency). It is
centrifugation. (Bulk DNA forms a major hence basis of referred as DNA polymorphism. Probability of such
peak & satellite DNA as small peaks). paternity testing in variation in non coding DNA sequence is more as
Depending upon base composition (AT or case of disputes. mutation may not have immediate effect in
GC rich), length of segment & no. Of reproductive ability. These keep on accumulating
repetitive units satellite are classified as generation after generation from one of the basis of
microsatellite and minisatellite. Which do variability /polymorphism. Variety of different
not code for protein but form large portion polymorphism ranging from single nucleotide change
of genome & show high degree of to very large scale changes. In evolution & speciation
polymorphism (which is basis of —> polymorphism play important role.
fingerprinting).

TECHNIQUE OF DNA FINGERPRINTING:-

By sir Alec Jeffreys. He used a satellite DNA as a probe that shows high degree of polymorphism. (Called as variable no. Of
tandem repeats /VNTR) involved southern hybridisation using radio labelled VNTR as probe. It included:-
1) isolation of DNA.
2) Digestion by restriction endonuclease
3) separation by electrophoresis
4) transferring (blotting) of separated DNA fragments to synthetic membrane such as nitrocellulose or nylon.
5) hybridisation using labelled VNTR probe.
6) detection of hybridised DNA Fragments by auto radiography.
VNTR belongs to a mini-satellite.
A small DNA Sequence is arranged tandemly in many copy no. Which varies from chromosome to chromosome. The no, of repeats
show very high degree of polymorphism. As a result size of VNTR varies from 0.1 to 2 kb. After hybridisation with VNTR probe,
autoradiogram - gives many bands of different sizes which gives a characteristic pattern for an individual DNA except in
monozygotic twins the sensitivity of the technique has been increased by use of PCR (polymerase chain reaction).
DNA from single cell is enough to perform DNA fingerprinting.
It has much wider application such as in determining population diversity currently, many different probes to generate DNA
fingerprints.
NCERT Diagrams for reference
 ÉE
i.
÷ .

Evolution
In the context of evolution of earth & against the background of evolution of universe itself.

Origin of life

V v
v
Steller distance are measured in
light years. What we see today is
Big bang theory- UV Rays broke water to H & O & lighter H2
an object whose emitted light escaped. O combined with NH3 & CH4 to form
Singular huge explosion took H2O & CO2 others. Ozone layer was formed &
started its journey millions of place, universe expanded temp.
years back & from trillions of as it cooled rain fall occured & oceans formed.
Came down, H & He formed Life appeared 500 million years after the
kilometers away and reaching sometime later & gases condensed
our eyes now. Hence when we formation of earth i.e. 4 billion years back.
under gravity & formed galaxies of Early greek thinkers thought units of life called
see stars we apparently are present day universe.
peeping into past. Universe is spores were transferred to different planets
Early earth’s atmosphere had CO2 including earth. Pansermia is still a favourite
20 billion years old. Earth was + H2O vapours + CH4 + NH3 which
formed 4.5 billion years back. idea for some astronomers.
are released from molten mass.

Theory of spontaneous generation- Chemical evolution theory-

Life comes from dead & decaying matter like Oparin (russia) & haldane (england) proposed that life come from pre
straw, mud, etc. existing non living organic molecules (RNA, protein) i.e. formation of
But louis pasteur proved that life comes only diverse organic molecules from inorganic constituents. In 1953, S.L.
from pre existing life as killed yeast do not Miller (american scientist) created electric discharge in closed flask
flourish in sterelised flask but does in open with CH4, H2, NH3, H2O vapour at 800° C & observed formation of
to air flask. Hence this theory was very soon amino acid (sugars, N2 base, pigment & fat also). Meteorite content
diminished. also revealed similar compounds indicating similar processes
occuring elsewhere in space.

The first non cellular forms of life came 3 billion years back which would have been giant molecules. (RNA, protein,
polysaccharide) these capsules reproduced their molecules. The first cellular form of life did not possibly originate till 2000
million years ago. Which were probably single cells.
BIOGENESIS:- life arose from non living molecules.
GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE:- eons > eras > periods > epochs > ages

EVOLUTION OF LIFE FORMS- a theory

v
Theory of special creation
Dar win’s concept
Based on observations made on sail ship (HMS beagle)
It was religious and was given in 19th century. round the world.
HAS 3 CONNOTATIONS:- He concluded that:-
1) life forms share similarities among themselves & to
them also who existed in past (ancestors which
L o undergone extinction).
All living beings 2) there has been gradual evolution & population has built
were created as Earth is 4000
in variation to fulfil the criteria of natural selection.
such. years old.
3) he considered natural fitness similar to reproductive
v fitness i.e. those who are fitted in environment have more
progeny.
Diversity was and
Alfred wallace, a naturalist who worked in Malay
will be same from/
Archipelago also had same conclusions & apparently new
since creation.
organisms were recognised.
Hence geographical history is equivalent to biological
history. All these proved that earth was formed billion of
years ago and not thousands.
 WHAT ARE EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION?

<
Paleontological evidence Embryological support for evolution

:
Fossils- remains of hard parts found in rocks (By Ernst Heckel)
(sedimentary). Based upon certain features present in embryonic stage
Different aged rock sediments contain fossils of different & absent in adult. Eg- row of vestigial gill slits present
life forms who probably died during the formation of behind head found in embryonic stage & functional in
particular sediment which represent extinct organisms. fishes.
Study of fossils in different sedimentary layers indicates This was proved wrong/ disapproved by karl ernst von
geological period in which they existed & hence new boer & told that embryos never pass through adult
forms of life have arisen at different times in history. stages of other animals.

Divergent evolution Convergent evolution

:
Eg- whales, bat, cheetah, human all share same pattern of Eg- wings of butterfly & birds have similar function but
bones of forelimbs (humerus, radius, ulna, carpals & anatomically different hence they are analogous
metacarpals) & adapted for different functions hence called (convergent evolution). Other examples- eyes of octopus &
divergent evolution & structures are called homologous. It mammal, flippers of penguine & dolphin. One can say that
indicates common ancestor. Other examples- vertebrate its due to habitat but: sweet potato (root modification) &
hearts or brains, thorn and tendril of bougainvillea & potato (stem modification).
cucurbita. Convergent and divergent evolution is based on
Similarities in protein, genes performing a given function also comparative anatomy and morphology.
gives clues for common ancestry in diverse organisms.

Evolution by natural selection Evolution by anthropogenic action

Case study: In england in 1850s (before industrialisation) no. Excess use of herbicides/ pesticides has only resulted in
Of white winged moth were more than no. Of black winged > selection of resistant varieties in a much lesser time scale.
moth cause trees were covered with white lichen & in 1920 (Also true for microbes)
(after industrialisation) the ratio was opposite cause trees Hence evolution is a stochastic process based on chance
became black because lichen do not grew in polluted areas. events in nature and chance mutation in organism.
Predators will spot a moth against a contrasting background
hence moths that were able to comouflage themselves
survived.

WHAT IS ADAPTIVE RADIATION? BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

Process of evolution of different species in a given
(Based on darwinian principle)
geographical area starting from a point and literally radiating
The rate of appearance of new forms is linked to the life cycle
to other areas of geography (habitat) is called adaptive
or the life span. i.e. if life span is short or reproductive
radiation. Eg- (Darwin’s finches)- darwin went to galapagos
capacity is high (more individual in lesser time). Then chances
island & found that there were many varieties of small black
of variation are very soon visible but as life span increases
birds (darwin’s finches) in same island (evolved on island
variation occur with more time. Eg- bacteria & fishes in pond.
itself)
So called fitness is based on characteristics which are
From seed eating features, many other forms with altered bear
inherited. Hence there must be a genetic basis for getting
arose, enabling them to become insectivorous & vegetarian
selected to evolve.
finches.
Fitness is end result of ability to adapt & get selected by
Eg- (Australian marsupials)- each marsupial is different from
nature. Branching descent and natural selection are the two
other evolved from an ancestral stock in single australian
concepts of darwinian theory of evolution.
island.
Before darwin, a french naturalist lamark told that which organ
When more than one radiation appeared to have occured in an
used more develops more but its not believed now. Eg- long
isolated geographical area (representing different habitats)
neck of giraffe.
one can call this convergent evolution.
Darwin may be influenced by the work of thomas maithus on
Eg- (placental mammals)- in australia, appears to be similar to
population.
a corresponding marsupial. (Eg- placental wolf & tasmanian
wolf (marsupial)).

Natural selection is based upon following observation & facts:-

v v *
L e n
Variations are inherited. More population More no. Of
Natural Population are Members of
If everybody induce progeny hence
resources stable in size population vary in
reproduces maximally competition for more change jn
are limited except seasonal characteristics.
the population will grow resources. population
fluctuation.
enormously. characteristics.
 Mechanism of Evolution
V V V

Darwin ignored the Mendel’s Mutation are random & Evolution for darwin was gradual but for
inheritable factors. In 1st decade directionless inheritable deveries mutation caused specialisation &
of 20th century, hugo de veries while darwinian variations hence called it Saltation (single step large
introduced mutation on evening are small and directional. mutation). Studies in population genetics
prim rose. (Reason for large brought clarity.
variation in less time in a
population).

HARDY WEINBERG PRINCIPLE

v
r
5 FACTORS AFFECTING HW PRINCIPLE-
Proposed by GH Hardy, an English
mathematician & W. Weinberg, a german 1) Mutation
physician independently in 1908. 2) gene flow/ gene migration- movement of alleles from one population to
It describes a theoretical situation in which a another as a result of inbreeding b/w members of two population.
population is undergoing no evolutionary Removal of alleles from one population or addition of alleles into another
change. population is called gene flow or migration.
Gene frequency is frequency with which a 3) genetic drift- also known as ‘Sewall Wright Effect’. It occurs only by
particular allele occurs in a population. chance. Refers to change in population of alleles in the gene pool.
Gene frequency suppose to remain fixed and 4) Genetic recombination- new association of alleles is formed in gamete
even remain the same through generations in cells.
an isolated area. 5) natural selection pressure (population genetics)-
Thus HW principle states that allele frequency Freq of AA - p2 , Freq of aa - q2 , Freq of Aa - 2Pq
in a population are stable and is constant from Hence [p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1] —> binomial expansion of (p+q)2
generation to generation. It is possible to calculate all alleles and genotype frequency using
The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in expression allele frequency. P+q = 1, genotype freq p2 + q2 + 2pq = 1.
a population) remains constant. (This is If any of the process mentioned above takes place then evolution will take
genetic equilibrium) & sum total of allelic place (change in no. Of allele) which result to change in freq. hence HW
frequency is one. principle fails.
v

FOUNDER EFFECT- (during genetic drift) - if change in allele frequency is so different in the new sample of population that
they become a different species the original drifted population becomes founders & it is called as founder effect.

A brief account of evolution Origin & evolution of man

> about 2000M years ago (mya) the first cellular forms of life
> 15 mya primates called Dryopithecus (ape like)
came. Some of which released O2 (similar reaction as light
& Ramapithecus (man-like) were existing.
reaction in plants).
> few fossils of man like bone were found in
> slowly single celled organisms became multicellular life
ethopia & tanzania hence before 3-4 mya man like
forms.
primates walked in eastern africa which were no
> by 500 mya invertebrates formed & active. Jawless fish
more taller than 4 ft but walked upright.
evolved around 350 mya. See weeds & plants existed by 320
> 2 mya australopithecius lived in east african
mya. Firstly plants invaded the land.
grasslands having stone weapons for protection
> fish with stout & strong fina could move on land & go back to
cause they ate only fruits.
water about 350 mya.
> one were first human like being the hominid and
> in 1938, a fish caught in south africa happened to be a
was called homo habilis which had different bones
coelocanth which was thought to be extinct.
among bones. Their cranial capacity was 650-800
> lobefins evolved into first amphibians. These were ancestors
cc & did not eat meat. Their fossils were
of frogs & salmanders. Amphibians evolved into reptiles which
discovered.
lay thick shelled eggs and which do not dry up in sun.
> homoerectus are the one whose fossils were
> in the next 200 M years or so reptiles of different shapes &
discovered in java in 1891 hence called java ape
sizes dominated on earth.
man. They had large brain around 900 cc. They
> giant ferns were present but fell to form coal deposits.
probably ate meat.
> some of land reptiles went to water to evolve into fish like
> the neanderthal man with a brain size 1400 cc
reptiles 20p mya (eg- ichthyosaurs)
lived near east & central asia b/w 100,000- 40,000
Biggest- tyrannosaurus rex (20 ft height & huge dagger like
years back. They used hides to protect them &
teeth)
buried their dead (Cultural).
About 65 mya dinosaurs disappeared.
> Homosapiens arose in Africa during ice age
Small sized reptiles of era still exist today.
(75,000-10,000). The prehistoric cave art
> first mammals were like shrews (their fossils are small sized).
developed about 18,000 years ago. One such cave
> when reptiles came down mammals took over this earth.
painting is present at bhimbetka rock shelter in
> there were in south america mammals resembling horse,
Raisen district of madhya pradesh.
hippocampus, bear, rabbit. Due to continental drift, when
Agriculture came around 10,000 years back &
south america formed. North america, these animals were
human settlements started.
overridden by north american fauna.
> due to same continental drift pouched mammals of Australia
survived cause of lack of competition.
Mammals in water- whale, dolphin, seals, seacows.
NCERT Diagrams for reference
 Human Health & Disease
Earlier black bile concept meant hot personality have fevers but proven wrong by William Harvey by telling
normal body temperature & blood circulation. It disproved the ‘good humor’ hypothesis of health. Along
with nervous,endocrine & immune system mental state also affect health & is also affected by genetic
disorders, infections,lifestyle,economic prosperity,increases life span. Things responsible for maintaining
state of health are yoga,vaccination,awareness about disease,lifestyle improvement.
DISEASE —> any body organ is not working properly. They can be infectious(aids) or non infectious(cancer)

Common diseases in humans (Caused by pathogen/parasite)

Typhoid (Salmonella typhi) sosus Common cold (rhino virus) sosus
Infect nose & respiratory
Enter into small intestine &
tract but not lungs.
transported by blood. Caused by Pneumonia (Streptococcus Symptoms are nasal Malaria (plasmodium
contaminated food.
SYMPTOMS-39-40°C fever,
pneumonia & Haemophilus congestion & discharge,
protozoa)
influenza bact.) sore throat and
weakness, stomach pain,
hoarseness, cough, Eg- p. Vivax, p. Malaria, p.
constipation, headache,loss of
Alveoli is affected,fluid gets headache, tiredness that Falciparum causes different
appetite. In severe cases
filled in alveoli. Symptoms:- last for 3-7 days. Droplets malaria. Malignant malaria
intestinal perforations & death
fever,chills,cough,headache or infected object can caused by plasmodium
may occur. WIDAL TEST!. MARY
,in severe cases lips,finger spread as it is most falciparum is most serious
MALLON (typhoid mary)
nails may turn grey to bluish infectious. and can be fatal.
spreaded it to customers by
in color. Sppread by Life cycle of plasmodium is
food.
aerosols/droplets, sharing completed in 2 host (vector is

news
utensils with infected. anopheles) {shown in
Dysentery,plague & diagram}
sunso diphtheria are common
bacterial diseases.

Amoebiasis/ amoebic Elephantiasis or filariasis

dysentery (entamoeba (wucheria brancofti, w. now
histolytica)
Protozoan parasite in large
sususu Malayi)
Filarial worm mainly causes
intestine. Symptoms are inflammation of lymphatic
constipation, abdominal vessel of lower limb or
Ringworms (genera
pain, cramps, stools with Ascariasis (ascaris/round sometime genital organ are microsporum, trichophyton,
mucous & blood clots. also affected causing gross epidermophyton)
Housefly sit on faecus of
worm helminth)
deformities & transmitted
infected person & spreads Intestinal parasite, symptoms Symptoms are dry scaly lesions
through female mosquito
it. are internal bleeding, muscular on skin,nails,scalp. Which are
vector.
pain, fever, anemia, blockage accompanied by itching.
of intestinal passage. Eggs Heat,moisture support fungi to
ofparasite is released in fecus grow hence also grows in skin

rsvsvso
which infects soil & water &
spreads via contaminated
sosaw folds (groin or b/w toes). Acquired
by using infected towel,cloth,
veggies,fruit & water comb or soil.

Personal hygiene & public hygiene (proper disposal and disinfecting of water reservoir) should be maintained to be protected from these
diseases like typhoid, amoebiasis, ascariasis. For airborne diseases (pneumonia,cold) contact with infected ones should be maintained &
for malaria,filariasis we need to control or eliminate vector & their breeding places. Dengue and chikungunya is supported by vector Aedes
mosquito. Proper vaccination should be provided to be prevented from these disease.

IMMUNITY
Ability to fight disease causing organisms & is of 2 types
innate and acquired.

Innate immunity Acquired immunity Active immunity Passive immunity

Provides different barriers to It is characterised by memory. Antibodies are produced in host Ready made antibodies are
entry of foreign agents by Secondary response is anamnestic against antigens. Injecting directly given to protect the
physiological barrier (skin, (powerful). Taken by B & T microbes during vaccination body from foreign agent.
mucous), physiological lymphocytes. T help B to produce induce active immunity. Yellowish fluid (colostrum)
barriers (acid,saliva,tears), antibodies. present in initial days of
cellular barriers (pmnl Antibody have 4 poly peptide chain lactation has IgA to protect
neutrophil, monocyte & H2L2 AND they are of diff types infant.
macrophages phagocytose), like IgG,IgA,IgM,IgE,IgD.
cytokine barriers (interferon Antibodies found in blood is
secretion) humoral immune system. Cell
mediated immunity is mediated by
T lymphocytes & is responsible for
graft rejection.
 Vaccination and immunisation Allergy Auto immunity
Response of immune system to certain antigen
Based on memory of immune system. present in environment. The subst. Or that Memory based acquired immunity based
Vaccine generates memory -B & -T cells antigens to which response is given are called on ability to differentiate between self
that recognise pathogen. In cases like allergens (IgE type antibodies are produced) . and nonself cells which is evolved in
tetanus, snake bites preformed Allergens can be mites in dust, pollen, animal higher vertebrates. Higher vertebrates
antibodies/antitoxin are given (passive dander. Symptoms can be sneezing, watery can distinguish hence dealt in many
immunisation). rDNA technology has eyes, difficulty in breathing. Due to release of immunological experiments but
allowed the production of antigenic histamine/seratonin from mast cells. Use of sometimes due to genetic reason body
polypeptide (vaccine) of pathogen in antihistamine,adrenaline & steroids quickly attack self cells (auto immune disorder)
bact. or yeast. Eg- hepatitis B vaccine reduce symptoms of allergy. Many children get eg- rheumatoid arthritis
from yeast. allergy & asthma due to protected environment
given in early life.

Immune system in the body (lymphoid organs)

Origin,maturation & proliferation of lymphocyte occur there. Primary lymphoid organ are bone marrow & thymus where immature
lymphocytes differentiate into antigen sensitive lymphocytes & then it transfers to secondary lymphoid organ (spleen,lymph node, tonsil,
peyers patches of small intestine, appendix) where interaction of lymphocyte to antigen occur which then proliferate to form effector cell.
All blood cells including lymphocytes are formed in bone marrow. Thymus is lobed organ present near heart & beneath breast bone which
reduces its size with age. Bone marrow & thymus provide micro environment for development of T lymphocytes. Spleen is large bean
shaped organ mainly containing lymphocytes & phagocytes which act as filter of blood trapping blood borne microbes. Spleen is also a
large reservoir of RBC. Lymph nodes are solid structure located at diff areas. They trap antigen which get into tissue fluid & which causes
activation of lymphocyte & cause immune response. There is lymphoid tissue also located within the lining of major tracts called mucosa
associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). It constitute about 50% of lymphoid tissue in human body.

AIDS (acquired immuno deficiency syndrome)

Not a congenital disease. Syndrome means a group of symptoms. AIDS was first reported in 1981 & in last 25 years killed 25 million
people. It is caused by HIV (human immuno deficiency virus) i.e. a group of viruses called retrovirus. Retrovirus have an envelope
enclosing RNA genome. Transmission is due to sexual contact,transfusions,infected needle,infected mother to child. Time lag b/w
infection and symptoms can be frim few month to 5-10 years. Enzyme linked immuno sorbent assay (ELISA) is used to test for aids. It can
be partially treated by anti retroviral drug that increase life span. Prevention of aids :- NACO (national aids control organisation) teaches
people about aids. Dispensable needles,controlling drug abuse, safe sex, are some preventive measures. (Note:- infected cell can survive
while viruses are being replicated & released.

CANCER
Major cause of death because more than 1 million people suffered from it in india. Cancerous cells loose contact inhibition & divide
to form masses of cell called tumor. Tumors are of 2 types:-
BENIGN TUMOUR- remain confined at original location & cause less damage
MALIGNANT TUMOUR- mass of proliferating cells called neoplastic/tumour cells which damage normal tissue. They starve
surrounding cells by competing for nutrients.
> Causes of cancer- may be physical,chemical or biological agent called carcinogens, ionisation radiation like X ray, γ- rays, non
ionisation radiation like UV cause dna damage. For eg- Carcinogen (chemical) in tobacco causes lung cancer. Oncogenic viruses
with viral oncogene causes cancer or normal cells having cellular oncogene (c-onc) or proto oncogenes get activated under certain
condition & lead to oncogenic transformation of cells.
> Cancer detection & diagnosis- biopsy & histopathalogical studies of tissue,blood & bone marrow test for increasing cell count in
case of leukaemia.. In biopsy suspected tissue is cut,stained & studied. Radiography(x rays), CT(computed tomography) & MRI
(magnetic resource imaging). Antibodies against cancer specific antigens, techniques of molecular biology ti detect genes inherited
with cancer,identification of genes, which predispose one cancer sk that people can learn.
> treatment of cancer- surgery, radiation therapy (tumour cells are irradiated lethally),immunotherapy,chemitherapeutic drugs side
effect are hairloss & ansmia, patients are given biological response modifier eg- a-interferon which activates immune system &
destroy tumour.

Drug and alcohol abuse

Commonly abused drugs are as follows:-

Opioids Cannabinoids Coca alkaloid / cocaine

Bind to opioid receptor in CNS & Group of chemicals interact with
GIT. Heroin (commonly smack) is cannabinoid receptors in brain which are Obtained from coca plant erythroxylem
diacetyl morphine which is a obtained from inflorescence of cannabis coca, native to south america which
white,odourless bitter crystalline sativa. Flower top, leaves & resin of interferes with transport of neurotransmitter
compound & obtained by cannabis is used in various combination to dopamine. Cocaine/coke/crack is snorted
acetylation of morphine (extracted produce marijuana, hashish, charas, ganja. and has potent stimulating action on CNS
from poppy plant (papaver Generally taken by inhalation or oral producing sense of euphoria & increased
somniferum)). Taken by snorting & ingestion & affect on cardiovascular system. energy and its excess causes hallucination.
injection. Heroin is depressant i.e. They are also abused by some sports Atropa belladona & datura also have
slows down body function. person. hallucinogenic property.

Barbiturates amphetamines and benzodiazepines are used ti treat depression, insomnia & mental illness. Morphine is sedative &
painkiller (advised after surgery). Some hallucinating plant, fruit seed have been used in religious & rituals. When these are taken other
than medicinal use then it becomes drug abuse. Smoking paves way to hard drugs. Tobacco has been used by humans since 400 years.
Tobacco contains nicotine (alkaloid) which stimulates releasing of adrenaline or nor adrenaline hence increases heartbeat/blood
pressure. Smoking leads to cancer of lung, urinary bladder, throat, bronchitis,emphysema, coronary heart disease, gastric ulcer, etc.
Tobacco chewinh leads ti oral cancer & smoking increases CO in blood.
 Adolescence & drug abuse Addiction & dependence
Adolescence means both period and Addiction is psychological attachment to certain effects such as euphoria
process and adolescence is a vulnerable & a temporary feeling of well being associated with drugs & alcohol.
phase. First it is due to excitement or Receptor present in body increase their tolerance level hence respond
curiosity but then it is to escape from only to higher doses. Withdrawal syndrome:- dependence, unpleasant &
problems. characterised by anxiety, shakiness, nausea, sweating.

Effects of drug/ alcohol abuse Prevention and control

Main effects are reckless behaviour, vandalism & violence. Excessive doses can Parenting is essential.
lead to coma or death due to respiratory failure, cerebral haemorrhage or heart Some measures of prevention can be:-
failure. Drug can make one thief and can drop its academic performance. > avoid undue peer pressure
Intravenous drugs may lead to AIDS & Hepatitis B by infected needle. Excessive > education and counselling (mentoring)
abuse leads to damage to NS & liver (cirrhosis) drug abuse during pregnancy can > seeking help from parents and peers
adversely affect foetus. Sports person use narcotic analgesics, anabolic > looking for danger signs
steroids, diuretics to increase muscle strength, bulk, aggressiveness & athletic > seeking professional & medical health
performance.
SIDE EFFECTS IN FEMALE-
masculinisation, aggressiveness, mood swings, depression, abnormal menstrual
cycle, enlargement of clitoris.
SIDE EFFECTS IN MALE-
Acne,aggressive, mood swings, depression, reduction of size of testicles, less
sperm count, kidney, liver dysfunction, breast enlarge, baldness , enlargement of
prostate gland.
It may also lead stunted growth in adolescents.
NCERT Diagrams for reference
Strategies for enhancement in food production
Biological techniques are very useful in raising food production.
Needed for increasing population.

Animal husbandry Management of farm & farm animals

Art of agricultural practice of breeding & raising I) Dairy farm management- management of milk giving animals for
livestock like buffaloes, pigs, horses, camels, etc. which human consumption which involves systems to produce greater yield
are useful to humans. I.e. poultry & fisheries. Fisheries- & more quality which depends ion the good breed (disease resistant) ,
rearing, catching & selling of fish molluscs (shell fish) & hygiene, quality fodder, climate. Ensuring these measures would
crustaceans (prawns & crabs). require regular inspections.
More than 70% livestock population is in india & china II) Poultry farm management- include class of domesticated foul
but contribution to the world farm produce js only 25% (birds like chicken duck, turkey, geese) for food or eggs. Poultry refers
i.e productivity per unit is very low. to meat of birds. Require disease free good breed and hygiene.

Animal breeding
Important aspect of animal husbandry and it means raising quality of produce.
BREED:- group of animals similar in characters like appearance, features, size, configuration.

INBREEDING:- breeding b/w animals of OUTBREEDING:- may be mating b/w INTERSPECIFIC HYBRIDISATION:- parents are
same breed for 4-6 generations only animals of same breed with or different of 2 different related spercies & progeny may
superior male mates with superior ancestors for 4-6 generations (outcrossing) be of considerable economic value. Eg- mule.
female & progeny is identified for future or b/w different breeds (outbreeding) or
mating. Eg- in cattle superior female is different species (interspecific
cow/buffalo cause give more milk per hybridisation).
lactation & superior male is bull cause CONTROLLED BREEDING EXPERIMENTS:-
gives more superior progeny. carried out using artificial insemination in
Inbreeding increases homozygosity i.e. which semen from male is transferred to
obtaining more pure lines hence it is female or frozen & kept for later. It helps to
necessary if we want to evolve a pure OUTCROSSING:- no common ancestor overcome many problems of normal matings.
line in any animal. Helps in on either side if pedigree & the offspring Success rate of crossing male & female is
accumulation of superior genes & obtained is called outcross. It is very fairly low hence other means like multiple
eliminating less desirable genes. Hence efficient for averagely producing animals ovulation Embryo transfer technology (MOET)
increases productivity of inbred
& overcome inbreeding depression. are used. Cow is fed with FSH to increase
population by selecting at each step.
Continuously close inbreeding reduces
follicular maturation & super ovulation. Instead
fertility & productivity which is called of 1 egg 6-8 eggs are released & is mated with
inbreeding depression. And to an elite bull or artificially inseminated.
overcome this selected animals of the Fertilised egg at 8-32 celled stage they are
breeding population are mated with CROSSBREEDING- breed b/w superior male recovered non surgically & sent to surrogate
unrelated of superior animals of same with sup. female of another breed & mothers. Genetic mother is available again for
breed. progeny may be used for commercial super ovulation.
production or subjected to inbreeding & Eg- cattle,sheep,rabbit,buffaloes,mares for
selection to develops more stable & obtaining high milk yielding breeds of females
superior breeds. Eg- hisardale is new breed & high quality (lean meat with less lipid) meat
of sheep developed in punjab by crossing yielding bulls, which increase herd size in short
bikaneri ewes and marino rams. time.

Bee- Keeping
Maintenance of hive for production of honey. Has been an age old cottage industry.
Honey beside having nutritional value but is also useful in making medicine & beside honey. Beeswax is also produced by bees
which is used in cosmetics & polishes of various kinds. Mostly abis indica is reared.
-> it can be done at areas with sufficient bee pastures like wild shrubs, fruit orchard & cultivated crops (since bees are
pollinators of sunflower, brassica, apple, pear hence they also help in pollination & hence beneficial in both ways)
-> beehives are kept in verandah or roof & this is not labour intensive.
Successful bee keeping involves:-
1) knowledge of nature & habit of bees
2) selection of suitable location for keeping hives
3) catching & hiving of swarm (group of bees)
4) management of beehives during different seasons
5) handling & collection of honey & of beeswax

Plant breeding
Fisheries
Green revolution lead the high yield & dependent on plant
breeding techniques for development of high yield &
Catching processing & selling of fish, shellfish
disease resistant varieties in wheat,rice,maize. Evidence of
(aqualife)
plant breeding dates to 9000-11000 yr ago. Today all major
Edible aquatic animals- prawns, crab, lobster, edible
food crops are derived from domesticated variety. Classical
oyster.
plant breeding involves crossing/hybridisation of pure lines
Freshwater fish- catala,rohu, common carp.
followed by artificial selection to Produce plants with
Marine fishes- hilsa,sardines, mackerel, pomfrets.
desirable traits. Now it is done by using molecular genetic
Provides income & employment to fisherman &
tools. Desired traits- increased tolerance to environmental
farmers in costal region. Through aquaculture &
stresses (salinity,extreme temp., drought) resistance to
pisciculture production in both fresh & marine water
pathogens & tolerance to insect pests. Plant breeding
is increased. Introduction of blue r evolution.
programmes are done in government institutions,
commercial companies.
 MAIN STEPS IN BREEDING A NEW GENETIC VARIETY OF CROP-
1) COLLECTION OF VARIABILITY- genetic variability is root of breeding program. Collection & preservation of fluid varieties,
species, relatives of the cultivated plant is necessary for exploitation of natural genes & they are only possible for pre existing
genetic variability. The entire collection of plants/seeds having all diverse alleles for all genes in a given crop is called germ
plasm collection.
2) EVALUATION & SELECTION OF PARENTS- the selected plants are multiplied & used in hybridisation. Purelines are created
whereas desirable & possible.
3) CROSS HYBRIDISATION AMONG THE SELECTED PLANTS- it is very tedious & time consuming cause pollen from 1 is to be
dropped on stigma of 2 parent & there is no guarantee that hybrid do combine desirable character. Only very few are
successful.
4) SELECTION & TESTING OF SUPERIOR RECOMBINANTS- careful scientific evaluation of progeny very often more than 1
superior progeny may available which are self pollinated for several generation till they reach homozygosity so the character
will not segregate in progeny.
5) TESTING, RELEASE & COMMERCIALISATION OF NEW CULTIVATORS- newly selected lines are evaluated for their yield by
growing in research field. Under ideal fertiliser, irrigation & is followed by growing in farmers field for 3 season at several
location in country for different agroclimatic zone. The material is evaluated in comparison to the best available local crop
cultivator- a check or reference cultivator.
Agriculture accounts 33% GDP of india & employs 62% of population.
After independence, in mid 1960s, HYV were developed by plant breeding techniques which increased food production & this
phase is called green revolution.

:O!
WHEAT & RICE- from 1960 to 2000 wheat production 11M tonnes SUGARCANE- saccharum
to 75 M tonnes & rice production 35M tonnes to 89.5 M tonnes. barberi (grown in north + MILLETS- eg- hybrid
Due to development of semidwarf varieties of wheat & rice & was less sugar content) was maize, jowar, bajra, are
developed by nobel laureate norman E. borlaug at international crossed with saccharrum made in india. This
centre for wheat & maize improvement (mexico). In 1963 sonalika offinicinarum (tropical hybridisation helps seeds
& kalyan sona varieties were introduced in india. Semidwarf rice canes/grown in south + to resist water stress.
were derived from IR-8 (developed at international rice research cannot be grown in north
institute [IRRI] , Philippines) & taichung native-1 (from Taiwan) & + high sugar content) to
were introducedin 1966. Later better yielding semi-dwarf get hybrid.
varieties jaya & ratna were developed in india.

Plant breeding for disease resistance Methods of breeding for disease

Crops are mainly affected by pathogens
especially in tropical climates which makes
resistance
several loss in crop. This helps in reducing Can be done by conventional breeding techniques
use of fungicides, bacteriocides. Before (described earlier) or mutation breeding the former
breeding, the causative organism & the mode include- screening germ plasm for resistance sources,
of transmission need to be studied. hybridisation, selection & evaluation of hybrids, testing,
FUNGI CAUSES RUST - eg- brown rust of
wheat, red rot of sugarcane & late blight off
P release of variety.
The presence of no. Of disease of resistant genes in
potato; BACTERIAL CAUSES- black rot of
crucifers & BY VIRUS- tobacco mosaic,
L relatives is very low hence first by mutation that genes
may be formed & then can be used inbreeding . Other
turnip mosaic. A methods are selection amongst somaclomal variants &

N
genetic engineering.
MUTATION BREEDING- performed by chemicals or Y-

Plant breeding for developing resistance T radiations & selection. In mung bean, resistance to
yellow mosaic virus & powdery mildew were induced by
mutation. Some wild relatives have disease resistant
to insect pests genes but their yield is very low hence breeding comes
Resistance is provided by morphological, biochemical & B into effect to produce hybrid. Eg- resistance to yellow
mosaic in bhindi (abelmischus ascukantus) was
physiolocharacters.
Eg- hairy leaves resists jassids in cotton, cereal leaf in R transferred from a wild species & a new variety was

E
wheat. In wheat solid stem lead to non-preference by formed called prarbhani kanti.
the stem sawfly & smooth leaved & nectar less cotton

E
varieties does not attract bollworms. High aspartic acid,
low nitrogen & sugar in maize resist to maize stem
borers. The breeding method is same as earlier.
D Plant breeding for improved food quality
I 840M people doesn’t get proper food, 3B people are

N
micronutrient sufferer, and also suffer from protein,
SINGLE CELL PROTEIN (SCP) vitamin deficiency (hidden hunger) cause diets lacks Fe,
Alt. source of proteins for animal & human nutrition. G VitA. I, Zn (micronutrients) which reduce life span.
BIOFORTIFICATION:- breeding fir improved quality of
Rate of production is less than rate of growing nutrition with objectives/motives to improve protein
population. The shift of meat from grain also creates quality/content, oil content/quality, vitamin content,
more demand of cereal as 3-10 kg cereal produce 1kg
micro-nutrient & mineral content.
meat.
Things performed after 2000-
More than 25% of population suffers from hunger and
1) new maize hybrid having double the amount of amino
malnutrition.
Microbes may be grown on an industrial scaleas a acids, lysine, tryphtophan with comparison to older
source of good protein. Eg- BGA like spirulina can grow maize hybrid.
on waste water frim potato processing plants 2) altlas 66(wheat variety)- used in high protein donor for
(containing starch), straw, molassus, animal manuure, improving cultivated wheat.
sewage to produce food rich food rich in protein, 3) An Fe-fortified rice variety having 5 times than normal
mineral, fat, carbohydrates, vitamin and it akso reduces variety was developed.
population. Indian agricultural research institute (new delhi)
Bacteria like methylophilus methylotropus ( increase developed-
rate of biomass production & growth) produce 25 Vit A riched carrots, spinach, pumpkin; vit C rich bitter
tonnes of protein. Edible fungus (mushrooms) also help gourd, bathua, mustard, tomato; Fe rich & Ca rich
in this. spinach , bathua; protein rich beans (broad,lablab,
french, garden peas)
 Tissue culture
> Found in 1950 because breeding was slow.
> any part of plant (explant) can regenerate whole plant when grown in test tube, under sterile condition & special
nutrient mediator. This capacity is known as totipotency.
Nutrient media:- carbon source (sucrose) + inorganic salt + vit + amino acid + auxin + cytokinin
By this thousands of plant can be produced which js called micro propagation & each plant is genetically similar i.e.
somaclomes to the parent. Eg- tomato, banana, apple.
> it can also be used to recover healthy plant from diseased plant if it is infected the meristem is free of virus hence it
can be used jn tissue culture. Eg- sugarcane, banana, apple.
SOMATIC HYBRIDISATION:- if cell wall of isolated cell is digested then is able to isolate named protoplast (surrounded by
plasma memb. ) now the isolated naked protoplasts of 2 different varieties can be fused to get hybrid protoplasm.
These hybrids were known as somatic hybrids & process was known as somatic hybridisation. Eg- pomato (not
commercially useful)
NCERT diagrams for reference
 Microbes in human welfare
Microbes are also found in extreme environment & are diverse protozoan, bact., fungi, microscopic virus, prions.

Microbes in household products

✓ £ ↳ To
Lactic acid bacteria or Dough of bread is Toddy a traditional Microbes also ferment fish, bamboo shoot & soyabean
lactobacillus produce acids fermented by bakers drink of south is for food. Cheese are fermented since long years back &
that partially digest the milk yeast (saccharomyces fermented by different types of cheese is found on the basis of
protein & its small amount of cervisiae) fermenting sap from microbes used. Eg- large holes in swiss cheese is due
curd acts as inoculum/ palms. to more CO2 by propionibacterium sharmanii.
starter. This increases vit ‘Roquefort cheese’ is ripened by fungi which gives
B12 & checks disease flavour.
causing microbe in our
stomach.
Microbes in industrial products

✓ \•
Production is taken in large vessel called fermentors.

&
FERMENTED ANTIBIOTICS- CHEMICALS,ENZYMES & OTHER BIOACTIVE MOLECULES-
BEVERAGES- (Against life of disease causing microbes) its Acid producers —> aspergillus niger fungi for citric acid,
Brewers yeast discovery was a serendipity when alexander acetobacter aceti bact. For acetic acid, clostridium butylicum
ferments malted flemming was working on staphylococci bact. bact for butyric acid, lactobacillus bact for lactic acid.
cereals & fruit juices But that bact. Was not able to grow on the Lipases used in detergents to clear oil stains, bottled juices are
to produce ethanol. unwashed plate cause the release of cleared by pectinases & proteases. Streptokinase (produced by
Wine and beer are chemical from mould (penicillium notatum) & the bacteria streptococcus & modified by genetic engineering) is
produced without that chemical penicillin. Effective antibiotic used as clot buster for removing clots from blood vessels of
distillation, while was given by ernest chain & howard florey. patient undergone myocardial infarction leading to heart attack.
whisky, brandy & rum This was used to cure wounded American Cyclosporin A (bioactive molecule) produced by trichoderma
are produced by soldier in WW2. Those 3 were given nobel polysporum fungus & used as immunosuppressive agent in organ
distillation of the prize in 1945. Antibiotics help for curing transplantation. Statins produced by yeast monascus perpureus
fermented broth. plague, whooping cough(kaali khasi), is used as blood cholesterol lowering agent & it acts as
diptheria (gal ghotu), leprosy (kusht rog) completely inhibiting the enzyme responsible for synthesis of
which may kill millions of people. These were cholesterol.
also obtained by microbes.

Microbes in sewage treatment

Before disposal sewage (municipal waste water) is treated in sewage treatment plants (STP) to make it less
polluting & is done by heterotrophic bacteria naturally present in sewage which is carried out in 2 stage.

PRIMARY TREATMENT ÷

Initially floating debris is Grit is removed by

Primary sludge is Effluent from primary settling
removed by sequential → sedimentation. All solid
→ supernatant part of → tank is taken for secondary
filtration. settle form primary sludge.
the effluent treatment.

SECONDARY TREATMENT ÷

Primary effluent is passed Growth of aerobic Small amount of sludge is pumped Anaerobic microbes digest
in aeration tank & is microbes into floc (masses back in aeration tank as inoculum & the aerobic ones & release
of bact. Associated with →
→ →•
agitated mechanically & air remaining is turned into anaerobic CH4,HS,CO2 which can form
is pumped in it. fungal filament) sludge digesters (tanks) biogas as source of energy.

Effluent from secondary treatment is sent into rivers. The ministry of environment & forests has initiated ganga action plan &
yamuna action plan to make several plants & hence only treated sewage water is disposed in the river.

Microbes in production of biogas

The type of gas produced depends upon the microbes & organic substance utilised CH4 gas is produced by methanogens (specifically
methanobacterium) which feed on cellulosic material. These are found in anaerobic sludge or rumen of animals (digest cellulose)
hence dung js also used for generation kf biogas/gobar gas. The plant consists of concrete tank (10-15 ft deep) in which slurry ja fed &
cover which collects gases. The spent slurry may be used as manure. Biogas plants are more often in rural areas. This technology was
developed in india mainly due to efforts of Indian agricultural research institute (IARI) & khadi and village industries commission (KVIC)
 Microbes as biocontrol agents

I
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF PESTS & DISEASES-
cause insecticides pollute environment.
\
Use of biological method for controlling pest & plant disease

Bact. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is available in sachets which are mixed

Requires natura predation rather than chemicals. with water and sprayed on brassicas & fruit trees which goes inside
Organic farmers believe that biodiversity furthers butterfly caterpillar & toxin released by them kills it. Scientists have also
health i.e. mor landscape has more sustainable it introduced BT toxin genes into plants so that it is resistant to caterpillar.
is. Organic farmer uses system of check and Eg- Bt cotton.
balances in place of chemicals which kills both Fungus trichoderma is effective in protecting plant from several
useful & harmful life forms. i.e. the hosts or the pathogens.
food containing creatures may also kill. One BACULOVIRUSES- pathogens that attack insects and other arthropods
should be familiar with life forms that inhibit in whixh mainly belong to nuleopolyhedrovirus genus. These are excellent
field & their daily activity for perfect biocontrol candidates for species specific, narrow spectrum insecticide application
which reduces dependency on chemicals & have Zero effect on other organisms. It is specially desirable when
benificial insects are being conserved to aid in an overall integrated pest
management (IPM) Programme, or when ecologically sensitive area is
treated.

Microbes as biofertilisers

F
Biofertilisers are organisms that enrich
To prevent pollution

r
Mainly glomus genus of fungi forms
\ .
Many of cyanobacteria like Nostoc,
the nutrient quality of soil which may be mycorrhiza which absorbs P from soil & gives anabena, oscillatoria fix atmospheric
bact. , fungi, BGA. Eg- rhizobium fixes it to plant & plant shows resistance to root nitrogen. BGA adds fertility to soil. In
N2 being symbiotically associated while borne pathogens, tolerance to salinity & paddy fields cynobacteria serve as
azospirullum & azotobacter are free drought. important biofertilisers.
living.
NCERT diagrams for reference
 Biotechnology and its applications
Biotechnology deals with industrial scale production of biopharmaceuticals & biologicals using
genetically modified microbes, fungi, plants, animals.
3 critical research area of biotechnology -
1) providing best catalyst in form of improved organism / microbe or pure enzyme.
2) creating optimal condition through engineering for a catalyst to act.
3) downstream processing technology.

Biotechnological application in agriculture

v n v
THREE OPTIONS FOR INCREASING Genetically modified organism (GMO)- Bt- cotton
FOOD PRODUCTION- Kill insects like lepidopterans (tobacco
Whose genes have been altered by manipulation &
1) agro-chemical based agriculture. budworm, armyworm, coleopterans
it has made crops
2) organic culture. (beetles), dipterans (flies,mosquito). Bt
1) more tolerance to abiotic stresses
3) genetically engineered crop based bact. forms protein crystals during a
(cold,drought)
agriculture. phase which contain toxic insecticidal
2) reduced reliance on chemical pesticides.
Green revolution tripled the protein which exists as inactive
3) reduced post harvest loss
production but then also inadequate. protoxins. But as insect ingest it due to
4) increases efficiency of mineral usage by plants
Increased yields was partly due to alkaline pH of gut which solubilise
(prevents early loss of fertility)
improved crop variety but mainly crystal & make them active to bind with
5) enhanced nutritional value.
cause of management propactices & surface of midgut epithelium & create
Eg- GOLDEN RICE (rich in Vit A). Genetical
agro- chemicals (expensive & harmful pores cause swelling, lysis & death of
modification has been used to create tailor made
& also conventional breeding is not insect. (Choice of gene depends on
plants to supply alternative resources to industry.
enough productive). Hence use of crop cause Bt toxin are insect group
Eg- starch, fuels, pharmaceuticals.
genetically modified crop was a specific). The toxin is coded by a gene
Bt toxin produced by bacteria bacillus
solution. cryIAC named Cry. There are no. of
thuringiensis & when transferred to plants as Bt
toxin gene, gives resistance to insect (Bio- them, for eg- protein encoded by cryIAC
pesticide). Eg- Bt cotton, Bt corn, rice, tomato, & cryIIAB control cotton bollworms that
potato & soyabean. of cry IAB controls corn borer.

Pest resistant plants-

Nematodes mainly constitute parasites. A nematode meloidegyne icognitia infects the roots of tobacco plant & cause reduction in yield. To
prevent this infestation, novel strategy was adopted based on RNA interference (RNAi). Which is used as defence mechanism & takes
place in every eukaryotes & involves silencing of a specific mRNA due to a complementary dsRNA molecule that binds to & prevents
translation of the mRNA (silencing) the source of this complementary RNA could be from an infection by viruses having RNA genomes or
mobile genetic elements (transposons) that replicate via an RNA intermediate. Using agrobacterium vectors, nematode- specific genes
were introduced into host plant which produced both sense & antisense RNA in host which are complimentary to each other. Formed a
dsRNA that initiated RNAi (silenced mRNA of nematode) the sequence was that the parasite could not survive in a transgenic host
expressing specific interfering RNA. The transgenic plant therefore got itself protected from the parasite. (Novel mechanism*)

Biotechnological application in medicine

The recombinant therapeutics do not induce unwanted immunological responses as is common in case of
similar products isolated from non- human sources. At present, about 30 recombinant therapeutics have been
approved for human use the world over. In india - 12 marketed now.

v
v v

Genetically engineered insulin- Gene therapy- Molecular diagnosis-

Insulin (for curing adult onset It is an attempt to eliminate inborne hereditary Early diagnosis & understanding
diabetes) can’t be ingested orally disease i.e. a collection of methods which pathophysiology is crucial. Conventional
cause it get digested cause it is allows correction of gene defect in which method (serum, urine test) are not early
protein. Earlier it was extracted from genes (normal) are inserted in persons technique. Early diagnosis include rDNA
pancrease of slaughtered cattle & pig (defeated) cells/embryo which take over Tech., PCR, ELISA (enzyme linked immuno
but causes allergy, reaction to foreign function of non functional gene. sorbent assay). Presence of pathogen is
protein. Insulin consists of 2 short First clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to detected when symptoms occur but at that
polypeptide chains (A & B) that are a 4 year old girl with adenosine deaminase time concentration increased. But it can be
linked by disulphide bridges. In (ADA) Deficiency cause its crucial for immune recognised in low conc. By PCR. It is used to
mammals, insulin is synthesised as system to function & caused due to deletion of detect HIV, mutation in gene in suspected
pro hormone which contain extra gene coding for ADA. In some children, can be cancer patients.
stretch of C peptide (not found in cured by bone marrow transplant, in others A ssDNA / ssRNA, Tagged with a radioactive
mature). Main challenge for treated by enzyme replacement therapy molecule (probe) is allowed to hybridise to
production of insulin using rDNA (functional ADA is given as injection). 1st step its complementary DNA in a clone of cells
technology was getting in mature —> lymphocytes from blood of patient is grown followed by deletion using autoradiography.
form. In 1983, Eli lilly (american in vitro & functional ADA, cDNA (using The clone having mutated gene will hence
company) prepared 2 DNA Sequence retroviral vector) is then introduced & then set not appear on the photographic film cause
separately (corresponding A & B) & up is returned to patient & since these are not the probe will not have complementarity with
linked by disulphide bond, chains of immortal (cells) hence patient requires mutated gene. Elisa is based on antigen-
human insulin & introduced in periodic infusion. If gene isolate from marrow antibody interaction. Presence of antigen
plasmid of E. coli to produce insulin cells producing ADA is introduced into cells at (protein, glycoprotein) /antibody means
chains. early embryonic stages, it could be a presence of pathogen.
permanent cure.
 Transgenic animals
They have had their DNA manipulated to possess & express an extra (foreign gene). Trangenic rats, rabbit, pig, sheep, cow, fish
have been produced. Over 95% of all existing transgenic animals are mice. Reasons for modification:-

v v

Normal physiology & Study of disease Biological products

development To study how genes contribute to the Introduction of portion of DNA which
development of disease. Transgenic encodes for product is used. Eg- human
Study of how genes are regulated, animals serve as models for human protein (α- 1- antitrypsin) used to treat
affect normal function, disease so investigation of new emphysema & similarly for phenylketonuria
development. Eg- study of insulin treatments made possible. Eg of (PKU) & cystic fibrosis. In 1997, first
like growth factor. Also stuying the diseases models exist today- cancer, transgenic cow (rosie) produced human
result of introducing another gene cystic fibrosis, pheumatoid arthritis & protein (human alpha lactalbumin) ruch milk
that alters function of part. gene. alzheimers. (2-4gm per litre) & was nutritionally more
balanced for babies than natural.

v
v

Vaccine safety Chemical safety testing

Known as toxicity/safety testing & same as
Transgenic mice/ monkey are developed
testing toxicity of drugs. They carry genes
for testing safety of vaccine.
which make them more sensitive to toxic
Mice was used to test polio vaccine.
substance than non transgenic. They are then
exposed to toxic substance & effects thus
studied (allow us to obtain results in less
time.

Ethical issues

Indian govt. has set up organisation 200,000 varieties of rice in india (one of Patent extends to
such as GEAC (genetic engineering richest in world), 27 documented varieties of functional equivalents,
approval committee) which will basmati are grown in india. Reference of implying that other people
make decisions regarding validity of basmati is found in ancient texts, folklore selling basmati rice could
GM research & safety of introducing hence grown for centuries. In 1997, an be restricted by patent.
GMO for public services. american company got patent rights on Several attempts have
There are many problems with basmati rice through the US patent and also been made to patent
patent granted for the same & trademark office which allowed company to users products &
growing public anger that certain sell a new variety of basmati, in US, Abroad processes based on
companies are granted patents for but derived from indian farmers varieties. indian traditional herbal
products that have long been Indian basmati was crossed with semidwarf medicine. Eg- turmeric,
identified, used by farmers of varieties & claimed as an invention/novelty. neem.
specific region.

BIOPIRACY- use of bio-resources Traditional knowledge related Some nations are developing laws
by multinational company without to bio resources can be to prevent such unauthorised
proper authorisation from the exploited to develop modern exploitation.
countries/people concerned applications and can also be The indian parliament has recently
without compensatory payment used to save time, effort & cleared the second amendment of
(happens cause most industrialised expenditure during their the indian patents bill, that takes
nations are rich financially but lack commercialisation. such issues into consideration,
diversity & traditional knowledge & including patent terms emergency
underdeveloped world is rich in provisions & research &
biodiversity. development initiative.
NCERT Diagrams for reference
Biotechnology: principles and processes
Biotechnology deals with techniques of using live Definition by EFB (European federation of biotechnology)
organisms/enzymes producing products & processes which includes traditional as well as modern molecular
useful to humans. Eg- in-vitro fertilisation, biotech- the integration of natural science & organism,
synthesising gene, producing DNA vaccine , cells, parts therof & molecular analogues for products &
correcting defective gene. services.

Principles of biotechnology
2 core techniques that gave birth to modern biotechnology.

✓
✓

Genetic engineering Bioprocess engineering

Altering chemistry of DNA & RNA to introduce Maintenance of sterile (microbial free) condition
these into host organisms & thus changes in chemical engineering to enable growth of
phenotype of host. desired in large quantity for high production.

Traditional hybridisation technique (selection of plant DNA do not replicate itself but chromosome does cause it
and animal)- very often lead to inclusion & multiplication have specific DNA sequence called ORIGIN OF
of undesirable genes along with desirable. The REPLICATION (initiates replication) thus an alien DNA
technique of genetic engineering (creation of needs to be part of a chromosome & thus linked with
recombinant DNA (rDNA), gene cloning, gene transfer) origin of replication (ORI) & can replicate itself in the host
over comes this. organism which is termed as cloning.

First recombinant DNA (from salmonella typhimurium)

u v
Cohen & boyer in 1972 isolated The cut piece of DNA then linked with plasmid DNA of
antibiotic resistant gene by cutting Hence 3 steps of genetically
salmonella typhimurium which act as vectors i.e. transfer modifying an organism-
piece of DNA from other plasmid piece of DNA into host body. Linking of gene took place
(autonomously replicating circular) 1) identification of DNA with
via DMA ligase (join ends) & makes new plasmid in vitro desirable genes.
via molecular scissors (restriction known as rDNA & when transferred to E. coli (closely
enzymes) & thus responsible for 2) Introduction of it in host
related to salmonella) then it could replicate using the 3) maintenance of it in host &
conferring antibiotic resistance. new Host’s DNA polymerase enzyme & produce cloning of
Its plasmid is used to link with transfer of DNA to its progeny.
antibiotic resistant gene.
desired DNA.

TOOLS OF rDNA TECHNOLOGY

(I) Restriction enzymes

In 1963, 2 enzymes discovered
which restricted bacteriophage NAMING OF RESTRICTION ENZYMES- Restriction enzymes cut DNA STRAND
growth in E. coli. One added First letter is genus, second 2 letters for species of cell from a little away from centre of palindrome
methyl group while other cut which it was isolated. Eg- EcoRI comes from E coli RY13 ( R sites but b/w 2 bases on opposite
DNA. Latter one called denotes name of strain from which it is derived & roman no. strands which leaves single stranded
restriction endonuclease. Indicating order in which enzymes were isolated from strain. portion at end.
First restriction endonuclease Restriction enzymes belongs to large class called nucleases [Sticky ends over hanging stretches on
was Hind II (Characterised 5 (2 types endonuclease & exonuclease) each strand - named cause forms H
years later) it cut DNA at Exonuclease remove nucleotides from ends, endonuclease bond with counter]
particular point of a specific cut or remove at specific position. When cut by same restriction enzyme,
sequence of 6 base pair (called Each restriction endonuclease functions by inspecting the DNA fragments have same kind of
recognition sequence for Hind length of a DNA sequence and then binds to DNA & cut each sticky ends & can be joined by DNA
II.) today we know 900 restriction 2 strands in sugar phosphate backbone. Ligase. & unless one cuts vector and
enzymes from 230 strains of Each restriction endonuclease recognise recognises source DNA with same restriction
bacteria & each recognise specific palindrome nucleotide sequence (same from either enzyme, recombinant vector cannot be
different recognition sequences. side eg- MALAYALAM). made.

SEPARATION & ISOLATION OF DNA FRAGMENTS (produced via endonuclease)-

By gel electrophoresis cause DNA Fragments are negatively charged & moves towards anode in application of electric field through
matrix or medium (most common is agarose which is natural polymer from sea weeds) they get separated according size through sieving
effect providedby agarose gel.
(Smaller the fragment farther it moves). Bright orange coloured DNA Fragments!. The fragments are visible after staining from ethidium
bromide followed by exposure of UV rays cause pure DNA is visible light.
Segments are cut from gel & extracted from gel piece (step called elution) & they are used in recombinant DNA by joining with cloning
vectors. EcoRI cuts DNA b/w bases G & A if the sequence GAATTC is present in DNA.
 (II) Cloning vectors

Bacteriophages because of high no. Per cell have high copy no. Of their genome within bacteria cells. Some plasmid
have 1 or 2 copy per cell & some have 15-100 copy per cell. We can multiply no. Equal to copy no. Of plasmid or
bacteriophage by linking it to DNA. Features required to facilitate cloning into a vector are:

ORIGIN OF REPLICATION- CLONING SITES VECTORS FOR CLONING

Sequence from where To link alien DNA, vector needs to have very few (single) GENES IN PLANTS & ANIMALS
replication starts & if one recognition sites for commonly used restriction enzyme
wants many copies of cause many leads to many fragments & thus complicates Agrobacterium tumifaciens
target DNA it should be gene cloning. Ligation of alien DNA is carried out at a a pathogen of several dicot
cloned in vector where restriction site present in one of the 2 antibiotic resistance plants is able to deliver a
origin support high no. genes. piece of DNA known as T-
Copy. Eg- We can ligate alien DNA at BamHI site of tetracycline DNA to transform normal
resistance gene in vector pBR322. The recombinant plant cell into tumor &
plasmids will loose tetracycline resistance due to insertion direct to produce
of foreign DNA but can still be selected out from non- chemicals required by
recombinant ones by plating the transformant on pathogen but these has
tetracycline containing medium. The transformants on been modified into a
ampicillin containing medium are then transferred to cloning vector & is not
SELECTABLE MARKER pathogenic but use
tetracycline medium. There recombinant will grow in
Helps in identifying & ampicillin containing medium but not on later. But non mechanism to deliver gene
eliminating non recombinants will grow on the medium containing both the of our interest into a
transformants & antibiotics. In this case, one antibiotic resistance gene variety of plants. Its Ti
selectively permitting helps in selecting transformants whereas the other plasmid is used as cloning
growth of transformants antibiotic resistance gene gets inactivated due to insertion vector.
[transformation - piece of of alien DNA & helps in selection of recombinants which Similarly retrovirus in
DNA in host bacteria] requires simultaneous plating on two plates having animals have ability to
genes encoding different antibiotics. Thus alternative selectable markers transform normal cells into
resistance to antibiotics have been developed which differentiate recombinants cancerous cells but now
such as ampicillin, from non recombinants on the basis of their ability to they have also been
chloramphenicol, produce a colour in the presence of chromogenic disarmed and are now
tetracycline or kanamycin, substrate. used to deliver desirable
etc. are useful selectable In this a recombinant DNA is inserted in coding sequence genes in animal cells.
markers for E. coli. Normal of enzyme β- galactosidase which results into inactivation Once a gene/DNA fragment
E. coli do not carry of gene for synthesis of this enzyme & called has been ligated into
resistance against these INSERTIONAL INACTIVATION. suitable vector it is
antibiotics. Presence of chromogenic substance -> blue colour -> transferred into bacteria,
plasmid has no insert (presence of insert -> insertional plant, animal host (where it
inactivation of B- galactosidase -> no colour —> multiplies).
recombinant colonies).

(II) Cloning vectors (for transformation with rDNA)

DNA is hydrophilic (can’t enter cell membrane) hence for it bacteria cell must be competent & is done by treating cell with divalent
cation (Ca2+) —> increases efficiency with which DNA enters through pores in its cell wall.
rDNA thus can be forced by incubating cells with rDNA on ice followed by placing them briefly at 42°C (heat shock) and then
putting them back on ice. This enables bacteria to take up rDNA.
MICRO-INJECTION (another method)- rDNA directly injected into nucleus of animal cell
BIOLISTICS/GENE GUN (For plant cells)- plants cells are bombarded with high velocity micro-particles of gold, tungsten coated
with DNA.
DISARMED PATHOGEN VECTOR- allowed to infect a cell. ( transfer rDNA in host).

PROCESSES OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

(I) isolation of the (II) cutting of DNA at (III) amplification of gene of interest
genetic material (DNA) specific locations using PCR (polymerase chain reaction)
Many impurities are found in DNA Restriction enzymes digestion In PCR Many copies of gene/ DNA of interest are
(RNA, Protein, polysaccharides, are performed by incubating synthesised in vitro using sets of primers. (Small
lipids) hence to make it pure cell pure DNA with restriction at chemically synthesised oligo nucleotides that are
is treated with lysozyme (bact.), optimal condition. complimentary to regions of DNA) & DNA
cellulase(plant cells), Electrophoresis is employed to Polymerase which extends primers using
chitinase(fungus), ribonuclease check progression of nucleotides provided in reaction & genomic DNA
(for RNA), protease (for protein). restriction enzyme digestion & as template.
Pure DNA precipitates after process is repeated with vector Repeated replication—> segment of DNA can be
addition of chilled ethanol (fine DNA also. amplified to billion times i.e. 1b copies & is
threads in suspension) (genes Cut out gene of interest + cut achieved by use of thermostable DNA
are located on long DNA vector —> mixed + ligase is Polymerase (isolated from bacteria thermus
interwined with protein such as added —> rDNA is formed. aquaticus) & active for high temperature
histones) denaturation of ds DNA.
Amplified fragment can now be used to ligate
with a vector for further cloning.
(IV) insertion of (V) obtaining foreign gene product (VI) downstream processing
rDNA into host cell In almost all recombinant technology, ultimate aim is to
get desirable protein hence there is need for rDNA to be After completion of the
(Need to make cell
expressed. (Foreign gene gets expressed under biosynthetic stage,
competent)
appropriate conditions). separation & purification
If rDNA bears gene for
After cloning & having optimum condition, large are done before marketing.
resistance to antibiotic
production is needed. If any protein encoding gene is The product has to be
(eg- ampicillin) is
expressed in a heterologous host. It is called a formulated with suitable
transferred into E. coli,
recombinant protein. Cells may be cultured in lab but high preservatives & need to
the host becomes
yields multiplies in a continuous culture system where in undergo thorough clinical
transformed into
the used medium is drained out from one side while fresh trials as in case of drugs.
ampicillin resistant cells.
medium is added from other side to maintain the cells in Strict quality control testing
On spreading them at
their physiologically most active log/exponential phase. for each product is also
agar plate containing
BIOREACTORS- used for large production where required.
ampicillin then only
100-1000L vol of culture can be prepared. These are The downstream processing
transformants lived rest
vessels in which raw materials are biologically converted and quality control testing
die. Hence one is able to
into specific products using microbial plant, animal or vary from product to
select transformed cell in
human cells & provide optimal condition. product.
presence of ampicillin.
Hence ampicillin Stirring type bioreactor —> most common which is
resistance gene here is cylindrical with curved base for mixing. Stirrer facilitated
called selectable marker. even mixing of O2 availability throughout reactor, it have
an agitator system, O2 delivery system, foam control
system, temp. Control system, pH control system &
sampling ports so that small volumes of culture can be
withdrawn periodically.
NCERT Diagrams for reference

Sequence identified
by EcoRI
 Organisms & populations
ORGANISM & ITS ENVIRONMENT-
Ecology at organismic level is essentially physiological ecology which tells us about the adaptation. The variation in season due to
motion of sun & precipitation causes formation of different biomes such as desert, rain forest & tundra and local/regional
variations in biome lead to various habitat.
What causes variation in habitat:
1) Abiotic factors- temp., water, light, soil
2) Biotic factors- pathogens, parasite, predators, competitors of organisms.
Niche is the functional role of organism in system, range of conditions it can control or resources it utilise.

Water
Temperature
For aquatic org. Ph of water become important.
(Most imp factor) temp. Decrease as Salinity- conc. Of salt measured in parts per
receeding away from equator. It thousand
affects kinetics of enzymes in the Inland water- <5
metabolic reaction. Sea water- 30-35
C S
Eurythermal- can survive in variety of Hypersaline lagoon- >100
temp. Euryhaline- tolerate wide range of salinity.
Stenothermal- restricted to a narrow Stenohaline- tolerate narrow range of salinity.
range of temp. Many fresh water fishes cannot live in sea due to
osmotic problem.

Major abiotic factors

v v

Light Soil
Quality of different soil varies upon climate, weathering
For photosynthesis & flowering (photoperiodism) in
process, transported or sedimentary, how soil deviation
plants. Some plants require low light because they
occurs. Soil comp., grain size determine water holding
are adapted to canopied sheads. In animals they use
capacity. PH, mineral richness, topography determine
diurnal & seasonal variation in light intensity &
vegetation. Similarly in aqua-sphere the sediment
duration as cues for timing their foraging,
characteristics often determine the type of benthic animals
reproductive & migrating activity.
that can thrive there.

Conform
Regulate They cannot keep their internal environment
Some org. Maintain constant body temp. & constant. 99% of all are conformers for eg- in
osmoregulation(by physiological & aquatic animals, their temp. & osmoregulation
behavioural changes) . Eg- birds, mammals, e > depends upon surrounding environment. Eg-
few invertebrates. In hot climate we sweat shrews, hummingbirds. They have not evolved
which causes cooling & in cold we shiver. because of high energy requirements.
Plants don’t have such mechanism. Partial regulators regulate but only over a limited
range but then they conform.

Major abiotic factors

u
✓
Suspend
Migrate
Temporary avoiding stress conditions to Bact., fungi & lower plants form spores to
hospitality. Eg- in winters keolado national handle unfavourable condition. Higher plants
park (bharatpur) in rajasthan host form seeds which enter dormancy. Animals
thousands of siberian crane & migratory like bear go hibernation & fish, snail enter
birds. aestivation and some zooplankton enter
diopause, a stage of suspended development.
 Adaptations
→
Attribute of the
a -
ADAPTATION ADAPTATIONS IN ALLENS RULE- Symptoms of altitude sickness are nausea
organism DESERT PLANTS-Thick fatigue and heart palpitations which is
OF KANGAROO mammals of colder
(morphological, cuticle, sunken overcome by adapting i.e. more Hb count,
RAT IN NORTH climate have short
physiological, stomata, CAM increase in RBC Count, decreased affinity of
AMERICAN ear & limbs to
behavioural) photosynthetic Hb, increased breathing rate.
DESERTS- fulfil minimise heat loss.
eg- migration. pathway which enables Another example is of desert lizard which
water needs by Seals have fat layer
Many stomata open at night. bask in sun to maintain body temperature
fat oxidation in called blubber that
adaptations are Eg- opuntia have no i.e. a behavioural adaptation. Some
which H2O is by acts as insulator.
evolved and leaves (thorn) & organism may also burry under ground to
product,
genetically photosynthesis is done escape the surface heat. Some fishes thrive
concentrate
fixed. by flattened stem. in antarctic water with temp. Below 0°C.
urine.

Populations
Population attributes Population growth
Natality & immigration contribute to an increase in population
Group of individual resulting from asexual reproduction is density & mortality & emigration to a decrease.
also population for ecology. It is the population that natural Natality- no. Of births during a given period that are added to
selection operator to evolve the desired traits. Population initial density.
is a group of people that compete for similar resources & Mortality- no. Of deaths
potentially interbreed. Immigration- out to into the habitat under consideration
A population have attributes but organism doesn’t. An Emigration- no. Of individual who left the habitat under
individual may have birth or death but population has birth consideration.
rate & death rate refer to per capita births & deaths i.e.
expressed as increase or decrease in no.’s. Another
attribute is sex ratio(eg- 60% female & 40% male).
Growth models- we can learn from nature how to control
If age distribution is plotted for population the resulting
population growth.
structure is age pyramid(shown in diagrams). If there are
20 dog & 8 are borned hence birth rate is 8/20= 0.4 puppy 1) EXPONENTIAL GROWTH- when resource is unlimited then
per dog. population density become enormous in less time showed by
darwin in elephant & cheek
POPULATION DENSITY (N)- no. Of people per unit area. Increase/ decrease in N during unit time period t = dN/dt
Population size and need not only ne studied in no.’s
although total no. Is most appropriate method but it is
(Integral form)
either difficult or meaningless in some cases. (Eg- banyan
tree & parthenium hysterophorus. In those cases, the
percent cover or biomass is good measure. In infinite
population cases relative density works same as absolute
density.
The tiger census in our national parks and tiger resources In 1981 r in india was 0.0205
is often based on pug marks & fecal pellets.
2) LOGISTIC GROWTH- when the resource in the
habitat are finite it limits growth and that population
shows initially a lag phase followed by acceleration &
deceleration & finally an asymptote when population
Life history variation density reaches the carrying capacity.
Population evolve to maximise their reproductive fitness It is also called as verhulst-pearl logistic growth in
and achieve their reproductive fitness & achieve their which fittest survives.
position in darwinian fitness i.e. (higher value) i.e. Considered more realistic one
selection.
Organisms breeding once in life- bamboo, pacific salmon
fish
Breed many times- most birds & mammals
Produce large no. Of small sized offsprings- oysters,
pelagic fishes
Small no. Of large sized offsprings- birds & mammals
Predation

Competition
Population interaction Parasitism
None of single species can only survive in isolation, it need to interact. Commensalism
Mutualism

Predation
MERITS OF PREDATION
> transfer to higher levels the energy fixed by plants. Eg- WAYS USED BY PREY TO ESCAPE FROM PREDATION
sparrow eating a seed. > insect, frog get caumouflaged to avoid being detected.
> they keep prey population under control otherwise it > some are poisonous & often been rejected by predators.
will rise enormously. > Monarch butterfly is distasteful because of chemical that he
Prickly pear cactus was introduced in australia in 1920 aquires during caterpillar stage by feeding on a poisonous
(early) causing havoc by rising population because weed. Nearly 25% of all insects are phytophagous.
nopredator is available. Afterward it was controlled by > thorns in acacia & cacti, killing chemicals in plants,
moth. poisonous cardiac glycosides in calotropis, variety of
> maintain species diversity in community. chemical substance (nicotine, caffeine, quinine, strychnine,
> controls the inter-specific competition i.e. make it less. opium,etc.) in plants to defend from predators.
Eg- in american pacific coast, all starfish removed and Herbivores/plants face more competition than carnivores.
hence 10 species of invertebrates became extinct within
a year.
 Competition
Interspecific competition is a Competition can also take place Abingdon tortoise in Competition also gets borned due
potent force in organic when there is abundant galapagos island became to competitive release i.e.
evolution but it can also occur resource. Hence competition is a extinct after a decade dominant species expands as
b/w organisms species for process in which the fitness of after goats were other competitive species is
same resource. Eg- South one species (measured in ‘r’ introduced, due to great removed. Eg- in rocky sea coasts
American lakes, fishes & terms the intrinsic rate of browsing efficiency of of scotland, superior— barnacle
flamingoes both compete for increase) is significantly lower in goats. balanus, excludes and smaller—
zooplankton. presence of another species. barnacle chathamalus.

GAUSE’S COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE- competitive species cannot coexist together but it is only possible when resource is
limited. It fails in the aspect that they point out that species facing competition might evolve mechanism to promote co-existence rather
than exclusion. Eg- resource planning (Mc arthur showerd 5 closely related species of warbler living on same tree were able to avoid
competiotion by behavioural changes in foraging activity.

Parasitism
Many parasites are host specific-in such a way that they both tend to co-evolve i.e. if host develop mechanism to resist parasite
need to evolve in such a way to counter it.
SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS IN PARASITES-
1) absence if unnecessary sense organs
2) presence of adhesive / suckers.
3) loss of digestive system
4) high reproductive capacity.
Their life cycle involve 1 or 2 intermediate host or vectors.
Eg- human liver fluke (trematode parasite) depends on snail & a fish. Malaria parasite require mosquito vector.
Most parasites harm host & reduce its population density, they might render the host more vulnerable to predation by making it
physically weak. Parasites feeding on ext. surface - ectoparasites. Eg- lice on human, ticks on dogs, copecods on marine fish,
cuscuta on plant which derive nutrition from plant due to absence of chlorophyll.
Female mosquito is not a parasite although it needs our blood for reproduction.
Endoparasites have much complex life cycle.
Brood parasitism in cuckoo (koel) & crow i.e. due to evolution of similar looking eggs. Cuckoo lay eggs in crows nest and he
incubate them during breeding season (spring to summer)

Commensalism Mutualism
Examples- (+,0) Lichen = algae/cynobacteria + fungi, mycorrhiza = fungi + root of higher plant
> orchid growing as an B/w plant and pollinator (needs nectar) it should be safe guarded by cheators.
epiphyte on mango branch. Evolution:- in many species of fig tree pollination is done by only wasp and the tree provides fruit
> barnacles growing on for oviposition of wasp & its seed for nourishing the larvae of wasp.
back of whale. Orchids show a bewildering diversity of floral patterns many of which have evolved to attract the
> cattle erget remove right pollinator insect (bees & bumble bees) and ensure guaranteed pollination by it. Not orchids
insects from grazing cattle. offer rewards. The mediterranean orchid ophrys employs ‘sexual deceit’ to get pollination done
> clown fish near sea by a species of bee. One petal of its flower bears an uncanny resemblance to the female of the
anemone with stinging bee in size,colour & markings. The male bee is attracted to what it perceives as a female
tentacles being protected. pseudocopulates with the flower and during that it is dusted with pollen. When the same bee
pseudocopulates with another flower it transfers pollen to it and thus pollinates flower. Here co-
evolution works as a key!
NCERT Diagrams for reference
 Ecosystem
Functional unit of nature where organisms react
Many ecologist regard entire biosphere as global ecosystem.
It is of two types - terrestrial (forest,grassland,etc.) and aquatic (estury,wetland).
Crop fields and aquarium can also be considered as man made ecosystem.

Ecosystem- structure & function

Vertical distribution of different species occupying different The decomposers- fungi , bacteria, flagellates
levels is called stratification. (bottom of pond).
Component of ecosystem function as unit when we consider: Conversion of inorganic to organic material by
1) productivity plants due to radiant energy and it is consumed
2) decomposition by zooplankton which are decomposed and this
3) energy flow cycle continues. The loss of energy is in the
4) nutrient cycling form of heat.
Eg- a pond where abiotic components like water, soil & solar
input, cycle of temperature, day length regulate rate of function.

Productivity
Rate of biomass production
in P.P. / time
v v
Primary production Secondary productivity
Amount of biomass/organic matter produced per unit area by
plants which is measured in weight (gm-2)/energy(kcal m-2) Rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.
GROSS PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY(GPP)- rate of production of Annual net primary productivity of whole biosphere is 170
matter by plants. Some GPP is also used in respiration by plants. billion tons (dry weight) of organic matter. Oceans occupy
NET PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY (NPP)- GPP - RESPIRATORY 70% of earth’s surface but their productivity is 55 billion
LOSSES(R) i.e. available biomass for heterotrophs. tons cause light do not reach bottom.

Decomposition
Earthworm is farmers friend because it decomposes as well as looses soil.
It simply means breakdown of dead remains constitute detritus which is raw material for decomposition which
involves some steps.

MINERALISATION-
FRAGMENTATION- LEACHING- CATABOLISM- HUMIFICATION-
I.e. degradation of humus by microbe to
Detritivores Water soluble Fungal enzyme & It is to accumulate
release inorganic nutrient.
breakdown detritus inorganic bacteria convert dark coloured
Decomposition requires O2 & its rate is
in smaller particles. nutrients go it into inorganic amorphous
controlled by composition of detritus &
down in soil nutrient. substance (humus)
climatic factors. Rate is slow when
horizon and Humification and which is rich in
detritus contain lignin & chitin but is fast
get mineralisation nutrient & highly
when it contain N2 & H2O soluble sugars.
precipitated occur during resistant to microbial
Temp. & soil moisture affect action of
as decomposition action & undergoes
microbes. Warm & moist environment is
unavailable in soil. decomposition at an
favourable for it and anaerobiosis is
salts. extremely slow rate.
disastrous for it because formation of
organic material takes place.

Energy flow (10% energy law)

Of the incident solar radiation Carnivores/sec. consumers can be primary Omnivores like crow & cockroach
less than 50% of it is (feed on herbivore) or secondary (feed on make FC as food web (by
photosynthetically active primary carnivore). interconnection). Based on source of
radiation (PAR). Plants capture GFC (Grazing food chain)- grass nutrition animal gets its trophic level
2-10% of PAR. (producer) —> goat (primary consumer) — (places in food chain)
Energy flow follows 1st law of > man (secondary consumer) —> Each trophic level has a certain mass
thermodynamics but doesn’t The detritus food chain (DFC) Begins with of living material at a particular time
follow 2nd. Death of organism is dead organic matter made up of called as the standing crop which is
beginning of detritus food chain/ decomposers/saprotrophs. In aquatic measured as mass of living
web. The primary consumers will ecosystem GFC is major conduit of energy organism(biomass) or the no. In a unit
be herbivores and common flow but in terrestrial ecosystem in place area. Measurement of biomass in fry
herbivores in aquatic ecosystem of GFC, DFC is present. weight is more accurate.
are molluscs.
 Ecological pyramids
>Relationship expressed in terms of number, biomass, energy gives out a pyramid.
> no generation is preferred in concept.
> species like sparrow are present on more than 1 trophic level which is a limitation of it.
> generally all pyramids are up right but it is wrong in some cases like in sea ecosystem {inverted}
> energy pyramid can never be inverted as it is lost in form of heat and each bar in the pyramid indicates amount of
energy in a given time/annually/unit area.
LIMITATIONS:-
1) species present at more than 1 trophic level
2) a very simple food chain is considered which is not real.
3) saprophytes didn’t got place in the pyramid.

Ecological succession
The adaptations/ changes lead finally to a community that is near equlibrium with the environment
& that is called a climax community.
The predictable change in species composition of a given area i.e. decline or increase numerous is
called ecological succession and the entire sequence of communities are called sere (S).
The individual transitional communities are termed seral stages or seral communities.
Succession is a process that start in an area where no living organism live.
In it the type & no. Of animal & decomposers also change.
Human induced disturbances/interference can result into earlier or progressive stage.
v v
Primary succession Secondary succession
If the area is that where no life existed then it is known as If the area is that where life existed before then
primary succession. Eg- newly cooled lava, bare rock, newly it is called secondary succession. Eg- farm
created pond, reservoir. The process is slow & soil is lands burned or cut forests, flooded lands. It is
needed and it is also based on climate. It takes many years faster because of soil.
to form fertile soil.

Succession of plants
v
v
HYDRARCH SUCCESSION
XERARCH SUCCESSION
> hydric to mesic condition.
> xeric to mesic condition.
>Species invade a bare area are called pioneer
> explained at back i.e. phytoplankton —>
species.
rooted submerged plant —> rooted floating
>lichen secrete acid on rock to dissolve and forms
angiosperms—> free floating plants
soil. Bryophytes hold some of soil & replaced by
higher plants & forest is made.

In secondary succession climax is reached more quickly & depends on many factors like availability of water,
condition of soil, etc.
Climax in plant succession is mesic.
See diagram!

Nutrient cycling
> amt. of nutrient present in soil at a given time is known as standing state. Movement of nutrient elements
through various components of ecosystem is called nutrient cycling/biochemical cycles which are 2 types
1) SEDIMENTARY CYCLE- its reservoir is earth’s crust (eg- phosphorus sulphur cycle).
2) GASEOUS CYCLE- reservoir is present in atmosphere (N2,C cycle)
Function of reservoir is to meet with the deficit which occurs due to imbalance in the rate of influx & efflux.

Ecosystem- carbon cycle Ecosystem- phosphorus cycle

> C constitutes 49% of dry wt. of organism i.e. next to > used by many animals to make shells,
H2O bones, teeth.
> 71% of total carbon is dissolved in oceans. > natural reservoir is rock which contain (P)
> atmosphere contain 1% of total carbon. in form of (PO4^3- )phosphates.
> oceanic reservoir regulates amt. of CO2 in > rocks are weathered —> phosphate
atmosphere & fossil fuel also represent a reservoir of dissolve in soil solution —> plants absorb it —
carbon. > get eaten by herbivore —> get decomposed
> 4*10^13 kg of carbon is lost to sediments & by phosphate solubilising bacteria.
removed from circulation

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN C & P CYCLE

1) atmospheric inputs of phosphorus thr’ rainfall are much smaller than carbon inputs.
2) gaseous exchange of phosphorus b/w organism & environment is negligible.
 Ecosystem ser vices

v v v
the products of ecosystem processes Robert constanza put an Out of total cost soil
are named as ecosystem services. For average price tag of US formation accounts 50%,
eg- healthy forest ecosystem purify air, $ 33 trillion a year which recreation & nutrient
water, mitigate droughts & floods, cycle is nearly twice value of cycling are less than 10%
nutrients, generate fertile soil, provide global gross national each & climate regulation &
wildlife habitat, maintain biodiversity, product (GNP) i.e. US $ habitat for wildlife are
pollinate crops, provide storage site for 18 trillion. about 6% each.
carbon and also provide aesthetic,
cultural & spiritual values.
NCERT Diagrams for reference
 Biodiversity & conservation
More than 20,000 species of ants. 3,00,000 species of beetles, 28,000 species of
fishes & nearly 20,000 species of orchids are present.

Biodiversity
The term biodiversity was given by edward wilson

v v v

Genetic diversity Species diversity Ecological diversity

Eg- western ghat have Eg- on ecosystem level india have
Single species may have high
more amphibians than greater ecosystem diversity than
diversity genetically.
eastern ghat. scandinavian country like norway.
Eg- rauwolfia vomitoria in terms
of potency & conc. Of
reserpine, 50,000 different rice
strains, 1000 variety of mango.

How many species are there on earth & how many species in india?
* according to international union for conservation of nature & natural resources (IUCN 2004) There are more than 1.5
M species of animal & plant still described.
* more species are need to be describe in tropical than temperate zone of insects.
* extreme estimates- 20-50 million total species in world
* according to robert may - 7 million global species.
* total species (100%) = 70% animal + not more than 22% plants (with fungi)
* total animal species (100%) = 70% insects i.e. out of every 10 animal 7 are insect.
* no. Of fungi species > fishes + amphibia + reptile + mammal
* species of prokaryotes are not known because they are not easily culturable.
* india holds 2.4% of worlds land area & shares 3.1% of species diversity i.e. why india holds place in 12 mega diversity
countries of world.
* we have 45,000 plant species & 90,000 animal species i.e. there is hope of 1 lakh plant species, 3 lakh animal species
in india.
* this is a little impossible task as species extinct before their discovery.

Patterns of biodiversity
v v

Latitudinal gradient Species-area relationship

Most well known pattern of biodiversity. Alexander von humboldt (german naturalist)
> tropics (latitudinal range of 23.5°N to 23.5°S) harbour told that species richness increase on
more species than temperate or polar areas. increasing the range of area but to a certain
> columbia (near equator) have 1400 species of birds & limit hence the graph is rectangular
New York (at 41°N) have 105 species & green land (71°N) hyperbola.
only 56 species. On a logarithmic scale, the relationship is a
> india (being tropical) have 1200 species of birds. straight line described by equation.
> tropical region like equator have 10x the diversity in LogS = logC + ZlogA where S = species
temperate region like USA midwest. richness, C= y intercept + z = slope of line
> amazon rain forest species = 40,000 plant sp. + 3000 (regression coefficient), A= area
fish + 1300 birds + 427 mammals + 427 amphibians + 378 Z lies b/w 0.1 & 0.2 for any area(region) or
reptiles + 1,25,000 invertebrates + 2 million insect sp. taxonomic group but if ares is very large the
have to be found & discovered yet. graph is more steeper i.e. Z lies b/w 0.6 to 1.2
REASON FOR HIGH DIVERSITY IN TROPICAL REGION: for eg- frugivorous birds/mammals in tropical
forest(continent) the slope is found to be 1.15.
1) tropical region have
been undisturbed
since long.

2) tropical environment
is less seasonal & more
constant/predictable
which supports niche.

3) more solar
energy is available
on tropical area.
 The importance of species diversity to the ecosystem
-
L v
It was belie that community David tilman proved this in his Paul ehrlich exampled
with more species is more plot experiment and also that loss of key
stable i.e. not show too much showed that increased species from
variation in productivity diversity leads to higher ecosystem can affect
resistant/resilient to productivity. Plots with higher severely to ecosystem
disturbance & should resist species hence less year to by his aeroplane, rivets
invasion by alien species. year variation in biomass. example.

Loss of biodiversity
v v
Colonisation in tropical pacific islands led to extinction of 2000 species of birds (native). Loss in biodiversity
IUCN Red list (2004) showed the extinction of 784 species (338 vertebrates + 359 may lead to-
invertebrates + 87 plants) in last 500 years.
Eg- dodo (mauritius), quagga (africa), thylacine (australia), steller’s sea cow (russia), 1) decline in plant
[ Bali,Javan,caspian] —> subspecies of tiger. production.
In last 20 years 27 species got extinct & amphibians are more reliable to extinct. 2) lowered resistance to
15,50l species worldwide are facing threat of extinction. environmental
12% of total birds, 23% mammal, 32% amphibians, 31% gymnosperms face the threat of perturbations.
extinction. 3) increased variability
Many years ago 5 mass extinction occurred and 6th episode is going on with 100 to 1000 in plant production,
x faster rate and by this 1/2 of species will extinct in 100 years. water use, pest &
disease cycles.

Causes of biodiversity losses (The evil quatret)

v v v v

HABITAT LOSS & OVEREXPLOITATION- ALIEN SPECIES INVASION- COEXTINCTION-

FRAGMENTATION- (When need change to Causes extinction of indeginous Species
Once tropical forests greed) species like species. dependent on
covered 14% of area & stellers’s sea cow, Introduction of nile perch in extinct species
now 6% is also not left. passenger pigeon victoria lake (east africa) led to 200 also get extinct.
Amazon forest —> extinct in 500 years due species extinctionof cichlid fish. Eg- coevolved
lungs of planet. to over exploitation & Weeds like parthenium, lantana, plant pollinator
Amazon is cleared for now marine fishes eicchornia also acts as alien mutualism.
growing soyabean, & became endangered species. Recently african catfish
grazing yards. due to their over clarias gariepinus for agricultural
Pollution also plays role exploitation for purposes poses threat to
in it. commercial use. indeginous catfishes in our rivers.

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

Why should we conserve biodiversity?

V V V
NARROWLY UTILITARIAN ARGUMENTS- BROADLY UTILITARIAN ARGUMENTS- ETHICAL ARGUMENTS-
Are obvious & direct economic benefits. Biodiversity plays important role in many Its our moral duty to
> directly food (cereal,etc) firewood, fibre, ecosystem services that nature protect every creature
construction material industrial product provides. whether it is
(tannin,lubricant, dye,resin, perfume) medicines. > amazon produces 20% of total O2 economically beneficial
> 25% of drugs come from plant & 25,000 species which is priceless. to us or not.
of plants have medicinal importance. Resources > pollinators (without them there is no
put in bio prospecting (exploring molecular, fruit & seed)
genetic species & products of economic > joy of visiting places (mountains) &
importance) nation can get enormous benefits. pleasures, etc.
 How do we conserve biodiversity?
To conserve normally like tigers we use in situ (on site) conservation &
to conserve endangered species we use ex situ (off site) conservation.
✓ v

In situ conservation Ex situ conservation

For maximum protection certain (biodiversity hotspots) regions Animals kept in special care for eg- zoological
were chosen with high species & high degree of endemism parks, botanical garden, wildlife safari parks.
(species confined to an area and not found anywhere else). New gametes of threatened species can be
Initially 25 hotspots are identified but 9 are more added to the preserved in fertile conditions for long period using
list =34. cryopreservation techniques, eggs can be fertilised
Hotspot are the regions of accelerated habitat loss. in vitro, plants cultured in tissue culture, seeds can
In india there are - western ghats, sri lanka, indoburma & be stored in seed banks, commercially important.
himalayas hotspots. Earth summit held at rio de janeiro in 1992 called
All hotspots cover less than 2% of earth’s land & their nations to take appropriate measures for
protection can decrease mass extinction by 30%. biodiversity conservation & sustainable utilisation.
India have 14 biosphere reserves, 90 national parks & 448 World summit held in johannesburg (south africa) in
wildlife sanctuaries. 2002 on sustainable development where 190
In india, in many cultures tracts of forests were set aside and all countries pledged to decrease loss of biodiversity
the trees & wild life within were venerated & given protection. by 2010.
Such sacred grooves are found in khasi & jaintia hills in
meghalaya, aravalli hills of rajasthan, western ghat regions of
karnataka & maharashtra & the sarguja, chanda & bastar areas
of madhya pradesh.
In meghalaya the sacred grooves are the last refugees for a
large no. Of rare & threatened plants.
 Environmental issues
POLLUTION- undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological characteristics
of air, land, water or soil & agents that bring that change are known as pollutants.
Indian govt. passed environment protection act in 1986.

Air pollution & control

Air pollutants cause Smoke stacks of ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR- SCRUBBER- According to central
reduction of growth & thermal power Remove 99% of particulate matter Remove gas pollution control board
yield of crops & cause plant, smelters & from thermal power plant. like sulphur (CPCB), Particulate size
premature death of other industries It have electrode wires maintained dioxide 2.5 micrometers or less
plants. Harmful effect release particulate at many 1000V. They produce (SO2) in diameter (PM 2.5)
depends upon conc. Of & gaseous air corona that release electron. Causes breathing/lung
pollutant, duration of pollutants with N2 & Electron stick to dust particles problems/inflammation
exposure & organism. O2 which are to be giving them -ve charge. Collecting in humans.
filtered. aplates are grounded & attract the
charged dust particles.
Velocity of air b/w plates should be
low so that particles fall on plate.

Use of lead free petrol & catalytic converter is Air (prevention & control of pollution) Noise causes sleeplessness,
good against pollution. act came into force in 1981 but was increased heartbeat, stress
In catalytic converter, platinum, palladium, amended in 1987. Noise causes altered breathing. Low horn in
rhodium is used as catalyst which convert psychological disorder i.e. why it is also school & hospital premises, low
unburnt hydrocarbon into CO2 + H2O & CO , an air pollutant. 150 dB sound (jet plane/ sound of crackers, loud speaker
NO(nitric oxide) into CO2 & N2 Respectively. rocket) may impaire hearing loss but time management can control
But catalyst loose their activity on use of lead extremely low noise sound can destroy noise pollution.
containing petrol. hearing ability of one.

Water pollution & control

Water (prevention & control of pollution)
act, 1974 was passed to safeguard water.

Domestic sewage & industrial effluents

Sewage from our home &

From sewage water solids We can estimate amount of Because of nutrients Water hyacinth/
hospital contain harmful
are easy to remove but biodegradable organic in H2O planktonic eichhornia crassipes,
microbes which causes
how to remove dissolved matter in sewage water by (freely floating) algae the world’s most
diseases. Industrial waste
salts such as nitrates, measuring biochemical called algal blooms problematic aquatic
water contain heavy metals
phosphates, toxic metal oxygen demand (BOD). settle on it which weed, which looks
(density > 5g/cm3 eg- Hg, Cd,
ions, organic comp. only The microorganism causes deterioration beautiful but blocks the
Cu, Pb), organic compounds
0.1% of impurity make involved in biodegradation of water quality & fish water ways. It is also
which can undergo biological
water unfit for consume O2 dissolve and morality. Some are called terror of bengal.
magnification. Because the
consumption. hence O2 dissolved get extremely toxic to They grow abundantly in
toxic material can’t be
decrease which causes humans. eutropic water bodies.
metabolised or excreted & is
mortality of fish, etc. well known for Hg & DDT.

High conc. Of DDT EUTROPHICATION- natural aging of a lake by nutrient Man’s activity like effluents from industry causes
disturb calcium enrichment of water. accelerated/cultural eutrophication. The prime
metabolism in birds, Water is cold in young lake & introduction of nutrient contaminants are nitrates, phosphates (plants
thus thinning of shell take place. Lake’s fertility increase & organic remain nutrients) which overstimulated algae growth causing
& their premature deposit at bottom of lake. Lake gets shallower & water unsighty scum & unpleasant odour & less dissolved
breaking eventually become warm & large floating plants (bog). This O2. Thermal wastewater from thermal water plants
causing decline in process leads to formation of land & naturally it might eliminate. Some species of may enhance growth of
bird population. take 1000 yrs the process depends on climate, size of plants & fish in extremely cold areas but only after
lake. causing damage to the indegenous flora & fauna.
 Solid wastes Agro-chemicals Radioactive wastes
Municipal solid waste (from home, office ,store, & their effects
school,hospital) which comprise paper, food are Nuclear energy is used as
Pesticides, fungicides, nonpolluting source of electricity.
compacted & filled in sanitary landfills in place herbicides (inorganic
of open dumps but it also affects the But problems associated are-
fertilisers) are accidental leakage ( eg- three mile
underground H2O system hence we should, excessively used after
sort the garbage into biodegradable, recyclable island & chernobyl incident)
introduction to green And safe disposal of radioactive
& non-biodegradable ones & use eco-friendly revolution. It can cause
packages. Hospital waste need to be disposed waste because it causes mutation
biomagnification in at very high rate and hence also
by use of incinerators. terrestrial ecosystem &
Solution to electronic waste is either exposed to causes cancer. Its disposal needs
eutrophication in pre treatment, done in shielded
landfills or recycling (in developed countries) aquatic ecosystem. It
recycling of electronic waste in developing containers buried within rocks
can also affect the non about 500m deep below earth’s
countries should be in environment friendly target organisms & soil
environment because there are toxic material. surface. But it is opposed by
nature. public.

Green house effect & global warming Ozone depletion in the stratosphere
It is responsible for heating of earth’s surface & if it would not
there then earth’s temperature would be -18°C than the Good ozone is near earth’s surface (troposphere) &
present avg. of 15°C. bad ozone is in upper part of stratosphere.
1) sunlight is reached to the layer of clouds of gases (CO2 & UV radiation breaks molecular bonds within DNA.
CH4). Thickness of ozone from ground to top is measured
2) 1/4 of sunlight is reflected back & 1/4 is absorbed by the in Dobson units (DU).
gases & 1/2 is sent to the surface. The degradation of ozone take place due to CFC’S
3) some of it is absorbed by earth’s surface & emits infrared which release Cl in presence of UV & that Cl tends to
radiation but it is absorbed by CO2 & CH4. break O3 into O2 & O. Hence it depletes the ozone
4) the molecules of gases radiate heat which comes to earth layer & it is majorly taking place at Antarctic region
and again the cycle continues. in form of ozone hole (very thin ozone).
This causes heat i.e. global warming & during past century Wavelength shorter than UV-B is absorbed by earth
earth’s temperature has increased by 0.6°C & further but UV-B mutates DNA. It causes aging of skin & skin
increase may lead to abnormal environmental changes (eg- cancer, inflammation of cornea called snow
Elnino effect) & because of it the glaciers also started melting blindness, cataract.
and because of which sea level may rise & tropical areas/ An international treaty called montreal protocol
coastal areas may get submerged in the sea. signed at montreal (canada) in 1987 to control the
For putting control on it we should make down the use of emission of ozone depleting substance.
fossil fuel, improving efficiency of energy usage,
afforestation, check of population.

Degradation by improper resource utilisation

1) SOIL EROSION & DESERTIFICATION ✓ → 2) WATERLOGGING & SOIL SALINITY-

Because of over cultivation, overgrazing , Over irrigation without proper drainage causes
deforestation, poor irrigation resulting in arid waterlogging. Water starts depositing as a thin
patches of land. Barren land extends desert is crust & starts collecting roots. This causes damage
formed mainly caused urbanisation. to agriculture.

Deforestation
40% forests have been lost in tropics, compared to only 1% in the temperate region.
In the beginning of 20th century 30% of land of india was covered with forest but by end it was 21.54%
National forest policy (1988) of india has recommended 33% forest cover for plains & 61% for hills.
Reforestation can only overcome deforestation.

Cause of deforestation Consequences of Deforestation

✓
> Conversion of forest to agricultural land. > release of CO2 to atmosphere.
> for timber, firewood cattle ranching. > loss of biodiversity due to habitat destruction.
> slash & burn agriculture/ jhum cultivation > disturbs hydrologic cycle, causes soil erosion
in north-eastern state. & may lead to desertification.
NCERT Diagrams for reference