PROPOSED SIMPLIFIED METHOD OF

GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Ali Abdulhasan Khalaf - Katalin Kopecskó https://doi.org/10.32970/CS.2020.1.5

The research aims to determine the best combination of the controlling factors that govern geopolymer con-
crete’s mechanical and physical properties by utilizing industrial waste. Therefore, a review on the control-
ling factors was conducted. Firstly, it is to identify the controlling factors, namely chemical composition,
alkali activation solution, water content, and curing condition. Secondly, understanding the relationship
between these controlling factors and the properties of geopolymer concrete. These factors are analysed
to the mix proportion components. Finally, a new proportion method is proposed based on combining
ACI 211 standard and recommended molar ratios of oxides involved in geopolymer synthesis. The effect
of aggregate has been taken into account by applying the absolute volume method in mix design. Based
on the results of the study, it is expected to determine the optimal mix proportions based on multi-responses.
Keywords: geopolymer concrete, industrial waste, controlling factors

1. INTRODUCTION mechanism of geopolymer can be shown in Fig. 1 (Thapa and

Waldmann, 2018).
From an environmental point of view, the carbon-dioxide
(CO2) emission has been being increased tremendously due
to energy consumption, transportation, and industry. Even 2. TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE
though cement plays a vital role in infrastructure construc-
tion, it involves an immense emission of carbon dioxide.
MATERIALS USED AS GEOPOLY-
Statistics showed that 1 ton production of cement produces MER BINDERS
about 1 ton of CO2. Therefore, geopolymers are used as an
Industrial waste based geopolymers do not have a unique
alternative way to reduce the emission of carbon-dioxide
chemical structure. Their properties are most dependent on
caused by cement processing (Davidovits, 1991; Davidovits,
their base material characteristics, namely: chemical compo-
1993). The patent of the geopolymer chemistry concept was
introduced by Geopolymer Institute in 1979. This patent was Fig. 1: Reaction mechanism of geopolymer (Thapa and Waldmann, 2018)
the key to develop new binder materials. Consequently, the
high-strength geopolymer cement was invented by Joseph
Davidovits and James Sawyer in 1983 (Davidovits, 2002).
The source of geopolymer binders can be either natural or
synthetic aluminosilicate. The idea of geopolymerization is
that the chemical reaction between aluminosilicate oxides
and alkali polysilicates produces polymeric (Si-O-Al) bonds
of amorphous to semi-crystalline three-dimensional silico-
aluminate structures (Davidovits, 1991). Interestingly, it is
found that most waste materials are sources of silica and alu-
mina. As a result, these waste materials could be operated in
geopolymerization reaction and being binder materials (Van
Jaarsveld, Van Deventer and Lorenzen, 1998). In the case of
natural sources used to produce geopolymers such as clay,
high temperature is needed to calcine the clay, which is about
600 °C (Mlinárik and Kopecskó, 2013). On the contrary, geo-
polymer binders using waste materials are already calcined
from other processes, so they do not need to be calcined
(Merabtene et al., 2019; Tchakoute Kouamo et al., 2012).
Therefore, utilising waste materials in the construction indus-
try will improve both the sustainability and economics of in-
frastructure systems (Van Jaarsveld et al., 1998). The reaction

CONCRETE STRUCTURES • 2020 31

sition, the content of glassy phase, amount of soluble silicon thermore, even some amorphous silicate could be prevented
and aluminium, particle size distribution, and presence of in- from being reacted (Ahmari, Zhang and Zhang 2012; Dux-
ert particles (Zhang et al., 2018). Therefore, it is crucial to son et al., 2007a; Williams and Van Riessen, 2010; Zheng,
identify the sources of base materials of geopolymer synthe- Wang and Shi, 2010). Geopolymers with ground granulated
sis, which are under conducting a study. There are many types blast furnace, GGBS, exhibit better performance at a low Si/
of waste and by-product materials that have been utilised in Al ratio compared to low-calcium geopolymers (Kubba et
geopolymer synthesis, for example, fly ash, blast furnace slag, al., 2018). The Si/Al ratio can be controlled by adding small
bottom ash, red mud, rice husk ash, bottom ash, palm oil fuel silica fume content (Kovalchuk et al., 2007). Table 2 shows
ash, waste paper sludge ash, tailing metals, silica waste, ce- different optimum Si/Al ratios for different materials and the
ramic waste, etc., (Abdel-Ghani et al., 2018; Bakharev et al., corresponding compressive strengths.
1999; Chawakitchareon, 2013; Chi, 2016; Ekaputri, Baihaqi
and Aji, 2011; Ekaputri, Junaedi and Bayuaji, 2015; Erdogan, Table 2: Optimum Si/Al ratios for different geopolymers and their
compressive strengths
2015; Hanjitsuwan et al., 2017; Junak et al., 2014; Karakoç
et al., 2014; Karrech et al., 2019; Khater and Abd El Gawaad, Comp-res-
2016; Kim et al., 2014; Kopecskó et al., 2019; Kovalchuk et Si/Al Curing
al., 2007; Malkawi et al., 2016; Mucsi et al., 2020; Musaddiq Material sive
ratio mode
Laskar and Talukdar, 2017; Monita et al., 2016; Ridzuan et strength
al., 2014; Saeli et al., 2019; Sindhunata et al., 2006; Shoaei et (MPa)
al., 2019; Yankwa Djobo et al., 2016; Ye et al., 2016). MK1 (Duxson, Mallicoat, Heat cur-
1.9 78
et al. 2007) ing
RM2 : FA3 (Zhang, He, Ambient
3. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND and Gambrell 2010)
3.2
curing
13

SYNTHESIS RM2 : FA3 : SF4 (Singh,

Heat cur-
Aswath, and Ranganath 5.1 32
The geopolymer reaction is achieved by the reaction of alu- ing
2018)
minate-silicate with the availability of alkali activator at low
RM2 : FA3 : SF4 (Singh et Ambient
temperature. The following general formula below describes 4.0 30
al. 2018) curing
the chemical composition (1):
MK = metakaolin; RM = redmud; FA = fly ash; SF = silica fume

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 [ − (𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆2 )𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 − 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆2 ]𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 . 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 (1)

3.2 Influence of alkali solution
where M𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
is an alkali cation; z is an integer; n is the degree Generally, hydroxide and silicate-based solutions can be used
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊
of polymerisation �𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 and w is the molar amount of water (Da- individually or proportionally mixed to synthesize geopoly-
vidovits, 2002). Table 1 shows an example of the chemical mers. The type and concentration of alkali solutions (hydrox-
composition of slag and fly ash conducted using X-ray fluo- ide, silicate-based, and water) have an important impact on
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
rescence 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 ∗ (Li 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
(XRF) et 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
al., 2018). The chemistry matrix is a geopolymer performance (Chindaprasirt et al., 2007; Fernán-
function of four variables, namely: Si/Al ratio, alkali activa- dez-Jiménez and Palomo, 2003; Hardjito et al., 2004; Risdan-
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
tor type 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
and ∗ 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 curing temperature, and water
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆concentration, areni and Ekaputri, 2015; Tuyan et al., 2018).
content (Duxson et al., 2005; Duxson et al., 2007b). Usually, sodium silicate, Na2SiO3 (Na2O + SiO2 + H2O),
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 is used as a silicate-based solution and could be proportion-
3.1 Influence of 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ratio
Si/Al ally mixed with either sodium hydroxide, NaOH, potassium
The basic structure of geopolymers is the network structure hydroxide KOH, or both (Hardjito et al., 2004; N. Li et al.,
of (SiO4) tetrahedrons and (AlO4) tetrahedrons, which are 2018). In the case of sodium silicate, the activator variables
connected by mutual oxygen atoms. Si/Al ratio reflexes this are defined by the silica modulus (Ms) or Na2O content. Silica
structure and plays a vital role in geopolymer behaviour. The modulus is measured in the molar ratio of SiO2/Na2O. Na2O
contribution of the Si/Al ratio comes from the base material content is calculated as a percentage of the weight of raw ma-
of geopolymer. Although the Si-O-Si bonds are stronger than terial in dry condition (Silva et al., 2019). Increasing these
the Al-O-Si bonds, the geopolymer’s high performance oc- variables for a particular value will decrease the porosity of
curs at an intermediate Si/Al ratio at a certain range of al- mixtures. Accordingly, the density would be improved and
kalinity. This optimum Si/Al ratio differs for different base producing maximum compressive strength values (Tuyan,
material geopolymers, and it is also dependent on processing Andiç-Çakir and Ramyar, 2018). Hydroxyl ions could be
conditions. It is found that some silicate would not partici- measured by molarity. The optimum concentration of NaOH
pate in reactivity, such as silicate in quartz. In other words, is dependent on curing temperature. When the curing tem-
the amorphous component is the reactive compound. Fur- perature is increased, the required optimum concentration of

Table 1: Chemical compositions of slag and fly ash (wt. %). LOI is the loss of ignition
Oxide

SiO2 Al2O3 CaO MgO K 2O Fe2O3 Na2O SO3 LOI

Material
Slag 33.81 14.78 38.81 7.09 0.44 0.36 0.26 2.49 1.40
Fly Ash 54.22 31.18 1.24 0.47 1.34 2.36 0.49 0.35 3.25

32 2020 • CONCRETE STRUCTURES

NaOH increases (Ahmari et al., 2012). hand, the geopolymer solids mass should contain the dry raw
In the case of geopolymers that have GGBS, NaOH con- materials and the solids of the activator solution, for example,
centration plays a vital role in altering the geopolymerization the solids of the sodium hydroxide solution and sodium sili-
process and affecting the mechanical and physical properties. cate solution (Na2O and SiO2) (Assi et al., 2016; Hardjito &
When NaOH concentration is low in alkali solution, calcium Rangan, 2005). The increase of water-to-geopolymer solids
will be dissolved, contributing to the formation of CSH gel. ratio increases the workability of concrete. However, there
This process yields homogenous and dense products because is an optimum value of water-to-geopolymer solids ratio to
CSH works as a micro-aggregate. On the other hand, a high achieve the maximum compressive strength at acceptable
dosage of NaOH will be responsible for calcium hydroxide workability (Shoaei et al. 2019). This optimum value is af-
formation, which will prevent the formation of CSH gel. In fected by the type of raw materials and activator type (Assi et
this case, the variable parameters will be (low-calcium raw al., 2016; Kovalchuk et al., 2007; Shoaei et al., 2019; Shoaei
material / high-calcium raw material) by weight and Na2O/ et al., 2019).
SiO2 in the molar ratio (Kubba et al., 2018; Yip et al., 2005).
It should be noted that the unburnt carbon behaves as an 4. GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE (GPC)
inert particulate, which can increase the demand for activa-
tion solution due to absorption (Gunasekara et al., 2015). The main difference between geopolymer concrete (GPC)
Recently, some geopolymers have been investigated with and conventional Portland cement based concrete is the bind-
respect to mechanical activation as a partial and full replace- er, which in case of geopolymer concrete is including the raw
ment of chemical activation. They showed good response and material of geopolymer and the alkaline activator. However,
developed high compressive strength values when used with the conventional methods that are used in the production of
activators (Y. Li et al., 2019) Portland cement concrete (PCC) can be utilised to produce
geopolymer concrete. Fig. 2 shows a typical description of
3.3 Influence of curing mode one cubic meter of the volume of Portland cement concrete
and geopolymer concrete (Lloyd and Rangan, 2010; N. Li et
The curing temperature has a significant influence on optimis- al., 2019)
ing geopolymer properties because of related water evapora-
tion. However, a very high curing temperature could be harm-
ful and destabilise geopolymerization (Shoaei et al., 2019). 5. PROPOSED SIMPLIFIED
In general, the heat-curing regime is mostly adopted in geo-
polymer applications. The heat-curing regime is expressed by METHOD OF GEOPOLYMER
two components. The first component is curing time, which CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
is ranged from 4 hours to 96 hours with an optimum practical
value of 24 hours. The other component is the temperature, A simplified mix design is proposed by combining ACI 211
which is started from the minimum value of 30 °C up to a (2009) standard and recommended molar ratios of oxides in-
maximum temperature of 90 °C. volved in geopolymer synthesis, where
Curing can be conducted by steam-curing, curing in cov- (i) the desired compressive strength is targeted, and
ered moulds, or dry-curing. The type of curing affects the to- (ii) the workability would be verified for the acceptable
tal porosity, the average pore diameter, and microstructural range based on absolute volume according to the stan-
characteristics (Assi et al., 2016; Hardjito and Rangan, 2005; dard (ACI 211, 2009).
Jaydeep and Chakravarthy, 2013; Lloyd and Rangan, 2010; The mix design is based on the similarity between the
Kovalchuk et al., 2007). Interestingly, GGBS geopolymers Portland cement concrete and geopolymer concrete mixtures
can be optimised at a much lower curing temperature than and takes into account different properties of geopolymer
low-calcium geopolymers (Kubba et al., 2018). It should be concrete.
noted that there are some flexibilities in the heat-curing re-
gime. First of all, the heat-curing can be postponed for up to Fig. 2: Characterisation of Portland cement concrete (PCC) and
five days with no degradation (Hardjito and Rangan, 2005). geopolymer concrete (GPC) in 1 m3 (N. Li et al. 2019)
In precast concrete, sometimes it is needed to remove the
moulds before the ending of curing time to use them in an-
other casting. Therefore, the two-stage curing is valid. This
flexibility is valuable in practical use when required to re-
move the moulds during the curing time (Hardjito and Ran-
gan, 2005). However, full curing out-side the moulds is still
controversial (Assi et al., 2016).

3.4 Influence of water content

The influence of water content is represented by a single pa-
rameter of which water-to-geopolymer solids ratio by mass,
W/G.S ratio. This parameter has a tremendous effect on the
compressive strength and workability of geopolymer con-
crete. The total water mass is equal to the summation of wa-
ter in the sodium silicate solution, the water that is used to
produce the sodium hydroxide solution, and the extra water,
if any is needed, should be taken into account. On the other

CONCRETE STRUCTURES • 2020 33

Table 3: Approximate mixing water and air content requirements for different slumps and maximum aggregate sizes for non-air-entrained PCC (ACI
211, 2009)
Water quantity in kg/m3 for the nominal maximum aggregate size (mm)
Slump
9.5 12.5 19 25 37.5 50 75 100
25 – 50 207 199 190 179 166 154 130 113
75 – 100 228 216 205 193 181 169 145 124
150 – 175 243 228 216 202 190 178 160 -
Entrapped air (%) 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.3 0.2

5.1 Water content

According to ACI 211 (2009) standard, the maximum water
content can be determined from the maximum size of aggre-
gate, as is shown in Table 3.

5.2 Alkaline activator solution content

In case there is no extra water needed to be added to the mix,
the water content is only provided from the alkaline activator
solution. According to (Heath, Paine and McManus, 2014),
the mix oxide molar ratios can be used to produce geopoly-
mers in case of using sodium or potassium hydroxide and
silicate (Na2O.nSiO2 or K2O.nSiO2) activators as illustrated
in Table 4, where M is Na or K. The alkaline solution will
be selected in terms of molarity and concentration according 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 − 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 2 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 − 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
to the chosen water content, see Table 1 and Table 4. If the Fig. [−
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛3: − (𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
Strength 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 2 )𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 −
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆versus 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆to22 cement
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻ratio
2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 curve (Pavithra et al., 2016)
2 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 − 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆2 ]𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 . 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
water
alkaline solution selection requires less water, the remaining 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
amount of water will be added as extra water to the mixture. 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 �
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 (2)
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊� �𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
Table 4: Mix oxide molar ratios of alkali activators
Oxide ratio Molar ratio range 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 ∗
∗ % 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 (3)
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 ∗ 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
SiO2 : Al2O3 3.5 – 4.5
*
M2O : SiO2 0.20 – 0.28 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∗ % 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ∗ 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 (4)
*
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ∗ 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
H2O : M2O 15.0 – 17.5
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + + 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 +
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
*
M2O : Al2O3 0.80 – 1.20 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 .
⁕
Notation: M is stands for either Na or K
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
(5)
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
, where GS is geopolymer solid content; GSSS is solid content
5.3 Water-to-geopolymer solids ratio of Na2SiO3; GSSH solid content of NaOH; mSS is the content
of Na2SiO3 solution; mSH is content of NaOH solution; GSB is
In conventional concrete, the compressive strength at the raw material content.
age of 28 days is considered to determine the water to ce-
ment ratio according to ACI 211 (2009) standard. Similarly, 5.5 Air content volume
the ratio of the water-to-geopolymer solids can be selected
from the standard water to cement ratio curve (Fig. 3, Table The percentage of entrapped air in conventional concrete is
5) (Pavithra et al., 2016; ACI 211, 2009) illustrated in Table 3, depending on the maximum size of ag-
gregate. However, for fly ash-based geopolymer, the air con-
tent was found greater than the conventional concrete for the
Table 5: Relationship between water-cement ratio and compressive
same corresponding size of coarse aggregate based on trial
strength of Portland cement concrete, according to ACI 211 (2009) mixes. For the maximum coarse aggregate size of 19 mm, the
standard air content volume percent is assigned two, according to ACI
Compressive strength at 28 days Water-cement ratio 211 (2009). On the other hand, the air content volume percent
(MPa) of fly ash-based geopolymer was found 3.29 for maximum
41.0 0.41 coarse aggregate size of 20 mm (Ferdous, Kayali and Khen-
nane, 2013). This difference indicates that the entrapped air
35.0 0.48
percent in geopolymer concrete would be greater than it is
28.0 0.57 in conventional concrete. In this proposed method, the en-
21.0 0.68 trapped air content in geopolymer concrete will be taken
14.0 0.82 equal to 3.29 V% based on the results of (Ferdous, Kayali
and Khennane, 2013).
5.4 Raw material content
After determining the water content and water-to-geopoly-
5.6 Addition of super-plasticiser
mer solids ratio (W/GS), the geopolymer solids content (GS) In fact, geopolymer concrete is stiffer and stickier than con-
can be calculated (2-5): ventional concrete. Therefore, the same amount of water in

34 2020 • CONCRETE STRUCTURES

geopolymer concrete would produce decrease in workability. in sodium hydroxide to obtain the required concentration. The
Workability can be increased either by increasing the water solution should be prepared at least 24 hours before it is used
amount or adding super-plasticiser such as carboxylic ether in mixing to allow the necessary equilibrium (Ahmari et al.,
polymer-based super-plasticiser or naphthalene-based super- 2012; Duxson et al., 2005; Duxson et al. 2007b).
plasticiser. Increasing the water amount has a much more The addition of amorphous silica with sodium hydroxide
negative effect on the strength of geopolymer concrete than can replace the use of sodium silicate since the alkali activa-
adding super-plasticiser. Thus, the super-plasticiser addition tor is the most expensive component in geopolymer concrete
is a better choice to increase the workability of geopolymer (Heath et al., 2014; Pavithra et al., 2016). After the activa-
concrete. The super-plasticiser recommended dosage ranges tor solution is being ready to use, the raw material and ag-
from 0.8 to 1.5% of binder content (Ferdous et al., 2013; gregate should be mixed dry for at least three minutes. Then
Pavithra et al., 2016; Reddy and Naqash, 2020). the alkaline liquid should be added after it is mixed with the
super-plasticiser and the extra water if it is needed just prior
5.7 Coarse aggregate volume to mixing. The wet mixing time should last for four minutes
at least. The fresh concrete can be handled and formed up to
According to ACI 211 (2009) standard, the coarse aggregate
120 minutes after mixing (Hardjito and Rangan, 2005). Based
volume can be selected depending on two criteria, namely
on our experience, we were not able to mix geopolymer con-
the nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate and fineness
crete, when first the dry material (precursor and aggregate) is
modulus of fine aggregate, as is shown in Table 6. It should be
mixed, then thereafter the alkali activator solution was added,
noted that coarse aggregate volumes are based on oven-dry-
similarly to the mixing method in case of PCC. In case of
rodded weights in accordance with ASTM C29 (ASTM:C29/
geopolymer mortar or concrete first the liquid gel (alkali ac-
C29M-09 2009, ACI 211 2009).
tivator solution + precursor + super-plasticiser) formation is
achieved, then the aggregate is added and mixed (Kopecskó
5.8 Fine aggregate content et al., 2017). It is essential to make trial mix before starting
Since all other ingredient volumes are determined, the re- the main experiments.
maining volume percentage represents the volume percent- The compaction of geopolymer concrete is as same as it is
age of fine aggregate (ACI 211, 2009). in conventional concrete (Hardjito and Rangan, 2005).

5.9 The moisture content of aggregate 7. CONCLUSIONS

The moisture of aggregate affects two parameters, namely The following conclusions and future work can be stated:
weight of aggregate and content of mixing water. The adjust- • The controlling factors (chemical composition, alkali ac-
ment of aggregate weight and mixing water content depends tivation solution, water content, and curing condition) of
on the saturation degree of batched aggregate (ACI 211, geopolymer are sensitive to the source material.
2009). • Heat curing limits the use of geopolymer concrete in prac-
tical applications. For this reason, the use of geopolymer
6. MIXING, CASTING AND COM- concrete is primarily limited to the precast concrete ap-
plication.
PACTING OF GEOPOLYMER • The cost of geopolymer concrete synthesis with sodium
CONCRETE silicate is relatively high.
• Herein a new simplified geopolymer concrete (GPC) mix
One of the most distinctive characteristics of geopolymer con- design is proposed based on the Portland cement concrete
crete is the alkaline activator solution. The most used activator (PCC) mix design (ACI 211, 2009) with the combination
solutions are sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate. The so- of the recommended molar ratios of oxides involved in
dium hydroxide solution is prepared by dissolution of sodium geopolymer synthesis. This simplified method will al-
hydroxide pellets in distilled water. After that, the solution low us to optimize the controlling factors of geopolymer
should be isolated from the atmosphere as much as possible to concrete to produce optimum compressive strength with
prevent the possible reaction with atmospheric carbonate for acceptable workability. This process will be conducted
at least 24 hours. Sodium silicate solution can be provided by by utilizing the common factors between PCC and GPC,
manufacturers in specific concentrations. Sodium silicate is namely water and aggregate.
usually used in combination with sodium hydroxide. In this • In future work, it is essential to investigate the possible
case, the solution is prepared by dissolution of sodium silicate replacement of sodium silicate by amorphous silica such
as silica fume, rice husk ash, or ground waste glass in the
Table 6: Coarse aggregate volume in 1 m3 of PCC activator solution to reduce the cost of production.
Fineness modulus of fine aggregate
Nominal max.
aggregate size,mm
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00
Stipendium Hungaricum Scholarship Programme is highly ac-
9.5 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44 knowledged for supporting the PhD study and research work.
12.5 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53
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ic Powder-Based Geopolymer Mortars: Effect of Curing Temperature and Dosage and Si/Al Ratio on the Immobilisation of Heavy Metals in Mu-
Alkaline Solution-to-Binder Ratio.” Construction and Building Materials nicipal Solid Waste Incineration Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer.” Chemo-
227:116686. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.116686 sphere 79(6):665-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.02.018
Silva, Guido, David Castañeda, Suyeon Kim, Alvaro Castañeda, Bruno Ber- PMid:20304461
tolotti, Luis Ortega-San-Martin, Javier Nakamatsu, and Rafael Aguilar.
2019. “Analysis of the Production Conditions of Geopolymer Matrices
from Natural Pozzolana and Fired Clay Brick Wastes.” Construction
and Building Materials 215:633-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuild- Ali Abdulhasan Khalaf finished his bachelor (2007) in Civil Engineering
mat.2019.04.247 at Faculty of Engineering College, University of Basrah in Iraq and fin-
Singh, Smita, M. U. Aswath, and R. V. Ranganath. 2018. “Effect of Mechani- ished his master studies (2014) Master of Science in Engineering at Civil/
cal Activation of Red Mud on the Strength of Geopolymer Binder.” Con- Environmental & Chemical Department, Faculty of Engineering School,
struction and Building Materials 177:91-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Youngstown State University, Ohio, USA. Fields of study: Structures, con-
conbuildmat.2018.05.096 struction materials and geotechnics. Since 2019 PhD student at Faculty of
Tchakoute Kouamo, H., A. Elimbi, J. A. Mbey, C. J. Ngally Sabouang, and D. Civil Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics. Re-
Njopwouo. 2012. “The Effect of Adding Alumina-Oxide to Metakaolin search areas: geopolymers, cement-based materials, steel.
and Volcanic Ash on Geopolymer Products: A Comparative Study.” Con-
struction and Building Materials 35:960-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Katalin Kopecskó is associate professor at the Budapest University of
conbuildmat.2012.04.023 Technology and Economics in Hungary. Graduated in Chemical Engineering
Thapa, V. B. and Waldmann, D. 2018. “A Short Review on Alkali-Activated (1990) and has postgraduate studies in Concrete Technology (2004). She has
Binders and Geopolymer Binders.” Pp. 576-91 in Vielfalt Im Massivbau PhD degree since 2006. She teaches Chemistry for Civil Engineers (BSc);
- Festschrift Zum 65.Geburtstag von Prof. Dr. Ing. Jürgen Schnell, Pahn Material Science for Civil Engineers (MSc); and Alkali activated materials
M., Thiele C., Glock C. Berlin, Germany: Ernst & Sohn. in Civil Engineering (PhD) subjects. Her research fields are: deterioration
Tuyan, Murat, Özge Andiç-Çakir, and Kambiz Ramyar. 2018. „Effect of processes of construction materials, durability of concrete and other materi-
Alkali Activator Concentration and Curing Condition on Strength and als, cement hydration, diagnostics, mineralogical and microstructural analy-
Microstructure of Waste Clay Brick Powder-Based Geopolymer.“ Com- ses, X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermal analyses (TG/DTG/DTA), scanning
posites Part B: Engineering 135(November 2016):242-52. https://doi. electron microscopy (SEM). She is a member of the Hungarian Group of fib
org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2017.10.013 and of the Technical Committee MSZT/MB 102 (Cement and Lime) in the
Van Jaarsveld, J. G. S., J. S. J. Van Deventer, and L. Lorenzen. 1998. “Fac- Hungarian Standards Institution.

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